predators and farmers book

7/31/2019 Predators and Farmers Book

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PREDATORS AND FARMERS

Whenever man engages in a practice which puts the lives or the livelihood o his ellow creatures

in jeopardy, he has a moral obligation to examine his motives careully and to assess the methods

he proposes to employ.

- James A. Bateman, 1973

PREDATORS AND FARMERS

A publication o the Endangered Wildlie Trusts Wildlie Confict Prevention Group (WCPG), theCarnivore Conservation Group (CCG) and the Birds o Prey Working Group (BoPWG).

COMPILED & EDITED BY:

Claudia Hodkinson; Harriet Davies-Mostert; Hayley Komen; Tim Snow

DESIGN & LAYOUT BY:Cutting Edge Graphics

COVER PHOTOGRAPHS BY:

Claudia Hodkinson Human eye

Villiers Steyn -Leopard


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CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 00

FOREWORD 00

1INTRODUCTION 00

2THEROLEOFPREDATORSANDWILDLIFEINACHANGING

FARMINGENVIRONMENT 00

3PREDATORSINPOTENTIALCONFLICT 00


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Thisbookletis a revisiono thepreviousPREDATORSAND FARMERS(ISBN 0 62017097-2),

apublicationotheEndangeredWildlieTrustbyAEBowland(Tony),MGLMills(Gus)and

DLawson(David).

The work othese authors,as well asthe contributors tothatbooklet, are acknowledged.

Thisbookisdedicatedtothemand theiroresight,toprovideguidancetowardsresolutiono

humanwildlieconicts.

Wealsoacknowledgetheconservationists,armers,landownersandvariousspecialistswhoseworkandinputs,howeversmall,havemadethisbookletpossible.

WespecifcallythankAbrieMaritz,AdriBarkhuysen,AndreBotha,Pro.GrahamAlexander,Hannes

Stadler,PatFletcher,YolanFriedmannandDr.NickKingortheirsignifcantcontributionand

editorialcomments.

CliveWalkerandStruikPublishersgenerouslyprovidedallthespoordiagrams.Distributionmaps

wereprovidedbytheConservationBreedingSpecialistGroup(CBSG)SouthernAricaandthe

EndangeredWildlieTrust.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FOREWORD

Theenvironmentand seasonalpatternslearntoveryearsarechangingdueto climatechange

andothermajorenvironmentalphenomena.Accordingly,humanityhashadtomakeanumbero

adjustmentstothewaysinwhichweliveandwork.Manypeopleareresistanttochange,since

theyhavegrownuplearningromandollowingthewaysotheirathersandgrandathersbeore

them.

Farmers in southern Arica ft this mould well since many arms have passed through

generations.Ancientmythsaboutpredatorsarepassedromgenerationtogeneration,andold

trappingmethodsarepassedon,withoutdueconsiderationonewtechnologyorcircumstances

thathavechangedovertime.The livestock armer whoexperiencesproblems withpredators

requentlyhastoacethedilemmaowhethertokillortoconserve.Inhiseortstocontrol,

thearmeroteninadvertentlykillsthewrongculprit,unawareotheactthatmanyothese

creaturesarenotenemiesbutriends;andinsodoing,heskewsthenaturalbalancesandorces

atplay.

Wehaveentereda newerain environmentalmanagement,wherethereis arealisationand

awarenessthatthecenturiesopersecutionopredatorsinsouthernAricahavehadmadelittle,

ianydierencetothepopulations.Thereisanewattitudegrowingamongstpeople,totrynewandinnovativemethodstomanagewildlieandlivestocktoavoidconict.Andaswehaveseen

withtheprojecttoreduceconictbetweenbadgersandbee-keepers,thereareinnovativeways

topreventconicts.

Thisbook,Predators and Farmers,isavaluablesourceoinormationthatturnsoldbeliesupside

downandlooksattheissueowildlieconictswithnewvision,highlightingthatpreventionis

thecure.Thebookwillassistthearmerinrecognizingandmanagingwildlieconictandwillalso

illustratethevalueoallspeciesandtheirenvironmentalrolesonarms.

TheEndangeredWildlieTrustrecognisesthatarmersaremajorrole-playersinconservationsince

theyownvasttractsoland.TheEWTiscommittedtoencouragingthemtopracticeenvironmental

conservationonarmlands.Throughknowledgecomesunderstandingandthisunderstandingo

lieandoourenvironmentisimportanttoall.Inact,itssoimportanttousthatitisenshrined

inourConstitution.

Marthinus van SchalkwykMinister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

FOREWORD

1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


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InsouthernArica,therearemanyspeciesthathaveoralongtimebeenlabelledasproblem

animalsorvermin.Inthepast,hatredtowardsthosespeciesdevelopedtosuchapoint,that

allpredatorswerebelievedtobeaproblemtolivestockandhumansandneededtoberemoved.

Thisresultedinmanypredators,scavengersandotheranimalsbeenirrationallyandrelentlessly

persecutedandexterminated,withdevastatingimpactsontheenvironmentanditsecology.Un-

ortunately,manyarmerstodaystillholdthisprejudicedviewandcontinuetouseundesirable

methodswhendealingwithhuman-wildlieconict.

Timeshavechanged,ashas legislation;wehaveenteredanewerao human-wildlieconictmanagementwherean integrated or holistic approachtowardssolvingtheseproblemsneedsto

replaceold,outdated,prejudicedandunacceptablemethodsodealingwithconicts.

THE UNDERSTANDING OF WILDLIFE

LIVESTOCK PREDATION IN OUR

SOCIETY IS CHANGING AND SO IS

PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF IT.

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

Gin traps are inhumane and cruel resultingin many species suffering painful deaths.

They are no longer an acceptable methodwhen dealing with conflicts.

1 INTRODUCTION

A meeting oexpertsin this feld,held atGanzekraal inthe WesternCape inApril 2006,

concursthatwildlieandtheiractivitiesotenseriouslyreducearmingprofts,butthatproactive

preventionoconictneedstobeoremost,withlegal,rationalandwell-consideredmanagement

opredationbeingtheonlypracticaloptionavailable.Theprinciplethatonlyspecifcindividuals

oaspeciescanbedesignatedasproblematic,ratherthanpopulationsospeciesasawholeas

wellasnolongerpromotingorutilisinglethaland/orinjurioustechniquestokillorcapturesuch

individuals,arekeystouturehuman-wildlieconictmanagement.

Conictwithpredatorsisaninherentriskoanimalhusbandryandtheintentionothisbooklet

istoempowerarmersbyprovidingreliable,objectiveanduseulinormationtoresolvethese

conictsbyapplyingthebestpracticesavailableandwhere

PREVENTION IS THE CURE

Preventionowildlieconictistheresponsibilityoeveryarmerandtheoverallapproachshould

betominimize human-wildlie conict situations, by employing an integrated or holistic

approach to address such conict situations.

GREEN LABELLING

A future incentive for farmers is being investigated, where premium prices may be paid foragricultural produce if ecologically responsible management has been practiced on thefarm. This will apply to farmers who apply certain best practices to prevent stock losses dueto predators. For instance, accreditation will be given to stock farmers who produce wooland meat in an environmentally responsible manner, by implementing measures to prevent orminimise livestock predation and adapting their farming practices in line with a specific codeof conduct or protocol that is industry-driven and recognised.

Consumers are becoming increasingly aware and responsible regarding the products theychoose to purchase. Green labelling is not a new concept, and marketing and awarenessaround green-labelled products to consumers, is a key component of this project.

More information on Green Labelling and the Best Practices Manual can be obtained fromthe EWT-Wildlife Conflict Prevention Group (WCPG) and CapeNature.


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Theirpositioningatthetopotheoodchainmakescarnivoresecologicallyimportant.Theyplay

avitalrolein controllingandmanagingpreypopulationsbycroppingsick,weakorotherwise

compromisedanimals.Inthiswaytheymayalsopreventareasrombecomingover-utilised.Any

disturbanceintheecosystemwillflterthroughtotheanimalsatthetop,thusmakingcarnivores

morevulnerablethanotherspecies.Itis notby coincidencethatmanycarnivorespeciesare

amongstthemostthreatened.

Mostpredatorsarelimitedbytheiroodsupply,whichmeansthattheyareunlikelytoeliminate

preypopulations.Thebalancebetweenpredatorandpreyisadynamiconeandhashadamarkedeectontheevolutionoboth.Thestrong,thequickandtheefcientsurvive,whiletheweak

andslowareeliminated.

Predatorsalsoaectoneanotherthroughcompetition.Inthecaseocloselyrelatedspecies,the

largerusuallydominatesthesmallerspecies,keeping itsnumbersin check.For example,with

theseverepersecutionowolvesinNorthAmericatheCoyotehasexpandeditsrange.Similarly,

therearestrongindicationsthattheCaracalhasbecomethedominantpredatorollowingthe

eradicationoLeopardrommanypartsosouthernArica.

Asnaturalhabitatsbecomealteredandragmentedbyhumanactivity,predatorsareincreasingly

underpressuretomeettheirsurvivalneeds.Thishassignifcanteectsontheecologyothese

animals,andhasresultedinpeopleeliminatingpredatorstoprotecttheirlivelihoods.Blanket

controlmeasuresareotenused,withdevastatingeectsonpopulations.Thesehowever,have

beenproventobeineective,aspredatorsareterritorial,andkillingandremovingterritorialadult

individualssimplyopensupthehabitatornewnomadicindividuals.Thiscouldleadtoanincrease

inpredation,andinsteadosolvingtheproblem,itmakesitworse.

Somearmingpractices,suchasopenorree-rangingextensivearmingsystems,maymaintain

predatornumbersperceivedtobehigherthandesirable.Duringlatewinterandspringthenatural

preyavailabletopredatorsisotenlow.Itisatthistimeotheyearthatnaturalmechanisms

reducepredatornumberstolevelsprescribedbytheavailabilityonaturalprey:old,weakandless

ftpredatorssimplyperishandeweryoungsurvive.However,itisalsoatthistimeotheyearthat

mostmajorsynchronisedlambingtakesplaceonsheeparms.

Predators,hardpressedorsustenance,willreadilyusethisartifcialoodsourceithelivestock

remainunprotected,andthisaccountsortheseasonalnatureopredation.Shouldaockbe

unprotectedduringthisvulnerableperiod,notonlywillthestock-ownersuerpotentiallosses,

buttheartifcialoodsourcemayensurethatmanymorepredatorssurvivethisnaturallylean

period,therebycontributingtounnaturallyhighpredatornumbersintheollowingseason.For

everyyearthatthearmersuppliespredatorswiththisreadyoodsourceinlatewinter,thestock

lossproblemiscompounded.Itstandstoreasonthenthat it is o vital importance to protect

ocks at lambing time.

Cattle are generally too large to be attacked by any but the largest predators. Genetic

manipulationocattlebyarmers,byartifcialinseminationorputtingaheiertoabullthatistoo

large,otenproducescalvesthataretoolargeoranaturalcalving,anditisinthesecaseswhere

acowexperiencescalvingdifculty,thatshemaybeattackedbysmallerpredators.

Individualpredatorsthatarecontinuouslyexposedtounprotectedstockmaydevelopahabito

takingadvantageothisreadyoodsource.Any arming operation needs to take precautions

to protect livestock rom predators.

KEY KNOWLEDGE

Understanding predator biology and behaviour enables farmers to adjust their farm manage-ment and to plan their operations to enable conflict prevention. It also helps to improve theefficiency and selectivity of management and reduce undesirable ecological consequencesof indiscriminate predator removal. The need to understand natural patterns and to definepredation problems is an important aspect of farm management.

BENEFITS OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE ON FARMLANDThe misguided concept that all predators are bad and should be killed wherever they are

ound, hasledto thewidespreadexterminationo large predatorpopulations,causing severe

secondaryconsequencessuchasincreasesinsmallercarnivores,anditisalarmingthatthisidea

isstillprevalentinthemindsosomearmerstoday.Predatorshaveavaluableroletoplayon

arms.

