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2015
International E - Publication www.isca.me, www.isca.co.in
Preface to the 6th
National Conference
The Department of Engineering Sciences, MIT Academy of Engineering, Alandi, Pune has organized
the 6th National Conference on ‘Multidisciplinary Research in Science and Engineering (NCMRSE-
2015)’ on 5th-6
th June, 2015. From the excellent response that the earlier Conferences received and
the enthusiasm shown by the participants, we are encouraged to make it a regular feature and hold it
periodically.
Engineering and Applied Sciences are not only scientifically rich subjects; they also possess
extensive range of applications in many other fields such as: Engineering, Industry, Medical Sciences,
Ecology, Economics and Finance, Military Applications, Technology, and many others. It is almost
impossible to conceive of a quantitative discipline in which Engineering sciences do not play a
fundamental role.
As our duty to be well positioned to steer our students toward improving their education and learning,
this conference aims to advance the Applied Sciences through presentation of original
multidisciplinary research articles in almost all disciplines of Engineering. The main objective of this
conference is to provide impetus and motivation for further research work and directions for
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research. We aim at bringing together academicians,
researchers and people using multidisciplinary sciences in industry and elsewhere, to share their
knowledge and exchange views and ideas. This will facilitate to discuss future prospects in the field of
engineering applications. The general objective is to create awareness among the teachers about the
beauty of various real life and Industrial applications of engineering & applied Sciences.
We are happy to present the ‘Proceedings of NCMRSE-2015’, bearing ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1. Out
of total 68 research articles received, this proceeding contains 16 selected, modified, reviewed and
edited research articles presented at the Conference. All selected articles have been checked for
plagiarism. We are happy to communicate that total 70 participants have participated comprising of 54
oral presentation which also includes eight international participants and one visually impaired
participant.
We are thankful to all the participants, chairmen of the sessions and invited speakers for their
contributions. Our thanks are also due to session referees who have evaluated and selected papers
in two categories for best paper award.
We also gratefully acknowledge the contributions from all those who participated in various ways
directly or indirectly to make this Conference a great success.
My special thanks to our Executive Director Dr. Sunil Karad and Principal, Dr. Y. J. Bhalerao for their
wholehearted support and continuous encouragement for promoting & strengthening interdisciplinary
research at MIT AOE.
On behalf of the organizing committee,
Dr. S. M. Khairnar Convener NCMRSE-2015
International E - Publication 427, Palhar Nagar, RAPTC, VIP-Road, Indore-452005 (MP) INDIA
Phone: +91-731-2616100, Mobile: +91-80570-83382
E-mail: [email protected], Website:www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in
6th National Conference on Multidisciplinary Research in Science and
Engineering (NCMRSE)-2015, 5th-6th June, 2015
Organised by:
MIT Academy of Engineering,
Alandi (D), Pune-412105
© Copyright Reserved
2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, reordering or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1
CONTENTS
S.No. Author(s) Title of research paper Page nos.