Researchon thedierentpredators thatnaturallyoccuron armlandshas revealedthatthe

major prey items o somepredators arerodentsand insects.Predators thusperorm a vital

THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE

2 THE ROLE OFPREDATORS AND WILDLIFEIN A CHANGING FARMING ENVIRONMENT


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roleinregulatingthenumbersothesepotentiallyharmulspecies.Withoutpredators,rodent

numbersmayrisetolevelswhereseverecropdamagecanoccurandthiscancausesubstantially

greaterfnanciallossthanpredatorattackson smallstock.Highnumbersorodentsmayalso

adverselyaectveldconditionandregenerationbytheconsumptionovastquantitiesograssseeds.

Birdsopreyalsotakesignifcantnumbersorodents.Guineaowlandothergamebirdsprovide

areeinsectcontrolservice.Vultures clean upcarcassesrom theveld,playing akey rolein

preventingthespreadostockdisease.Antelopeandothersmallgameprovideanaturalood

sourceor predatorsandreducethelikelihoodo attacksby predatorsondomesticlivestock.

Rodents,hares,dassiesandinsects,whichormthemajorpartothedietothepredatorsmost

otenaccusedostockkilling,canremoveagreatdealograzingthatwouldnormallybeused

bysheep.So,orexample,ia jackalkillsonesheepandthearmerrespondsbypoisoningall

predatorsonhisarm,hemayactuallybereducinghisincomemorebyallowingtherodents,hares,

dassies,andinsectstobuildup,soreducingavailablegrazingoragreaternumberosheepthan

werekilledbythepredators.Byimplication,aarbroaderandholisticanalysisowildliedamage

isrequired,wheretheenvironmentandthespectrumointer-specifcinteractionsareconsidered,

toachieveasustainablesolutionbasedondamageprevention.

Predators, in their position at the apex o the ood pyramid, soon show the eects o

environmentaldegradationbydecliningin numbers.Thepresenceo avarietyopredatorsis

indicative o a balancedsystem resultingrom wiseland usemanagement. Thepresenceo

predatorsensures thatwildlie remains ft and healthy, by maintaining game numbers andensuringthattheweakandunhealthyindividualsdonotsurvivetoreproduce.Predatorsthereore

playavitalroleinmaintainingecosystemhealth.

Thispivotalrole,plustheaestheticvalueandtouristappealthatpredatorsoermayinstilinthe

armerthesatisactionoknowinghisactivitiesareinharmonywithnatureandthereoremore

sustainableinthelong-term.

IMPACTS OF PREDATORS ON FARMERSThereisnodoubtthatcertainpredatorswillpreyonunprotectedstocksuchassheep,goats

andcalves,andsometimesevenadultcattle.Substantiallossescanbeincurredbythearmeri

preventativemeasures,suchasproperarmmanagementanddeterrents,arenotimplementedproperly.Thiscanresultinrealfnanciallosses.

Acertainlevelostocklossdueto predation,canbe widespread:anopinionsurveyosheep

armersinNatalintheearly1980sshowedthat68%oarmersexperiencedsomesortostock

losstopredators-althoughtheveracityotheseopinionsisopen todebate.Aloss actoror

predationshouldthereorebeincorporatedintothearmersfnancialplan,asistheaccepted

normordisease,climate,thetandothercausesoloss.

The economic impact o predation on individual armers comprises direct and indirect

costs. Direct costs aredefnedas theloss othe marketvalueo thestockkilled,veterinary

care or injured stock, replacement o breeding stock, and reduced profts. Indirect

costs relate to the costs o measures taken to protect stock rom attacks such as lock-

ingup stock atnight, disease spread in kraals,eece damage owingto animals beingkept

closelyconfnedand so on.These expensesare ocourse arwiserinvestmentsthan spend-

ing moneyater predation on poisons, and other lethal and non-target specifc measures.

Wildlieconictpreventionmeasures andtechniquesshould beimplementedto reduce both

directandindirectcosts.Beoreimplementinganymeasures,itisessentialthatthestock-owner

conductadetailedcost-beneftanalysistodeterminetherealeectopredationandthecosto

thesemeasurestohis/heroperation.Thecostowildlieconictpreventionmeasuresshouldnot

exceedestimatedlossesthroughpredation.

Thearmermaybeabletoacceptcertainlevelsopredationbyimprovingproductivityandincome

inotherareasotheoperation,orexample,lambingpercentages.However,itisusuallythecase

thatsomeormoarmmanagement,livestockprotectionand/orpredatorexclusionisnecessary.

Thismaybeassimpleasestablishingsecurelambingareasonasheeparm.

Further wildlie conict prevention principles and techniques are discussed in chapter 5.

THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE THE ROLE OF PREDATORS AND WILDLIFE


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10 11

3 PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT

Theollowingsectiondescribesvariouspredatorsandindicatestheirpotentialimpactstoarmers,

whatbeneftstheymayoerthearmer,andwhattheirconservationstatusis,e.g.whetherthey

arethreatenedandinneedospecialprotection.

TheConservationStatusoreachspecieshasbeenextractedromtheRedDataBookothe

MammalsoSouthArica.

HIGHER CONFLICT POTENTIALReerstothosespecieswhereboththeimpacttothearmerandtherequencyotheconict

arepotentiallyhigh.

PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT

DOMESTIC DOGCanis amiliarisArikaans:Hond.Zulu/Xhosa:Inja.

Conservation status:NotapplicableShoulder height: 300-750+ mmMass: 5-70kgKey identifcation eatures:Occurinawidevarietyobreeds,shapesandsizesbutusuallyunmistakeable.Natural diet:Omnivorous.Habits:Domesticdogscomeinawidevarietyoshapes,sizes,andtemperaments,butallarederivedromasinglewildgeneticsource.Thesedeep-seatedinstinctsreassertonoccasionanddogsbeginkillinglivestock.Stockkillingisnotconfnedtostraydogs,veryotenthewell-edamilypetwillventureintothepasturesatnightonakillingspree.Dogsotenincreasetheirdestructionbyoperatinginpacks.Benefts and potential impacts:Watch-dogsandpets,butcanbecomeclandestinestock-killers.

CARACALCaracal caracalArikaans:Rooikat.Zulu:Ndabushe.Xhosa:Nghawa.Tswana:Thwane.

Conservation status:LeastConcernShoulder height:450mmMass:Upto20kgKey identifcation eatures: Shortreddish-browncoatwitha whitechin,throatandbelly.Hasanarrowblacklinerunningromeacheyetothenose.Thebodyislongandslenderwithlonglegs,ashorttaperingtailandhighlytutedears.Natural diet:Smalltomedium-sizedpreyincludingtheyoungolargerantelopes,youngbaboons,VervetMonkeys,smallcarnivores,dassies,hares,rodents,birdsandreptiles.Habits:CaracalsarewidespreadandcommoninSouthArica.Thoughtheycantoleratearidconditionstheyhaveapreerenceorareaswheremoreadequatecoverisavailable.Theyarepredominantlynocturnaleveninundisturbedareas.Averagehomerangesizeisapproximately24km.Nomadicindividualsmaydisperseover130kmromtheirbirthplace.Theyarenormallyterrestrialbutareadeptclimbersandscaletreeseasily.Caracalaresolitaryanimals,malesandemalesappeartoassociateorashortmatingperiodonly.Kittensarebornallyearroundwithapeakinthesummermonths.Littersobetweentwoandourarebornindisusedaardvarkholes,hollowtrees,orsimilarcavities.Benefts and potential impacts:Keepshare,dassieandrodentnumbersdown.Someindividualsmaydevelopatasteordomesticstock.BLACK-BACKED JACKAL

Canis mesomelasEnglish:RedJackal.Arikaans:Rooijakkals.Zulu:Mpungutshe.Tswana:Phokojwe.Shangaan:Impungutshe.

Conservation status:LeastConcernShoulder height:400mmMass:7-9kgKey identifcation eatures: Grey to silver,or reddish-brown ur, with a distinctive black saddle andblack-tippedtail(thetailotheSide-stripedJackaliswhite-tipped).Natural diet:Opportunists.Mainlysmallanimals,carrion,occasionallysmalloryoungantelopes,insects,eggs,ruit,reptiles.

Habits:Black-backedJackalshaveawidehabitattoleranceandcanbeoundthroughoutmostosouthernAricaromaridzonesinNamibiatomontaneareasoNatal.Theyareverywaryandcunningandarenoteasilytrapped.Theyexhibitbothdiurnalandnocturnalactivity.Theyrestinholesintheground,rockcrevicesorpilesobouldersormaylieupinthickunderbushortallgrass.Home-rangesizeisabout18kmandnomadicindividualscanmovelongdistances(100km)whendispersing.Theymaybesolitary,occurinpairsorinamilygroups.Matedpairsareterritorial,bothmalesandemalesmarkanddeendtheterritory.FemaleshaveonaveragefvepupsromJulytoOctober,inholes(dens)intheground.Bothmalesandemalestakepartinrear-ingandeedingtheyoung.Atabout14weeksoagetheyoungleavethedenandoragewiththeirparents.Benefts and potential impacts:Suppressrodentandinsectpopulations.Willpreyonsmall,younglivestockespeciallysheep duringthe vulnerable lambingperiod. Suchpredationis easilycombated by guard-dogs,corralling,etc.

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1 1PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT PREDATORS IN POTENTIAL CONFLICT

LOWER CONFLICT POTENTIALReerstothosespecieswhereeithertheimpactortherequencyotheconictislikelytobe

low,butthatmayoccasionallycauselocaliseddamage.

LEOPARDPanthera pardusArikaans:Luiperd.Zulu,Shangaan,Xhosa:Ingwe.Tswana:Inkwe.

Conservation status: LeastConcernShoulder height:600mmMass:20-75kg

Key identifcation eatures:Elongatedmuscularbodywithrelativelyshortlegs.Colourvariesromlighttawnytodeepyellow,withdarkspotsontheirace,head,throat,chestandlegs.Bodyiscoveredinrosettes(theCheetahhasspots).TheheadislargerinproportiontothebodythantheCheetahandtheearsareshortandrounded.Lackstheacialtear-dropmarkingsotheCheetah.Natural diet: Medium-sizedand small animals.Tendsto bemorecatholic than theCheetah.Partial tobaboons.Habits:Leopardshaveawidehabitattolerance,beingoundinallhabitatsromsemi-deserttoorest.Theyarenocturnalandstrictlysolitaryexceptwhenmating,orwhenemalesaresupportingdependentyoung.Theirsecretivebehaviourenablesthemtoinhabitareasclosetohumandevelopment.Territoriesvaryinsizerom20-200kmdependingonoodavailability.Malesgenerallyhavelargerterritoriesthanemales.Leopardsbreedatanytimeotheyear,withusuallytwotothreecubsinalitter.Thecubsbecomeindependentat15-18monthsoage.Benefts and potential impacts:CompeteswithCaracal,maypreyonjackalsandothersmallerpredators,therebykeepingtheirnumbersincheck.Wherenaturalpopulationsremain,caracalandjackalnumbersaresignifcantlylower.Maypreyonstockinareaswithlowdensitiesonaturalprey.Signifcanteconomicbeneftsromecotourismandtrophyhunting.

CHEETAHAcinonyx jubatusArikaans:Jagluiperd.Zulu:Ihlosi.Shangaan:Khankankha.Tswana:Lengau.

Conservation status:VulnerableShoulder height:850mmMass:50kgKey identifcation eatures:Tallandslenderwith evenly spaced, circular spots over atawny,creambackground.Thespotsaresolid,

unliketheleopardwhosespotsormaring.Small, rounded ace, with black tear marksrunningromthe cornero theeye tothecornerothemouth.Natural diet: Medium-sizedandsmallmammals,groundlivingbirds.Exclusivelyreshmeat.Habits:ConfnedmainlytothelargerreservesandprotectedareasinsouthernArica,exceptorpartsoLimpopo,NorthernCapeandNamibiawheretheyarewidespreadbutsparseinnumber.Preeropensavannahorplainshabitat,butcansurviveinairlydensewoodland.Theyaremainlydiurnal.Femalesaresolitary,raisingtheir1-6youngalone.Oncetheyhavelettheirmotherat15-18months,siblinggroupsremaintogetheruntiltheemalescomeonheat,whentheybecomesolitary.Malesmaybesolitaryorormcoalitionsouptoourmembers.Benefts and potential impacts: Economicbeneftsromeco-tourism.Maypreyonunprotectedsmallstock.Aretimidandpresentnothreattohumans.

LIONPanthera leoArikaans:Leeu.Zulu:Ngonyama.Shangaan:Nghala.Tswana:Tau.

Conservation status: VulnerableShoulder height:Upto1.25m

Mass:Upto235kgKey identifcation eatures:ThelargestAricancarnivore.Lighttawnybrowncoat,&maleshavemaneswhichcanbetawnytoblack.Unmistakablebutspoorissometimesconusedwithsmallercatssuchascaracal.Natural diet: Large andmedium-sized mammals,but anythingrommiceto Cape Bualo, even youngelephants.Habits:MainlyconfnedtothelargernationalparksandgamereservesinsouthernArica.Nocturnal,socialcarnivores,livinginprideso2-10emalesandcubs,withorwithoutagroupo1-4males.Somegroupsarenomadic.Birthsarenon-seasonal,usually2-4perlitter,althoughtheemalesoaprideotenbreedatthesametime.Occupyaterritorybutdonotnecessarilywandertogether.Benefts and potential impacts: Eco-tourismpotentialand trophyhunting.Generally incompatible withstockarminginsouthernArica.Maypreyonlivestockidistributionoverlapbutdistributionis generallyconfned to larger conservation areas.

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SERVALLeptailurus servalArikaans:Tierboskat.Xhosa:Hlosi.Zulu:Ndlozi.

Tswana:Tadi.

Conservation status:NearThreatenedShoulder height: 550mmMass:Male,11kg;emale,9kgKey identifcation eatures:Pale-yellowcoatwithsolidblackspotsandbands(variable).Thetailhasseveralringsandablacktip.Slenderandlong-leggedwithasmallheadandbroadears.Theurislonganddense.Natural diet:Rodents,especiallyvleirats(Otomysspecies).Alsobirds,insects,reptiles,fsh,duiker,vegetablematter.Habits: Found in grassland and savanna, especially near marshy areas. Usually nocturnal and solitary.Sometimesseeninpairs,oremalewith1-3young.Willreadilyhuntinswampyareaswhichareavoidedbyothercats.Pounceontheirpreywhichtheylocatebyhearing.Lieupinlonggrassorbushclumps,onlyclimbtreeswhenchased.Young,borninsummer,arerearedbythemother.Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentnumbersdown.Occasionallyraidspoultrybutdoesnotkillsmallarmstock.

AFRICAN WILD CATFelis sylvestrisArikaans:Vaalboskat.Zulu:Mpaka.Tswana:Phage.Shangaan:Mphaha.

Conservation status:LeastConcern

Shoulder height:350mmMass: Male,5kg;emale,4kgKey identifcation eatures:Widediversityocolouration:typicallysandyorlightbrownwithoverlyingtabbypattern.Distinctiveblackstripesonlegsandtail.Natural diet:Mainlyrodents.Alsobirds,reptiles,insects,rogs,spiders,scorpions,hares,ruit.Habits:Widehabitattolerance.Nocturnalandsolitary.Terrestrial,butcanclimbwellwhenchasedorhunting.Takescoverinthickvegetation,holesorrockcrevices.2-5youngbornromSeptembertoMarchinholesinthegroundandraisedbythemother.Pure-bredAricanWildCatsarethoughttobebecomingscarce,asthespeciesreadilyinterbreedswithdomesticcats.Benefts and potential impacts: Keepsrodentandharenumbersdown.Mayraidpoultrybutdoesnotpreyonstock.

SMALL-SPOTTED GENETGenetta genettaArikaans:Kleinkol-muskejaatkat.

Shangaan:Nsimba.Shona,Tswana:Tsimba.

Conservation status:LeastConcernTotal length:0.95mMass:1,8kgKey identifcation eatures:Longleanbodyonshortlegs.Yellowishurwithdarkspotsonbody.Tailhasdistinctiveblackandwhiterings.SmallerthanLarge-spottedGenet,withmoredistinctmarkings.Natural diet:Insects,rodents,spiders,birds,reptiles,rogs,centipedes,ruit,scorpions.Habits:Foundinaridregionsanddrysavanna.Nocturnal,solitaryorinamilygroups.Terrestrial,butverygoodtreeclimbers.Takereugeinholesintheground,intreesorinhollowlogs.2-4youngarebornduringsummer.Benefts and potential impacts: Regulates rodent andinsectpopulations.May raid poultryand bushkitchens.

LARGE-SPOTTED GENETGenetta tigrinaArikaans:Rooikol-muskejaatkat.Tswana:Tshipa.

Conservation status:LeastConcernTotal length: 1m

Mass: 1,8kgKey identifcation eatures:Longleanbodyonshortlegs.Yellowishurwithdarkspotsonbody.Tailhasdistinctiveblackandwhiterings.LargerthanSmall-spottedGenetandcoatmarkingslessdistinct.Natural diet: Mice,insects,reptiles,rogs,birds,invertebrates,wildruit.Habits:Foundinmoistregions,orestandwoodland.Strictlynocturnalandsolitary.Excellentclimbers.Shelterinholesintheground,intrees,inarmoutbuildingsandrockcrevices.2-5youngareborninsummerandremaininthenestuntilreadytoleavetheirmother.Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentnumberslow,especiallyarounddwellings.Mayraidpoultry.

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SPOTTED HYAENACrocuta crocutaArikaans:Zulu:Mpisi.Shangaan:Mhisi.Tswana:Phiri

Conservation status:NearThreatenedShoulder height:800mmMass:50-70kg

Key identifcation eatures: Frontlegslonger thanbacklegs.Shortlight-browncoatswithblackspotsthatmayadewithage(BrownHyaenahasdarkshaggycoat).Strongneckandjaws.LargerthanBrownHyaenaandearslesspointed.Natural diet:Medium-sizedtolargemammalswhicharekilled.Alsocarrion,bone,smallmammals,birds,reptiles,ruit,eggs,insects,garbage.Habits:Mainlyconfnedtothelargernationalparksandgamereserves.Nocturnal,socialanimals,usuallylivinginclanso10-50individualsdependingonoodsupply.Femalesgivebirthtooneortwoyoung,otenatcommunaldens.Societiesaredominatedbyamatriarch.Theclanmakesuseocommunaldungheapsintheirterritory.Benefts and potential impacts:Helpskeeptheveldcleanodiseasedcarcasses.Maykilllivestockbutdistri-butionisgenerallyconfnedtoconservationareas.

BROWN HYAENAHyaena brunneaArikaans:Strandwol.Tswana:Tlonkana.

Conservation status:NearThreatenedShoulder height:750mmMass:40kgKey identifcation eatures:Frontlegslongerthanbacklegs.Longshaggybrown/blackcoatwithlongpointedears.Smallerin sizethanSpottedHyaena.

Natural diet: Mainlycarrion,seldomhunts.Also wild ruits, insects, birds eggs, smallmammals.Habits: The Brown Hyaena is mainly aninhabitantothedrierwesternregionsothesouthernAricansubcontinent.Solitaryoragers althoughtheylive inclans.Almostexclusivelynocturnal,restinginthickvegetationduringtheday.Theycoverlargedistancesinsearchoood,anythingupto60kminanight.Malesmaybenomadic,withnofxedterritory.Femalesusuallygivebirthto2-4youngatanytimeotheyear.Theyoungarekeptatadenorabout15monthsandtheadultsintheclanhelptoeedthembycarryingoodtotheden.Fromaboutninemonthsoagethecubsalsobegintoorageorthemselves.Theyusecommunaldungmiddensneartheboundariesotheirterritories.Benefts and potential impacts:Cleansupcarcassesintheveldand,thereore,cutsdownthespreadodisease.Competeswithjackalsorood.Rarelymayanindividualbecomeastock-killer.Theyareefcientscavengersandareparticularlysusceptibletopoison.

HONEY BADGERMellivora capensisArikaans:Ratel.Zulu,Siswati:Nsele.Shangaan:Shidzidzi.Tswana:Matswani.

Conservation status:NearThreatenedShoulder height:260mmMass:Males,9-14kg;emales,5-10kgKey identifcation eatures: Stocky robust elon-gatedwithshortpowerullegs.Strikinglongitudinalsilver-greybackstrap.

Natural diet: Scorpions, rodents, spiders, reptiles,insects,centipedes,birds,snakes, honey,bees,larvae,rogs,wildruit.Habits:Foundinallhabitattypes.Nocturnalinareasohigherhumanactivity,diurnalinremoteareas.Solitarybutotenhuntinpairs.Theyarepoweruldiggerswithlongsharpclawsandstrongorelegsandtheirthickloose skinprotectsthemrombitesand bee-stings.Normallyterrestrial,butwillclimbtreestoreachbee-hives,lizardsandbirdsnests.Typicallyonecubinalitter,whichmaybebornatanytimeoyear.Benefts and potential impacts:Beehivesarevulnerabletoraidingunlesssimple,inexpensiveprotectionmeasuresaretaken,suchasraisinghivesotheground.Maytakepoultry,andcaneasilytearthroughwirenettingwithstrong,knie-likerontclaws.

CAPE CLAWLESS OTTERAonyx capensisArikaans:Groototter.Zulu:Ntini.Tswana:Nyedi.

Conservation status:LeastConcernTotal length:1.3mMass:15kgKey identifcation eatures:Generallydarkbrownincolour,withlighterundersidesandsometimesawhitestreakonthethroat.

Natural diet:Mainlycrabsandrogs,alsofsh,aquaticinsectsandmolluscs,veryrarelywaterbirds.Habits:Foundinrivers,smallstreams,lakes,swamps,damsandthesea,theyarepredominantlyaquatic.Activeatdawnanddusk,especiallyattwilightandsometimesatullmoon.Generallysolitary,butalsoseeninpairsandamilygroups,playwitheachotherandinanimateobjects.Wheneatingcrabstheyeattheentirecarapace,unliketheWaterMongoosewhichusuallydiscardsthecarapace.Littersotwoorthreehavebeenrecordedthroughouttheyearanditisunclearwhetherbreedingisseasonalorperennial.Diagnosticdroppingscontainragmentsocrabsandhaveafshyodour.Flattenedsandandvegetationpatchesshowwhereanotterhasrubbeditseldry.Benefts and potential impacts:Eco-tourismpotential.Presenceindicatesunpolluted,unsiltedwater,asignogoodcatchmentmanagement.Maycauseproblemsinfsharmsorwithcaptivewildowl.

8.5-10cmlong

8cmlong

9-11cmlong

8cmlong


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0 1

WHITE-TAILED MONGOOSEIchneumia albicaudaArikaans:Witstertmuishond.Zulu,Xhosa:Gqalashu.Tswana:Tshagane.Shangaan:Tlolota.

Conservation status:LeastConcernShoulder height:240mmMass:4,3kgKey identifcation eatures:Alargelong-hairedmongoosewithgreyappearance.Thebaseothelargebushy

tailisbrown,theremainderiswhite.Natural diet:Termites,beetles,grasshoppers,crickets,beetlelarvae,rogs,rodents,reptiles,birds,ruit.Habits:Foundinsavannawoodland,grassland,andorestmargins.Dependantonwaterbutstrictlyterrestrial.Nocturnal,solitaryorinamilyparties.Usesholesorshelter.Gooddiggers,butdonotexcavatetheirownburrows.Benefts and potential impacts:Mayraidpoultry.Hasbeenaccusedokillinglambs,butthereisnoevidenceorthis.