1 B. Patidar, M. M. Hussain, A.
P. Tiwari
Analytical And Numerical Validation Of Coil
And Work Piece Parameters In Induction
Heating Process
1-11
2 V.A.Tarange, A.M.Kotha, P
R Thakur
Glycidyl Methacrylate-Divinyl Benzene
Polymeric Adsorbents For Removal Of O-
Cresol From Aqueous Solution
12-20
3 Mrs. Sarika Dinesh Patil,
Sumant G Kadwane
Selective Harmonic Reduction Technique For
A Multilevel Inverter Using Optimization
Approach
21-31
4 V.S. Jagadale, Prof. Dr. P.G.
Gaikwad
Optimisation Of Stockyard Layout In Concrete
Product Industry
32-36
5 Andhare Vipul, Mahajan
Prathamesh, Panzade Amol,
Joshi Apurv
A Survey On Link Prediction Using Temporal
Approach
37-46
6 Dhananjay Bhole Issues Of Persons With Disabilities And
Accessibility Standards Implementation
47-50
7 Ishwar Khuspe, Dr. M. V.
Bhatkar
Cost Effective Street Lights Monitoring
System (Cesmos)
51-62
8 Priya Francis, S.V. Ghaisas Li Intercalation Process In
Si10h15/Monovacancy Graphene Monolayer
Composite - Implications Towards Li-Ion
Batteries
63-70
9 Sonawane D. S., Hiwarekar
A. P., Dhanorkar G. A.
Honey Bees Have Geometrical Sense: A
Mathematical Approach
71-77
10 Saikat Ghosh, Dr. Amaresh
Kumar
Impact Of Quality Management On
Macroeconomic Variables
78-89
11 Sanket Garade, Prof. Dr.
Rajiv B.
Design And Development Of Computer
Controlled Electro-Mechanical Mount For
Maneuvering An Astronomical Telescope
90-96
12 Selva Hepshibha, Dr. P.P. GaN Scintillator Detector Characterization 97-104
Vaidya Simulation Geant4 Software And Voltage Pre-
Amplifier Simulation
13 S. D. Katore, R. S. Rane, S.
S. Dabhane
Proper Homothetic Vector Field For Maximal
Symmetric Transverse Spaces
105-107
14 P.V. Bhamare, Dr. Rajiv B,
Mr. B. N. Sadavarte
Poka-Yoke Auto Checking System For B-
Pillar Assembly Component
108-117
15 Aatray Kumar Singh Proteo: A New Approach To Network-On-Chip 118-127
16 Abhijit B. Dalvi FinFET Technology: A Review 128-133
Proceedings of 6th National Conference on Multidisciplinary Research in Science & Engineering, MIT AOE Alandi, Pune, 5-6 June 2015 ,pp. 1-11, ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1
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ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL VALIDATION OF COIL AND WORK PIECE PARAMETERS IN INDUCTION
HEATING PROCESS
B. PATIDAR1, M. M. HUSSAIN1, A. P. TIWARI2 1Atomic Fuels Division
2Reactor Control Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai
Abstract
In this paper, induction coil and work piece parameters are calculated by analytical and numerical methods at different frequency. In analytical method, induction coil and workpiece are represented by using series equivalent circuit (SEC). In analytical formulation, Nagaoka factors are used to accurately predict the coil equivalent impedance and work piece power. Workpiece resistance and reactance are calculated by using Bessel’s functions. In numerical method, magnetic vector potential formulation and finite element method are used to calculate the magnetic field and other parameters related to induction coil and workpiece. Analytically and numerically calculated parameters are compared and found that they are in good agreement. This analysis can be applied for design and optimization of induction coil for forging and melting applications.
Key Words: induction heating, FEM, coil design
1. INTRODUCTION
Induction heating is based on faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. It is widely utilized in
industries for heating, melting, forging, welding, hardening etc, because of its good efficiency and
cleanliness [1], [2]. Induction heating is multiphysics process and it involves electromagnetic, heat
transfer and fluid dynamics. All the physics are tightly coupled with each other, which makes
difficult to design the induction coil for specific application. Induction coil design involves selection
and optimization of various parameters like coil diameter, coil tube diameter, no of turn, coil pitch,
coil current, frequency etc.
Induction coil design and optimization can be done either by analytical method or numerical
method [3]. In analytical method, induction coil resistance and reactance are calculated by
empirical formulas and work piece resistance and reactance are calculated by solving field
2 B.Patidar, M.M. Hussain, A.P.Tiwari
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equation using series solution method. Nagaoka correction factors are used to accurately calculate
workpiece power and magnetic field produced by the induction coil [4].
In numerical method, magnetic vector potential formulation is used to calculate the magnetic
field surrounding the induction coil. It requires less computation compared to magnetic field
formulation [5]. Magnetic vector potential equations are solved by using finite element method
(FEM). FEM solution is used to calculate the coil and workpiece parameters.