SLENDER MONGOOSEGalerella sanguineaEnglish:Black-tippedMongoose.Arikaans:Swartkwasmuishond.

Zulu:Chakide.Shangaan:Mangovo.Tswana:Kganwe.

Conservation status:LeastConcernShoulder height:110mmMass:Male640g;emale460gKey identifcation eatures:Verylongthinbodyonshortlegs.Coatyellowishtolightbrown.Tipotailisblack.Natural diet:Insects,lizards,rodents,birds,ruit,snakes,rogs.Habits:Foundinbothdryandmoistgrasslandandsavannah,diurnal,solitary,terrestrial.Shelterinholesintermitariaorrockcrevicesorhollowlogs.1-2youngarebornduringsummer.Benefts and potential impacts:Curbsinsectandrodentnumbers.Mayraidpoultry.Willscavengeroadkillswhichotenresultsinthembecomingroadkills.

LARGE GREY MONGOOSEHerpestes ichneumonArikaans:Grootgrysmuishond.Zulu:Nhlangala.

Tswana:Tshagane.

Conservation status:LeastConcernTotal length:1.1mMass:3,2kgKey identifcation eatures:Elongatedbodywithshortblacklegs.Bodycoveredwithlongdarkgreycoarsehair.Tailendsinablacktasselolonghair.Natural diet:Smallmammals,birds,rogs,crabs,fsh,reptiles,insects,ruit.Habits:Preerhumid-subhumidgrasslandassociatedwithreedbedsandswamps,althoughtheywanderwidelyinadjacentdryterrain.Theyarediurnal,terrestrialandsolitary.Readilyhuntinshallowwaterandmuddyareas,alsodigorprey.Littero2-4probablyborninsummer.Benefts and potential impacts:Curbsrodentnumbers.Hasbeenaccusedokillinglambs,butthereisnoevidenceorthis.

SOUTHERN PALE CHANTING GOSHAWKMelierax canorusEnglish:PaleChantingGoshawk.Arikaans:Bleeksingvalk.

Conservation status:NotthreatenedKey identifcation eatures:Alarge,palegreyhawkwithlong,redlegs.Thebaseothebill,thecereandpartotheacialskinisred,whilethebillisdarktowardstheront.ItisbiggerthanthesimilarGabarGoshawk

andbiggerandpalerthantheDarkChantingGoshawk.Natural diet:Smallmammals,especiallyrodents,birds,reptilesandinvertebrates.Thisspecieswillalsoeatcarrion.Habits:PaleChantingGoshawksareoundmainlyintheKarooshrublandandKalahariwoodlandinthesouthwesternpartsosouthernArica,astheyrequireopengroundwithaewhuntingperches.Theslightnestismadeostickslinedwithdung,wool,hair,eathersandothersimilarmaterialsandisusuallyplacedinathornyAcaciatree.Oneortwoeggsarelaid,withthebreedingseasonreachingapeakinAugustandSeptember.Twoyoungareotenraisedsuccessully.Benefts and potential impacts:Animportantrodentcontroller.Notknowntoevertakestockanimals.

2.5cmlong 4cmlong

4cmlong


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MARTIAL EAGLEPolemaetus bellicosusArikaans:Brekoparend.

Conservation status:VulnerableKey identifcation eatures:ThisisthelargesteagleinArica.Thedarkheadandchestcontrastagainstthespotted,palebelly.ThespeciesdiersromthesimilarBlack-chestedSnakeEagleinhavingadarkunderwingandeatheredlegs.Natural diet: Hares,RockDassies,leguaansandgamebirdsarethemainpreyothiseagle.Habits:MartialEaglesareoundinopencountryandbushveldthrough-outArica.Nestsarelargestickstructures,builtunderthecanopyoatalltree.Onepairmayusethesamenestormanyyears.Oneeggislaidinmid-winterandedgesfvemonthslater.Benefts and potential impacts:MartialEaglesoccupyterritoriesobetween100and300km,soensuringrogueeaglesdonotenterthearea.Roguesmayhaveagreaterimpactonlivestockthantheresidentpair.

VERREAUXS EAGLEAquila verreauxiiEnglish:BlackEagle.Arikaans:Witkruisarend.

Conservation status:NotthreatenedKey identifcation eatures:Thejet-blackplumage,whiteVonthebackandwhiterumparediagnos-tic.Natural diet:TheRockDassiecomprises90%othediet.Itwillalsoreadilyeatcarrion.Habits:TheVerreauxsEagleisoundalongmountainrangesandrockyoutcropsthroughoutArica.Nestsarebuiltoncliledgesorbouldersandonepairmayusethesamenestormanyyears.Twoeggsarelaidinmid-winter,butonlyonechicksurvives,theolderonekillingitsyoungersibling.Benefts and potential impacts:ApairoVerreauxsEaglesareterritorialandwillkeepanyrogueeaglesoutothearea.Roguesmayhaveagreaterimpactonlivestock(onnewbornlambs),thantheresidentpair.

OTHER RAPTORS WITH VERY LOW CONFLICT POTENTIAL

TawnyEagles,AricanHawkEagles,WahlbergsEagles,BootedEagles,VerreauxsEagles,BarnOwlsandSpottedEagleOwlsoccasionallypreyonadultpoultry,whileGabarGoshawks,RockKestrels,GreaterKestrelsandLannerFalconsmayinrequentlypreyonpoultrychicksandpigeons.Juvenileorsub-adultindividualsomanyeaglespeciesareotenaccusedokillinglambs,butthisisunsubstantiatedandappearstobeopportunisticeedingonstillbornordeadanimals.Lappetaced,White-backedandCape

Vulturesmaysometimeskill newbornlambs,particularlyi ewesleavethese aloneandexposed, andCrownedEaglessometimescomeintoconictwithstockarmersintheEasternCape.Stockprotectionensuresprevention.

Raptorsotherthanthosementionedabovedonotpredateonlivestockorpoultry.Insteadtheybeneftarmersbycontrollingthenumbersotheirnaturalpreyspeciessuchasrodentsandinsects.

SOUTHERN AFRICAN PYTHONPython natalensis

Conservation status:Length:Maximumlength~5mMass:Maximummass,60kgKey identifcation eatures:Strong,muscularsnakewith a triangularhead.Eyes aremoderatein sizewithverticalpupils.Theheadhasadarktriangularmarkingonthecrownandthereisadarklineromthetipothesnout,whichpassesthroughtheeyetothebackothehead.Bodycolorationisusuallydarkbrownwithgrey-brownblotchesanddarkspecklingabovewithwidelyspaceddarkblotchesonthesides.Natural diet: Awidevarietyopreyistaken,butwarm-bloodedspecies(mammalsandbirds)appeartobeavoured.HasbeenrecordedeedingonduckeggsandwilleventakecarriononoccasionsHabits: Occurswidelyinbushveld,savannahandorest.Non-venomousandpreyiskilledbyconstriction.Asinglemealcanexceedthepythonsownbodymass.Benefts and potential impacts:Keepsrodentandharenumbersdown.Mayraidpoultry.Althoughverylargepythonshavebeenrecordedeatingantelope,youngcalvesandgoats,instancesolivestockpredationarerareandotenproventobehighlyexaggerated.


15/30

BLACK-FOOTED CATFelis nigripesArikaans:SwartpootWildekat.Tswana:Sabalabolokwane.

Conservation status:LeastConcernShoulder height: 250mmMass:Male,1.6kg;emale,1.1kgKey identifcation eatures: Yellowishbrownur, varyingin shade betweenindividuals,withblackbarsextendingacrosstheshoulders,legs,andtail.Natural diet:Rodents,spiders,reptiles,insects,birds,birdseggs.Habits:Foundinaridopencountry.Nocturnal,solitaryandverysecretive.Liesupinholesorthickgrass.Littersize1-3.Habitsarepoorlyknown.Benefts and potential impacts:Curbsrodentpopulations.

BAT-EARED FOXOtocyon megalotisArikaans:Bakoorvos.NorthernSotho:Motlhose.Tswana:Tlose.

Conservation status:LeastConcern

Shoulder height:300mmMass:4kgKey identifcation eatures:Bat-earedFoxeshavelarge,wideears,ashortnarrowmouth,andlongjackal-likelegs.Natural diet:Insects,especiallytermites.Alsoscorpions,rodents,reptiles,ruit,spiders,smallbirds.Habits:Foundinopengrassland.Diurnalinwinterandnocturnalinsummer,orageinamilygroups,restingintheopenwhennotbreeding.Preyislocatedbyhearing.Breedinburrowswhichtheyexcavatethemselves.Litterso4-6arebornromOctobertoDecember.Juvenilessuerheavymortalityrompredationwhenyoung.Benefts and potential impacts:Insectivoredietmakesthemhighlyvulnerabletopoisoning.Norecordsostockkilling.

INNOCENT BYSTANDERSReers to those species thatare oten incorrectlyaccusedand persecuted butcause no damagewhatsoever.

AARDWOLFProteles cristatusArikaans:Aardwol.Zulu:Nehi.Tswana:Thukwi.Shona:Mwena.

Conservation status:LeastConcernShoulder height:500mmMass: 9kgKey identifcation eatures:Frontlegsarelongerthanthehindlegs.Haveprominentcrest-likebackmanewhichcanbeerectedirightenedoraggressive.Longyellow-whiteurwithverticalstripesrunningdown

thesidesothebody.Natural diet:Termites,especiallysnoutedharvestertermites.Sometimeseedsonspiders,moths,centipedesandantsbutteetharetoosmalltochewonmeat.Habits:Foundinallhabitats,excludingdesertandorest,butdependantonpresenceocertaintermitespecieswhichtheylocatebyscentandhearing.Nocturnal,solitaryoragersexceptwhenaccompaniedbyyoung.Deninburrowseitherromotherspeciesorexcavatedthemselves.Matedpairsandtheirmostrecentospringoccupyanddeendterritories.2-4youngarebornbetweenOctoberandFebruary.Youngemergeromthedenatonemonth,butonlyoragearatourmonthsandleavetheirparentsterritoriesateroneyear.Benefts and potential impacts:Curbstermitenumbers.Theyhaveairlylongcanineteethwhicharesopoorlydevelopedthatitismostdoubtulwhethertheycouldevencopewithcarrion.Noevidenceexiststosuggestthattheypreyonlivestock.Mayvisitcarcassestoeedonmaggotsandhidebeetlesandthereorewronglyaccusedopredation.

SPOTTED-NECKED OTTERLutra maculicollisArikaans:Kleinotter.Zulu:Ntini.

Conservation status:NearThreatenedShoulder height:300mmTotal length:1mMass:4.5kgKey identifcation eatures: Body isdeep brownexceptorthethroatwhichisalighttancolourandmottledwithbrownspots.(CapeClawlessOtterslack

thesespots).Natural diet:Almostequalquantitiesocrabandsmallfsh,rogs.Occasionallyaquaticinsectsandbirds.Habits: Found in rivers, lakes and swamps withextensiveareasoopenwater,neverarromtheshore.Crepuscular.Clearwaterisimportantastheyhuntbysight.Usuallysolitaryorinamilygroupsoadultsandyoung.Theylieupandbreedinrockycrevicesorholesinriverbanksorreedbeds.1-3youngperlitter.Benefts and potential impacts: Eco-tourismpotential.Reliant onclear, unpollutedwaterthereore itspresenceindicatesgoodcatchmentmanagement.Preventsoverpopulationofshindamstherebyincreasingcatch-size.Donotusuallytakefshlargerthan20cm,arethusnothreattofsheries.Adultswilldeendtheiryoungagainsthumans.


2.1cmlong

4-4.5cmlong

3.5-4cmlong

5cmlong


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Strategically,anintegratedorholisticwildlieconictmanagementprogramshouldconsistothe

ollowingsteps:

Problem defnition reers to evaluation o the actual cause o damage and correct diagnosis;thespeciesandindividualsresponsible,theextentolossandthenatureothe

conict;andotherbiologicalandsocialactorsrelatedtotheproblem. Ecology o the problem species reers to understanding the natural history o the species,especiallyinrelationtotheconict. Control method applicationreerstotakingtheinormationgainedrompoint1and2to develop an appropriate management programme to prevent, alleviate or reduce the

c oni ct . Evaluation o controlallowsanassessmentothereductionindamageinrelationtocosts and impact o the control on target and non-target animal populations and the

environment.

Implementationo anintegratedor holisticmanagementapproachshouldfrstlyinvolvethe

long-termimplementationopreventativemeasures,accompaniedwithanadaptationoarm

managementpractices.Shouldpredationtakeplace,meticulousstepsshouldbetakentoidentiy

theindividual animalcausingthedamageandacontrolmethod,suchascagetrapping,decided

onthatisapproved and legal, ecologically acceptable, cost-effective, ethical and humane.

Itisimportantthatanintegrated or holistic management approachtohuman-wildlieconict

situations betaken,wherebyseveralpreventionand managementmethodsarecombinedand

coordinated.

There arenoquickfxesand noeasyanswersin

human-wildlieconictmanagement.Itiscriticalto

avoidirrationalover-reactiontoconictsituations,

justtosolvethe problemquickly.Inthepast,many

armersresortedtoindiscriminateuseopoisonas

aquicksolution,whichresultedina painuldeath

ormanyindividualsomanydierentspecies,most

owhom aresimple carrion-eeders only.This has

causedlong-termecologicalimbalancesandgener-

allyexacerbatedthepredationproblem.Thispractice

isnolongerlegalandisethicallyunacceptable.

Wildlieconictmanagementiscomplexandrequires

meticulousattentiontothefnestdetailsisuccess

istobeachieved.Farmersandlandmanagersshould

thereore,alwaysviewthesituationholistically,with

long-term solutions asthe key tosuccess. A ull

rangeopreventionmeasuresshouldbeestablishedandcloselymonitored.

Preventiontechniquesarenotallequallyeective,andthereore,theireectivenessandef-

ciencyshouldbeevaluatedorselectivity,skillandlabourrequirements,cost,availabilityandtime.

Implementingpreventativemethodstoprotectlivestockis a necessityorsuccessularming.This

willbringaboutachangeinmanagement,anadjustmentocircumstances,orareductionorisk

andexposureolivestockthatpreventsuturepredation.

WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Success must be measured by reduced losses and increased profits, not by the numbers ofpredator skins in the shed. When individual predators are removed, but the stock remains

unprotected, it simply opens the niche for the next predator.

4 WILDLIFECONFLICT MANAGEMENT

The use of poison causes painful

deaths to many species and long-termecological imbalances.


17/30

KEY TERMS

Approved or legal means a method which is applied in accordance with the provisionsof any Act or Provincial Ordinance, or any regulations promulgated there under, and inaccordance with any instructions and guidelines applicable to any registered remedy orsubstance which forms part thereof.Ecologically acceptable means the method will have minimal detrimental effect onspecies and the environment; in particular it must not create imbalances which further

exacerbate the problems.Cost effective means that the cost of control does not exceed the value of the potentiallosses incurred by the farmer.Ethical and humane means that the method is fair and decent and will cause no sufferingto the target animal when applied as directed.

Only methods that meet all these criteria are considereddesirable methods.

There are many human-wildlie conict prevention methods to choose rom with a clear

distinction between those that are preventative and non-lethal i.e. those that control by

prevention,protectionandaversionandwhichareencouraged;asopposedtothosethatarelethalandthatarenot supported any longer.

Prevention is the cure for predation problems, not persecution of preda-tors after the fact. A combination of proper farm management techniques, prevention ofaccess to stock and deterrents is the only long-term solution to predation problems.

Therearemanymethodsthatcanbe appliedovertimetopreventandminimiseconictwith

predators,anditisextremelyimportantthatarmersimplementpro-activepreventionmeasures

toprotecttheirlivestock.Predationislikelyat somepointunlessproactivestepsaretakento

preventaccesstostock.Themanagementowildlieconictshouldbeexible.Farmersshould

be encouragedto usea combination o armmanagementtechniques anddeterrents, work

at improvingand adapting themto optimisetheir eectivenessand be constantlyopen to

developingnewwaysoprotectinglivestock.

LIVESTOCK CARE AND MANAGEMENTItseemsobviousthatarmersshouldcareortheirlivestock,yetit oten happensthatstock

isletarromthehomesteadonremotepartsothearmandatrisktothetandpredators.

Understandably,itisnotalwayspossibletoenclosestockallthetime,butthereareperiodsothe

year,suchaslambingandcalvingseasons,whenlivestockareatagreaterriskthannormaland

whereextracaremustbetaken.Inareasohigherrisk,thedevelopmentosecurelambingcamps

andnightenclosurescanreduceriskinthelongerterm.

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT ON THE FARMCare ortheland,by practicingsustainable armingand byconservingthe wildlieandtheir

habitatsthatoccurthere,canreducepredatorconicts.Smallgameandgamebirdsprovidethe

oodbaseorpredators.Theshootingosmallgameunnecessarilyisoolish,becausepredatorsinstinctivelyselectnaturalpreyandwhenthat isnot available,theymay resort topredation

on the armerslivestock. Predatorsare territorial and killing and removing territorial adult

individualssimplyopensupthehabitatornewnomadicindividuals.Thiscouldleadtoanincreasein

predation,anddoesntsolvetheproblem,butmakesitworse.

By adhering to the recommended stocking rates and carrying capacities o the arm, the

armercreatesahealthynaturalenvironment,whichwillbenaturallypopulatedbywildliewhich

WILDLIFE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION

5 WILDLIFECONFLICTPREVENTION:PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES


18/30

0 1

Fencing (this includes camps, kraals and night

enclosures)

Althoughexpensive, thisis along-termsolution. It

ishowever,onlyasgoodasthemaintenanceandas

secureastheweakestpoint.Predatorsotendigunder

meshences,soitisimportanttosecurethebaseo

themesh,oreventoattachabasemeshat90degrees

totheencei.e.atontheground,topreventpreda-

torsromdiggingunderneath.Adequateandeective

overhangsor electrifcationshouldbe considered,ithere arespecies present which climb overences.

Gatesthatareletopenmakethebestenceuseless.

Similarly,gatesthatarebadlyhungservenopurpose

atall,sincetheunctionothegateistoclosethe

entrance/exit.Rivercrossingsandstreamsaredifcult

toenceandaredamagedaterrain,soregularence

maintenanceisessential.Goodencesareaneective

methodokeepingpredatorsout.

Bybuildingpredator-prooences,thepredatorsarekept

apartromlivestock.Inthelongterm,encingischeaperthanpotentialcontinuedlosses.Whilst

shepherding orlabourcostsare incurred,witha needto combatdiseaseswhenlivestockareconfned,thereducedlossesbalancethesecosts.Onthedownside,insecureenclosuresmayallow

predatoraccess,whichcanresultinlivestockbeingtrappedandmorethanoneanimalbeing

killed.Fencingisalsoexpensiveintheshorttermandneedstobebudgetedorcorrectly,with

depreciationcostsovertime.

Frightening devices

Thesemayincludelightsandnoises,suchasFMradiosandVHFradioalarmsystems,usedto

rightenandconusepredatorsawayromkraalsatnight.Aswithbellandscentcollars,itmustbe

stressedthatirighteningdevicesareusedrequently,predatorswillbecomeaccustomedtoall

thebellsandwhistlesandbecomeunaraid.Frighteningdevicescanbeusedeectivelyaround

calorlambcampsatnightandiusedinconsistentlyandonlyorshortperiodsotime.Lights

andnoisesmaynotworkordomesticdogs,astheytendtobeusedtothem.Unortunately,such

devicesmayalsoattractthieveswhosteallights,radiosandlivestock.

Guard animals

Severalormsoguardanimalshavebeentriedwithvaryingdegreesosuccess.Theseinclude

horses,donkeys,zebras,ostriches, Anatolian guard dogs and others.Theprincipleisthatthe

guardanimalisdeensivetowardsthestock,naturallyaggressivetowardsthepredators,orboth.

The use o Anatolian shepherd dogs is eective in many applications, both locally and

competeorthebesthabitats.Absenceowildlieand birdso preycanindicateahistoryo

badveldmanagementorevenpoisonabuseresultinginstockbeingtheonlypreyavailableor

nomadicpredators.

DETERRENTSSomeavailablemethodsaredescribedbelow.

Bell collars and scent collars

These collarsarequickand easy toft andcanconuse and deter predators because o the

unnaturalnoiseorthe humanassociatedscent

theyexude,providedtheyareusedinconsistently,

inconjunctionwithothermethodsandattimes

whentheriskopredationtolivestockisatits

highest,particularlyatlambingtimes.Itmustbe

stressedthatthispreventiontechniqueshouldbe

usedinconsistentlyotherwisepredatorsbecome

usedto themand henceunaraid. Thecritical

point is that management involvement is re-

quiredtomanipulatethesituationinresponseto

predationbyeithermovingsomeothelivestocktosaerareasorconusingthepredator,orboth.

Onceagain, these collars areinexpensive, low

maintenance, very easyto ft,readily available

anddeveloped byarmersor local conditions.

However, i used too requently, they may

becomeanattractantdinnerbellwhichindicate

wheretheockareratherthatbeingasuspicious

deterrent.

Cell phone Veldwagter collars

Thistechnologyemploysatransmitterwithmotionsensingability.Whenstockaredisturbedand

madetorun,thesensoractivatesandplacesacellphonecalltothearmerromcampten.This

enablesaarmertorespondtothethreatromapredatororstockthie,asandwhenthestock

aredisturbed.

Thesecollarsarenotexpensivewhencomparedwithpotentiallosses.Theyallowarapidresponse

byarmersand canprovideprotectionromstockthet.Theiruseis unortunatelylimitedto

areaswithcellularphonereceptionandtheyrelysolelyonthearmersabilitytorespondtothe

threat.

WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION

Bell collars are effective in deterring predators if usedinconsistently and for short periods of time.


Fences are only as good as themaintenance and as secure as the

weakest point.

P-A-L Bell collars.


19/30

TheDeadStopCollarisamorerobustmeshwire

collarthatprotectstheockagainstattacksby

caracal,which because otheirjaw and skull

structure,maybitethroughKingCollars.

Thesecollars areinexpensive, low maintenance,

veryeasytoftandadjust,readilyavailableand

developedbyarmersor localconditions.King

Collarsmaycauseskinproblemsiusedcontinu-

allyinwetterclimatesandnotmonitored.Ithasbeensuggestedthattheuseothesecollarsmay

leadtounusualorunconventionalpredationbehaviour,butthereisnorecordedevidenceothis.

Scent marking

Althougharatherunconventionaltechnique,predatorshavebeendeterredbyterritorialmarking

usingotherscents,suchashumanurine,whichcanbecollectedbeorethelambingseasonand

thensprayedwithagardensprayapplicatorontoencepostsandatgates.

Stock selection and type

Althoughnaturallivestockraces,likeDamaraSheeporNguniCattle,arehardyandsurvivewith

lessmanagement,theydonotproduceasrapidlyasmanyarmersdesire.Thereisatendencyto

breedlivestockorgreaterwoolormeatproduction,attheexpenseootherbehaviouraltraits.Farmersshouldtakenoteo ewesorcows thatconsistentlylose their youngandthesepoor

motheringcharacteristics should notormparto thegenetic inheritanceo aockor herd.

Similarly,hand-rearedlambs(hanslammers)canbecomevictimsopredatorssincetheydonot

learnearandightrommothersrombirthage.

Synchronised lambing and lambing enclosures

Innaturalsystems,wildanimalsproduceyounginsynchronisedseasonslinkedtorainall,seasons

andnutrition,andthiscreatesasurplusoodsupplyorpredatorsatthattime.Predatorsundergo

nutritionalstressduringwinterandtheoldandweakperish.Obviously,whenoodisconstantly

availablethisdoesnothappen.Byapplyingsystemsosynchronisedbreedingandlambing,the

armerreducestheperiodovulnerability,especiallywhensmalllambs,whicharenormallythe

highestriskageclass,canbemanagedwiththeirmothersinthehighestsecurityareaon the

arm.

There are new, innovative conflict prevention techniques being developed all thetime, and we appeal to all readers to please share these with us. They can then be includedin revisions of this booklet, further helping farmers to manage wildlife conflict in new andinteresting ways that promote a healthy coexistence between humans and predators.

internationally.Guarddogsarethemselvespredatorsthatterritoriallymarkoutanddeendtheir

ownareas,andthereoreareeectiveindeterringpredatorsandfndingsickordeadstockinthe

veld.Ideally,guarddogsshouldberaisedwiththelivestocktheywillprotect,sothattheyorm

abondwiththem.Wheresuitabledogsarechosenandproperlymanaged,thismethodisvery

eective.Forurtherinormationonguarddogs,reertothecontactlistattheback.

Otherguardanimals,suchasdonkeys,chaseorintimidatepredatorsandareormidableopponents

againstpredators.Guardanimalsarealwaysondutyandthereorearealerttothepresenceo

predatorsnearaherd.

Herdsman

Adiligentandwell-trainedherdercanprovetobeinvaluableindetectingandpreventingpotential

problemsbeoretheytakeplace.Onlargearms,

wherelivestockroamoverlargedistancesunat-

tended,aherdercanaccompanylivestockandbe

onthe look-outor anypredators.In addition,

guard dogs are most eective when they are

supervisedand managed and thereore herders

canmanageandprovideabackuptoaguarddog

inproblemsituations.Thesystemoshepherding

and guarddogs is widely used internationally,

andthecombinationothetwoisveryeective.

Unemployedyouthromworkersamiliesorlocal

communitiesmay oten bereadily available or

suchemployment.

King Collars and Dead Stop Collars

Thesecollarsweredevelopedbyarmersorarmers.

TheKingCollarisawide,adjustablePVCcollarthatisfttedtothenecksotheentireockand

adjustedonceortwiceaseason.Theymakeitdifcult,inotimpossibleorajackaltokillasheep

byathroatbite,thusconditioningterritorialanimalsnottoattacksheep.


A well-trained herder can prove invaluablein detecting and preventing potential

problems.


An Anatolian guard dog with the herd. Donkeys make formidable opponents. King collars fitted to the necks of livestock

make it difficult for predators to kill by athroat bite.


20/30

Iallavailablepreventativetechniqueshavebeentriedandtestedandthearmerstillexperiences

stocklosses,thenthecorrectproblemneedstobeidentifed.Fortheappropriatemanagementor

controlmeasurestobeinitiated,thearmershouldalwaysclearlydeterminethecauseodeath,

tobecertainthatthestockwasinactpredatedanddidnotdieromanothercause.Predation,

poorarmorstockmanagement,humaninterventionorevendiseasemaybethecauseodeath,

andaewsmallchangesinasystemcouldsignifcantlyreducelosses.

Itiscriticalatthisstagetoavoidbiasedviewsaboutwhathappenedandtoollowlogicalsteps

toobtainaccurateandcorrectinormationtoassistthearmerinchoosingthebestcourseoaction

HOW PREDATORS HUNT AND KILL

Preyiskilledinvariousways.Civets,mongoosesandskunksbiteintothebackotheheadand

crushtheirvictimsskull.Catskillsmallpreybysinkingtheircaninesintotheneckandorcing

apartthevertebrae,orlargeprey,bystranglingorsuocatingthevictimwithabitedirectedat

thethroatoroverthemouthandnose.HyaenasandWildDogsusuallyattackromtherearand

killbydisembowelling.Predatorskilloutonecessitytoeat,notoutoanger,orsportortobe

vindictive.Theyhunttokillaspartotheirdailysurvivalandnormalexistence.

Carnivoresvarygreatlyinsize,haveawiderangeodietsandhuntingmethods,anddierin

theirsocialbehaviour.AtoneextremeisthesolitaryLeopardorCaracal,attheotherthehighly

socialAricanWildDog.Evenmembersothesamespeciesareabletovarytheirbehaviourtosuit

dierentecologicalconditions.ForexampleSpottedHyaenasintheood-richNgorongoroCrater

inTanzanialiveinclanscontainingupto 80individuals,whichinhabitaterritoryo 40km,

whereasintheKalahariwhereresourcesarethinlyspread,aclanofvemayinhabitaterritoryo

1500km.Assuch,itisillogicaltolabelortargetgroupsorwholetaxaasproblematic.

POST-PREDATION

6 POST-PREDATION: IDENTIFYINGTHE CAUSE OF DEATH

The Bat-eared Fox has small mo-lars designed for eating food such

as insects and are not adapted toeating meat. They may be seenat a carcass feeding on insects

and maggots, but Unfortunatelythey are often killed as innocent

bystanders.

POST-PREDATION

The Raptors Hunting Tools

Thelengthothehalluxorbackward-acingtoe,andtheoveralldimensionsoaraptorstalons,

determinesitspreysize.Onlytheverylargeeaglesareequippedtotacklebiggerpreysuchas

Steenbok,BushbuckandRockHyrax.Medium-sizedeaglesandowlsusuallycatchsmallerprey,

howevertheymaystilltrytohuntlargerprey,especiallyduringtimesoamine.Allraptorsare

opportunisticeedersandwillattackpreythatisobviouslycrippledorill.

Vultures relyo n their powerul beaks or eeding. The Lappet-aced,White-backed and Cape

Vulturemayattackdomesticatedmammalsiveryyounglambs,calvesorkidsareabandoned,or

whereewesareweakenedthroughdifcultlabour.Starvingvultures,especiallyimmaturebirdsunderstress,aremostlikelytoberesponsibleortherecordedattacksbyvulturesonsmallstock.

EXAMINING THE CARCASSA number oclues canbe usedto identiythe cause odeath.A combination oclues and

observationsshouldbeusedtonarrowfndingsdowntoaparticularspecies,andurthersteps

takentoidentiythe individualthatwasresponsible.Cluesandobservationswillincludetrack

identifcation(thisneedsto belookedatbeoreapproachingthecarcass),preysizekilledand

skinningouttheneck.

ReertothePredator Identifcation Table(pgreer)orobservationsandclues.

Scavenged versus killed

Variouspredatorspeciesco-existinmanyareasanditispossiblethatmorethanonespeciesmay

beseenatacarcass. The act that a carnivore ed on a carcass does not mean it killed the

animal.SpeciessuchastheAardwolandBat-earedFoxmayotenbeseenatcarcasseswhere

theyeedoninsectsandmaggots.Theirdentitionisnotsuitedtoacarnivorousdietandtheydont

possessthetoothstructureorjawtokilllivestock.Hence,theyarealltoootenkilledasinnocent

bystanders.Todetermineithecarcasswasscavengedorkilled,urtherexaminationothecarcass

isneeded.


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POST-PREDATIONPOST-PREDATION

Figure 2 The width between the upper caninesdiffers between predators.

Skinning Out

The first and most important step is to determine whether the prey animal was killedby a predator, died of other causes or was just fed upon by a scavenger. This isnormally quick and easily done by skinning out the throat

Always begin skinning on the side of the neck, slightly behind the ear,

moving around the throat using the jawline and base of the neck asmarkers.

Reflect the skin flap (Figure 1 & 2) and look for bruising and puncturemarks on the reverse side of the skin (Figure 1 & 2). Inspect the throat andjaw for bruising and lacerations.

Skinning the whole carcass is also useful as bites elsewhere on the bodyare revealed. Take note of where other bite marks are located on the carcassi.e. randomly all over, throat, back of neck. Compare yourbite/fang locationfindings to the predator identification table (pg ) to assist you in working out whichpredator could have been responsible for the kill.

Measure the distance between the upper canines (Figure 2) on the

inside skin flap. The distance between the lower canines will be slightly smaller.Compare your bite width findings to the predator identificationtable (pg ) to assist you in working out which predator could have beenresponsible for the kill.

Other clues

Openthelarynxandtracheaorevidenceooamwhichindicatesthattheanimalwasaliveandbreathingwheninjuriesoccurred.Checkinsidethemouthorregurgitatedrumencontents.To

determineinewlybornlambsandcalveswerealiveatbirth,checkwhetherthehoovesshow

signsohavingbeenwalkedon,andwhetherthestomachcontainsood.Extensivebruisingand

bleedingaroundwoundsindicatesthattheanimalwaskilledwithcardiovascularsystemsully

unctional.Alternatively,lackobruisingandbleedingindicatesthattheanimalmayhavebeen

edonateritwasalreadydeadorstillborn.

Ipresent,thesecluesindicatethatthepreywasactuallykilledandnotjustedupon.Thestock-

ownerneedstoknowthisinormationbecauseitwillinuencethedecisiononwhatactionto

take.Preythatwasedupon,orinotherwordsscavengedbutnotkilled,warrantsamanagement

reactionotherthanpredationpreventionorcontrol.

Lookatwhichpartsothecarcasshavebeeneaten(Figure4)andithereisanyotherevidencesuch

aspluckedurorwool,tornoreatenaceandears,intactstomachandintestinesetc.Dierent

predatorshavedierenteedingpatterns.Compareyourfndingstothepredatoridentifcation

table(pg)toassistyouinworkingoutwhichpredatorcouldhavebeenresponsibleorthekill.


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POST-PREDATIONPOST-PREDATION

Inspection and autopsy o raptor k ills

Again,anautopsywillrevealthestateothecarcass.Bloodaroundpuncturewoundsindicates

thattheanimalmayhavebeenthevictimoapredatorandwaskilledbypenetratingcanineteeth

ortalons.Withaneaglethereareseldommorethantwopuncturemarks.Thepositionothese

mayrevealmore,aseaglestendtograbtheirvictimsontheupperneckandhead,orontheback,

inthevicinityothekidneys.Whenimpactisthecauseodeath,thereismuchbruisingandblood

undertheskin.Puncturemarkswithnobloodindicatethattheanimalwasalreadydeadwhenthe

woundswereinictedandthepredatorwasmostlikelyscavenging.Diurnalraptorsandsomeowls

usuallyplucktheirpreybeoreeeding.

Knowingthetimeodeatheliminatescertainpotentialpredators,asdiurnalraptorsdonothuntat

night.Aneagle,evenalargeMartialorVerreauxsEagle,isincapableoyingowithanintact,

day-oldlamb,unlessitwasbornprematurelyandisverysmall.Almostalleagles,someothe

goshawkandbuzzardspeciesandcertainowlsaresecondaryscavengers.Thus, a raptor eeding

on a carcass is not necessarily the original predator, but simply an opportunistic scavenger.

Size o prey

Thesizeotheprey/carcass,whethersmall,mediumorlarge,canprovidecluesastowhatpredator

wasresponsibleorthekilling.Predatoreedingpatternscandieraccordingtopreysize,andas

aruleothumb,thelargerthepreysizekilled,thelargerthepredatorthatkilledit.However,this

isnotalwaysthecaseandthesizeothecarcassoundshouldbeusedinconjunctionwithother

clues.Compareyourprey sizefndingstothepredatoridentifcationtable(pg)toassistyouin

workingoutwhichpredatorcouldhavebeenresponsibleorthekill.

Specifc predator behaviour

OnlysixpredatorsareresponsibleorthevastmajorityolivestockconictinsouthernArica.

Humanthievesshouldnotbeoverlooked.StockpredationbyLeopard,Cheetah,andBrownHyaena

islimited,highlylocalisedandrestrictedtocertainwell-defnedareas.

Individualpredators,whichchangetheirnaturalbehaviourandadoptatasteorlivestock,may

becomea problem.Thismaybe asa resulto advancedage,injury,evictionrom aterritory,

starvationoanevictedindividual,orbecausestockareeasiertokillthanwild,naturalprey.To

resolvethisconictitisimportanttolookatanyunderlyingarmmanagementproblemsorweak

pointsinpreventativeorexclusionarydevicesthatmightberesultinginpredationolivestock.

Domestic dogs

Lackocontroloadomesticdogbyownerscancausehugestocklosses.Dogsownedbyarm

labourersareotenusedtohuntgameonthearmorthepotandthisisexacerbatedbythe

ailurebymanylandownerstoaddressthis.

Cluesthatthecarcasswaskilledbydomesticdogsinclude: Verysmalllambsareotenbittenonthechest,backorhead. Largelambsorsheeparebittenanywhereonthebody. Bitesmaybeseenonthehamstrings,head,ears,neckoranks. Thekillisgenerallyuntidy,seldomaclean,neatkilllikethatonaturalpredators. Thecarcassmaybedraggedtoandro. Usuallymorethanonesheepiskilledormaimed,butoccasionallyonlyone. Thedistancebetweenuppercanineteethordogsinthesizerangeuptooxterrierand

spanielis30to40mm;33to36mmorbordercolliesand36to60mmorlargerdogsinthe

greyhoundtomastisizerange. Avariableamountomeatiseaten,romnothingtolargeamounts,usuallymorethanthat takenbyjackalorCaracal. Feedingisotenromtherear,butlargepiecesmayberippedromthecarcass. Largebonesarechewedoreaten. Chunksowoolmaybestrewnabout(notaneatpluckingliketheCaracal).Control measures: Farmdogsshouldbeenclosedatnightandnotallowedtowander.Theyshould

besupervisedandcorrectlyedtopreventthembecomingaproblem.

Black-Backed Jackal (Red Jackal, Witrug)

Theyareopportunisticeeders,normallyeedingonsmallanimalsotheregion.Inaridareasinsect

preypredominates;inhigherrainallgrasslandareasrodentsormthebulkotheirdiet.Carrionis

takenreadily,exceptinareaswhereaversiontopoisonedmeathasoccurred,andthereorebeneft

thearmerincleaninguptheveldocarcasses.

Figure 4


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0 1POST-PREDATIONPOST-PREDATION

CluesthatthecarcasswaskilledbyBlack-backedJackalinclude: Usuallyonlyonevictimkilled. Throatbitewithdistancebetweenuppercanineteeth23to29mmapart. Feedingisusuallyontheankbetweenthehipandbottomribs. Usuallyonlyasmallamounteaten,butthisvarieswithbreedingcycle. Eatssotinternalorgansandmaypuncturethestomachoprey. Carcassisnotmovedromthekillsite. Killmainlylambs. PupsleavethedenromlateAugusttomidFebruarymaycoincide withspringlambing.

Control measures:Black-backedJackalsseldomentercage-traps,andmanagementmeasures

shouldthereoreemployappropriateexclusionsystems,suchasbells,smellorprotectioncollars

andguardiananimals.

Caracal (Rooikat)

Normalpreyissmalltomediumsizedanimals,includinglambsolargerantelope,youngbaboons,

monkeys,dassies,hares,rodents,smallcarnivores,reptilesandbirds.Caracalbeneftthearmerby

playingavaluableroleintheenvironmentbycontrollingrodent,dassieandharenumbers.

CluesthatthecarcasswaskilledbyCaracalinclude: Lambsorsheepmaybekilled. Itisseldomthatmorethanonevictimiskilledatatime,butthismayoccurwhenkittens

leavethedenwiththeemale(midsummertoearlyspring).Occasionallywhenpreyaretrapped

inakraalanddonotee,manymaybekilled. Thevictimiskilledeitherbyabitetothethroatorthebackotheneck.Toothmarksmaybe oundineitherorbothpositions.Distancebetweenuppercaninesis24to30mm. Clawmarksaresometimesvisible. Ithevictimhasbeendisembowelled,thenalthoughsotorgansmayhavebeeneaten,the stomachisletun-puncturedandplacedaside. Thehindlegsandinnerhindlegsarethemostrequentlychosenmeat,butbrisketandshouder mayalsobetaken.Theshoulderissometimesneatlyremoved. Wool,uroreathersmaybepluckedromtheprey. Theribendsmaybechewed.Largebonesarenevereaten,averycleardierentiationrom domesticdogkills. Preymaybepartlycoveredwithvegetationdebrisorsoil.Control measures:Caracalcandevelopatasteorstock,butthiscanbeavoidedithecorrect

preventativemethodsto protectstock,suchasencingandkraaling,havebeen implemented.

Caracalreadilyenter cagetraps which havebeen properly setand problem individuals can

thereorebereadilycapturedandrelocated.

RAPTORS

Eagle Predation

ThelargereaglespeciesorelevanceareMartialEaglesandVerreauxsEagles.MartialEaglesare

mostlyound inthe areas away rommountains,whileVerreauxsEagles areassociatedwith

mountainousareas.Bothspeciesoccasionallypredatesmallstocklambsandkids.

Preysizeissmall,usuallyanimalsyoungerthanourdaysoldandweighinglessthan5kg.The

ollowingmarkingsonthepreycarcassareindicativeoeaglepredation:

Head:Asinglepuncturemarkonthetopotheheadandbelowonthethroat.Neck:Asinglepuncturemarkoneithersideotheneck,orpuncturemarksontheneckand

throat.

Shoulders:Puncturemarksonorjustbehindtheshoulderbladesonbothsidesothebody,ortop

andbottomentrancemarks.

Back:Asinglepuncturemarkoneithersideovertebrae,inthekidneyarea.

Raptorssometimes hidetheirpreyundera bushor tree.Also lookorthe ollowingsignso

eeding: Eaglespluckhairorwoolromtheeedingentrancearea; theymostlybegineedingonthecarcassromjustbehindtherontlimbs,workingtheirway towardsthehead;

theysometimesopenthecarcassthroughthesmallopeningjustbehindthelastribboneand belowthespinalcolumn; theyeat the lungs, heart andother organs through the cavity, andsometimespull the intestinesthroughthecavity; theyexcavatemeatromundertheskinandrombetweentheribsothecarcass; theysometimesbreakaribboneortwo,nearthepointwheretheribsareconnectedtothe spinalcolumn(sharppointedends);and eaglesnevertearthestomachwall.Justasnot allhumans arethieves,similarlynotallindividualso aspeciescausedamageon

armland.Proactivemanagement,preventionmeasuresanddamagecontrolsshouldaimat an

individual.Controleortsandpreventativetechniquesshouldbeastargetselectiveaspossible,

becauseindiscriminatetechniques,suchastheuseopoisonsandothermethods,canrapidlylead

toshynessandavoidancetowardthemethodsapplied.Mostanimalsarearmoreintelligentthan

webelievethemtobe,andneedtobesotosurvive.Theylearnveryastromarmersmistakes,

asisborneoutbytheailureocontrolmeasuresinthepast.

Killinga predatorin order toreducethelosso livestock,is notalong-termsolutionto any

wildlieconictproblem.Thelossolivestockotenincreasesoncetheculprithasbeenremoved

romthesystem,asavacuumiscreatedandthenflledbynewanimalsthatmoveintothearea.

Itisagainrecommendedthatpreventativetechniquestopreventandreducewildlieconictsbe

implemented.PleasereertoChapter5.


24/30

orwhichaarmerwouldneedtoapply,viatherelevantauthority.Thisplacesaresponsibility

onconservationauthoritiestoassesstheneedsotheapplicantandtoissueapermitwithina

reasonabletimeperiod,toavoidcontinueddamageorlossbeingincurredbytheapplicant.Itis

assumedthatatthisstage,theinspectorwouldrequirephysicalevidenceopreventativemeasures

toavoidwildlieconicts.

Themessageis clear.Farmersneedto putmeasuresinplaceto preventor minimiseexposure

otheirlivestocktotheriskopredation.Thelegislationindicatesaparadigmshitromlethal

controls,orkillingopredators,toastandpointoockandherdprotectionandthusconict

avoidance.Farmingisabusiness,soaarmerhastoprotecthispropertyandstockiheintendstostayinbusiness;andthatisthecruxothematter.

Methodspreviouslypracticedwhicharenowprohibitedintermsothelegislationare: Houndordogpackswhichpursueandkillpredators. Gintrapsorlegholdtraps.Thesetrapsareextremelyhazardoustonon-targetanimalsand their useis prohibitedunderprovincial conservation ordinances aswell asnew,national

legislation. Coyotegetterdevices.Theseare triggerdeviceswhichfrea toxin intothemoutho a predatorwhenpulled.IntermsonewFirearmsControlAct(Act60,2000),thesearenowseen

tobeafre-armandthismakesitillegaltosetthesedeviceswithoutalicenseandtrainers

mustbeaccredited.Inotused correctly,gettersareveryun-selectiveandonly10%o

animalskilledaretarget-animals.NB.Fire-armsmayalsonotbeletunattendedsoitwill

beimpossibleandimpracticaloranylandownertousethesedevicesLEGALLY! Poisonbaits. LivestockProtectionCollars(Poisoncollars).LivestockProtectioncollarsresembleahalterwith sachetscontainingatoxin.TheiruseiscontrolledbytheHazardousSubstancesAct(Act15,

1973)whichspecifesconditionsosaleanduse,aswell,asbywhomtheymaybeused.

WORKING WITH THE LAW

It is alarming how many lethal devices are still freely and readily available.Many of these are brutal and violent and are considered

inhumane and unacceptable.

Inorderthathuman-wildlieconictsareresolvedwithinlegalparameters,itisimportanttobe

awareocurrentlegislation.Underthislegislationvariousspecies,ormallyknownasproblem

animals,arenowprotectedspecies.Toacilitateunderstanding,theollowingisextractedrom

theNATIONALENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT:BIODIVERSITYACT(ACT10,2004)

Chapter 7

87. Purpose of Chapter

The purpose o this Chapter is to provide or the regulation o the issuing o permitsauthorising-

(a) restricted activities involving specimens o-

(i) listed threatened or protected species in terms o section 57(1);

57. Restricted activities involving listed threatened or protected species

(1) A person may not carry out a restricted activity involving a specimen o a listed threatened

or protected species without a permit issued in terms o Chapter 7.

restricted activity-

(a) in relation to a specimen o a listed threatened or protected species, means-

(i) hunting, catching, capturing or killing any living specimen o a listed threatened or

protected species by any means, method or device whatsoever, including searching,

pursuing, driving, lying in wait, luring, alluring, discharging a missile or injuring with

intent to hunt, catch, capture or kill any such specimen;

Fromthislegislationitisclearthattohunt,killortrapanyprotectedspeciesrequiresapermit


7 WORKINGWITH

THE LAW


25/30


CAGE TRAPSThepracticeotrappingisdefnedas

arestrictedactivityinlegislationand

permitsarethereorerequired.

Cagetrapsthemselves arenot lethal

to thepredator;in act theymerely

containorrestrainananimaluntilthe

armer gets tothecage. The armer

thendecideswhetherhehashistargetanimalornotandtheneitherreleases

the non-target visitor, or transports

thecapturedindividualtothenearest

protectedarea.

Cage traps are particularly successul or capturing caracal, dogs and various other small

carnivores,butnot jackals,whichveryseldomenterthesetraps.Non-targetanimalscaptured

shouldbereleasedunharmed.Whenstraydogsarethetargetproblemanimal,muchlessattention

todetailisrequired, becausebeingdomesticanimalswhichareaccustomedto humans,they

arenotsuspiciousandreadilyenterthesetraps.Smallertrapsosimilardesigncanalsobeused

orsmallcarnivoressuchasgenets,whichmaycauseproblemsiowlrunsarenotadequately

secure.

Cagetrapplansandpermitsareavailablerommostconservationofces.Legislativecontrolo

cagetrapswasinitiatedsothatthepotentialorinhumanetreatmentocapturedanimals,by

tortureormistreatment,couldbeprevented,asthisisdefnitelynotaccepted.

RAPTORSItisrelativelyeasytorehabilitatearaptorthathastakentohuntinglivestock,usingabal-chatri

trap.Abal-chatriisawirecagecontaininglivebait,usedtotrapbirdsoprey.Thisshouldbeset

upintheareawherethelivestockisbeingpredated.Theraptoriscaughtandreleasedatthesame

place.Theraptorthenassociatesthebait,inthiscaselivestock,withtheunpleasantexperience

obeingcaughtandhandled,andwillinutureavoidlivestockpredation.Itisimportantthatthe

baitusedisthetargetspeciesorwhichasolutiontothepredationissought.Also,nevermovea

caughtraptorawayromwhereitwascaught,asraptors,especiallybreedingpairs,settlewithin

fxedterritories.Theentireecosystemisdisruptedwhenthepairbondisbroken,andagapis

createdthatcouldbeflledbyrogueeagles,soworseningtheproblem.

Apermitmustbeobtainedromtheconservationauthoritiesbeoreabal-chatritrapmaybe

set(Sec57applies).Itisadvisabletoengagetheservicesoalicensedbirdringer,toensurea

successulcaptureandrelease.Thebirdcanthenalsoberingedorlateridentifcation.

Cage traps can be used to traptarget species for relocation.

Secondary Poisoning

The use of poison to control predators is prohibited. Not only does it causedamage to the environment, but many animals, including scavengers, are poisoned.Species such as Bat-eared Fox, Serval, Aardwolf and vultures are often killed inthis way, causing devastating long-term impacts to the environment. Vultures are oneexample of a valuable species that the farmer would want to see on his/her farm.

They clean up carcasses and meat from the veld that would otherwise be potentialhosts for many diseases. Being scavengers of the veld, they are often the first to arriveat a carcass or bait. If poison baits or carcasses are placed out in the veld to controlpredators, a whole host of valuable species, including vultures, will be targeted andunethically killed.

Vultures are a valuable species to the farmeras they clean up the veld of carcasses.

Farmersmustamiliarisethemselveswithlegislationtoavoidundertakingillegalactivitiesand

takeprecautionstoprotecttheirlivestock.



26/30

CONCLUSIONThisshort booklet should be seenas an overviewand guideline. Muchmore inormation is

available.Thereisnosubstituteorexperienceandprofciencyinthesemethodsandprinciples

canonlybeattainedbyexperience.Attendcourses,readtheliteratureandspendtimeinthefeld

gainingpracticalexperienceandlearningromexperiencedworkers.

RememberthatPREVENTION IS THE CURE.

Other Helplines available:

EWT-PWG Human-Wildlife Conflict Helpline: +27 (0)82 802 6223

EWT-PWG Wildlife Poisoning Report Line: +27 (0)11 486 1102

SA Eagle National Eagle Helpline: +27 (0)11 646 4629

CapeNature (Western Cape Province) Helpline:

Technical Advice: +27 (0)22 931 2900

Scientific Advice: +27 (0)21 866 8000

FURTHER CONTACTS ON BACK PAGE

DISCLAIMER

THEENDANGEREDWILDLIFETRUSTWILLNOTBEHELDRESPONSIBLEFORANYCONDITION/STHATMAYARISEFROMANY

ACTIONORFROMANYWILDLIFEPREDATORMANAGEMENTSYSTEMORMETHODDISCUSSEDINTHISGUIDE.ITREMAINSTHE

SOLERESPONSIBILITYOFTHESTOCKFARMERTOUSEPRODUCTSLEGALLYANDSTRICTLYACCORDINGTOTHEINSTRUCTIONS

PROVIDEDWITHSUCHPRODUCTS.

WORKING WITH THE LAW REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

8 REFERENCES ANDFURTHER READING

Bekker,F.,Bowland,T.,Brand,D.,Davies,R.,Steyn,P.,Verreynne,E.Innocent Until Proven

Guilty/Onskuldig tot Skuldig Bewys.

Bosho,A.,Brown,C.J.,Davies,R.,VanJaarsveld,J.,2006.Eagles and Farmers/Arende en

Boere EndangeredWildlieTrustandSAEagle.Revisedversion.

Butchart,D.,1994.Vultures and Farmers/Aasvols en Boere.VultureStudyGroup,

Johannesburg.

Friedmann,Y.&Daly,B.(editors)2004.Red Data Book o the Mammals o South Arica:A conservation assessment.CBSGSouthArica,ConservationBreedingSpecialistGroup

(SSC/IUCN),EndangeredWildlieTrust,SouthArica.

Hockey,P.A.R.,Dean,W.R.J.andRyan,P.G.(eds),2005.Robert s Birds o Southern Arica,

7th ed.TheTrusteesotheJohnVoelckerBirdBookFund,CapeTown.

Schumann,M.,2004.Integrated Livestock and Predation Management: A Farmers

Guide.CheetahConservationFund,Namibia.

Smithers,R.H.N.1983.Mammals o the Southern Arican Subregion.Universityo

Pretoria,Pretoria.

Walker,Clive.1996.Signs o the Wild.StruikPublishers,CapeTown.


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THE EWT-WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION GROUP (WCPG)

9 THE ENDANGEREDWILDLIFE TRUST(EWT)

Asaleadinghigh-profleplayeramongstthelargenumberandvarietyoconservationorganisations

inSouthArica(governmentalandcivilsociety),theEWTfllsthekeynicheoconservationaction,

throughappliedfeld-work,researchanddirectengagementwithstakeholders.Withspecialist

WorkingGroupsandalargeteamoskilledfeldstadeployedthroughoutsouthernArica,the

EWTsworksupportstheconservationothreatenedspeciesandecosystems.Priorityinterventions

ocusonidentiyingthekeyactorsthreateningbiodiversityanddevelopingmitigatingmeasures

toreduceriskandreversethedriversospeciesextinctionandecosystemdegradation.Througha

broadspectrumopartnershipsandnetworks,theEWTrespondstothekeythreatsdrivingspecies

andecosystemlossbydevelopinginnovativemethodologiesandbestpracticeguidelineswhich

supportreducedimpact,harmoniousco-existenceandsustainablelivingorall.

OUR VISION STATEMENTAhealthyplanetandanequitableworldthatvaluesandsustainsthediversityoalllie

OUR MISSIONTheEndangeredWildlieTrustisdedicatedtoconservingthreatenedspeciesandecosystemsin

southernAricatothebeneftoallpeople.

The Trust aimsto increaseawareness among allthe people o southern Arica. Our unique

magazine,VISION,providesnewsandarticlesontheTrustsactivities,andaperspectiveonArican

conservationissues.TheEWThasproducedseveralinormationbookletsincludingPredators and

Farmers, Eagles and Farmers, Cranes and Farmers and Vultures and Farmers. PleasecontacttheEWTiyourequireurtherinormationaboutobtainingtheseproducts.

TheEndangeredWildlieTrust

PrivateBagX11,PARKVIEW,2122

Tel:(011)486-1102Fax:(011)486-1506

Website:www.ewt.org.za

E-mail:[email protected]

THE ENDANGERED WILDLIFE TRUST (EWT)

10 THE EWT-WILDLIFE CONFLICTPREVENTION

GROUP (WCPG)

TheEndangeredWildlie TrustsWildlie ConictPreventionGroupocuseson mitigating and

resolvinghuman-wildlie conict situations byassistingwithand promotingresponsibleand

holisticmanagementinareassuchasvegetation,animalhealth,pesticides,urbanandwildlieand

human-wildlieconicts.

Wildlieconict preventionis amajor concernand theproductiono thisrevised editiono

Predators and Farmersaims toassistarmersand landownersinthe correctidentifcationo

predatoryanimalsand theadoption o responsible holistic human-wildlieconictmethods

topreventtheindiscriminateandunethicalpersecutionoanimalscausingeconomiclossesin

agro-ecosystems.

The aim othisWorkingGroup isthereoreto protect all elementso wildliein southern

Aricathroughmitigatingandresolvinghuman-wildlieconictsituationsbyassistingarmers,

landowners,communitiesandthepublicintakingproactiveandresponsiblemeasurestoavoidor

reduceconict.

Inaddition,thegroupkeepsadatabaseopoisonincidentsandproducesamonthlynewsletter

calledAnitdote.TheWildlieConictPreventionGroupenjoyscloseco-operationwithresearch

centres, universities,and the chemicalindustry, andany individualswith specifc queries or

problemsarewelcometocallormoreinormationandadvice.

TheWildlieConictPreventionGroup

PrivateBagX11

PARKVIEW

2122

Tel:(011)486-1102

Fax:(011)486-1506



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0 1THE EWT-BIRDS OF PREY WORKING GROUP (BoPWG)

11 THE EWT-CARNIVORECONSERVATIONGROUP (CCG)

TheCarnivoreConservationGroupwasormedin1995,withthevisiontomakesouthernAricaa

regionwherecarnivoresaremanagedinanecologicallyandeconomicallysustainablemanner,ree

romirrationalandunnecessarypersecution.Thisisachievedbyconductingresearchoncarnivores

withspecialemphasisonthoseaspectsthatwillimprovetheirconservationstatusthroughthe

implementationosoundmanagementstrategies.Pastandpresentprojectshaveocussedona

widevarietyocarnivorespeciesincludingBrownHyaena,AricanWildDog,Black-ootedCat,

Cheetah,HoneyBadger,Lion,andAricanWildCat.

TheCCGhasplayeda pivotalroleinanumberonationalstakeholderbodiesconcernedwith

carnivoreconservationinSouthAricaincludingtheWildDogAdvisoryGroup(WAG),theSouthAricanNationalLeopardForum(SALF)andtheNationalCheetahConservationForum(NCCF).

FormoreinormationabouttheactivitiesotheCCGpleasecontact:

TheCarnivoreConservationGroup

PrivateBagX11

PARKVIEW

2122

Telephone:(011)486-1102

Fax:(011)486-1506


THE EWT-CARNIVORE CONSERVATION GROUP (CCG)

12 THE EWT-BIRDS OF PREYWORKING GROUP

(BoPWG)

TheEndangeredWildlieTrustsBirdsoPreyWorkingGroupocusesontheconservationodiurnal

andnocturnalraptors,vultures,andtheirhabitats.

OUR MISSIONToaction,supportandcoordinateconservationprojectsornocturnalanddiurnalraptorsand

vulturesinsouthernAricaandtoachievemeasurableresultsthroughconsideredandinormed

implementationstrategies.

OUR OBJECTIVES

TocombinetheeortsoallindividualsandorganisationsinterestedinorassociatedwithraptorandvultureconservationinsouthernAricainordertostrengthenconservation

eorts.

Toidentiygapsintheconservationobirdsopreyandtheirhabitats,andtoimplement

relevantprojectsinordertofllthesegaps.

Tosetachievableandmeasurablegoalsoreachprojectundertaken,andtomanagethe

achievementothesegoals,keepinginmindthebiggerconservationpicture.

TheBirdsoPreyWorkingGroup

PrivateBagX11PARKVIEW

Tel:(011)486-1102

Fax:(011)486-1506



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13 USEFUL CONTACTS

SOLUTIONS

Anatolian Herd DogsCyrilStannardTel:(049)8421113

Dead Stop Collar

KlaasLouwCell:0724247752

King CollarGrayKingTel:(046)6859645

Protect-A-LambEddieSteenkampTel:(022)7231842

SMS Warning SystemPhillipLotterTel:(028)2123346

FORUMS/TRUSTS

Cape Leopard TrustQuintonMartinsTel:(027)4822785

National Cheetah Conservation Forumc/oKellyMarnewickE-mail:[email protected]

Rare and Endangered Species Trust (REST)P.O.Box178,Otjiwarongo,Namibia,9000Tel:(0026467)306226E-mail:[email protected]:www.restarica.org

South Arican Leopard Forumc/oEndangeredWildlieTrustTel:(011)4861102

Wild Dog Advisory Group (SA)c/oEndangeredWildlieTrustTel:(011)4861102Website:www.ewt.org.za/wag/

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

CapeNatureP.OBox26,Porterville,6810Tel:(022)9312900Fax:(022)9312913Websit

predators and farmers book

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