This paper is subdivided into following sections, section 1.1, gives brief introduction to induction
heating process. Section 1.2, describes the analytical formulation used for calculation of
induction coil and work piece parameters. Section 1.3, gives the numerical method details and
procedure used for calculation of work piece and coil parameters. Section 2, gives the
comparison and analysis of analytical and numerical results. Conclusion of the analysis is given
in section 3.
1.1. Induction heating process
In induction heating process, induction coil carries high frequency current and produces time
varying magnetic field. This time varying magnetic field generates eddy current in the
conducting object (workpiece) placed near to the coil as shown in the figure (1). Eddy current
heats the workpiece by joules effect. In most of the induction heating process, work piece
placed inside the induction coil, because of high magnetic flux density.
R'w
Xg
Xc X'w
VL
ICICIC
Rc
Dc
dc
Sc
Dw
lclw
Refractory
Copper Induction Coil
Graphite Billet
z
r
Figure 1(a) 2-D geometry of induction coil and workpiece. 1(b). Series equivalent circuit of
Coil and workpiece
1.2. Analytical formulation
Induction heating process can be analyzed by series equivalent circuit (SEC) or transformer
equivalent circuit (TEC) [6]. In this paper, SEC technique is used. SEC analysis is based on
Analytical and Numerical Validation of Coil and Work-Piece Parameters in Induction Heating Process
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magnetic flux division between induction coil, air gap and workpiece. Based on magnetic flux
division, there are three reactance’s i.e. coil reactance, air gap reactance and workpiece reactance
[7]. Series equivalent circuit of induction heating process is shown in the figure 1(b).SEC
parameters are calculated by using following analytical formulas [4],
Coil resistance (1)
Space factor (2)
Here,
ρ=Resistivity of coil material (Ω-m)
kr= Space factor
Nc= No of turn
= Skin depth (m) in coil
= Coil inner diameter (m)
lc= coil length(m)
=Inter turn air gap (m)
Coil reactance XC=RC, for (δc<0.5tc) (3)
Here,
tc=Coil tube thickness(m)
Air gap reactance
Air gap reactance is most dominating reactance in induction heating process, and that
is minimized by reducing air gap between workpiece and induction coil. Air gap reactance
is calculated by Eq (4),
(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
Here,
dw = work piece diameter(m)
µ0= Air permeability(4πx10-7 H/m)
kn*= frequency dependent correction factor
kn= Short coil correction factor
= Skin depth (m) in workpiece
Workpiece resistance and reactance
4 B.Patidar, M.M. Hussain, A.P.Tiwari
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Workpiece resistance and reactance are calculated by using Bessel functions that gives
more accurate results compared to standard formulas. Workpiece resistance and reactance
are calculated by using following formulas,
Work piece resistance (5.1)
Work piece inductive reactance (5.2)
(6.1)
(6.2)
(6.3)
Here,
=dimensionless reference depth
Correction factor accounting for the average phase shift between
current and voltage in the work piece
ber, ber’, bei, bei’= real and imaginary parts of zero order modified Kelvin Bessel
functions and their derivatives.
Combination of eq (1), (3), (4.1), (5.1), (5.2) gives the equivalent circuit impedance,
(7)
Voltage across induction coil
(8)
Here,
Ic= coil current (A)
Power loss in induction coil helps to find out the cooling requirements to maintain coil
temperature below 303 Deg K. It is calculated by
eq (9),
(9)
Power induced in the workpiece is calculated by using eq (10),
(10)
1.3. Finite Element formulation of Electromagnetic Field
Electromagnetic field produced by induction coil can be represented by maxwell equations
[8]. Maxwell equations are combination of four laws i.e gauss law, gauss magnetism law,
faraday law of induction, and ampere law as shown below,
(11.1)
Analytical and Numerical Validation of Coil and Work-Piece Parameters in Induction Heating Process
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(11.2)
(11.3)
(11.4)
Here, H:- Magnetic field strength (A/m)
E: - Electric field strength (V/m)
σ: - Electrical conductivity (S/m)
J= Current density (A/m2)
Induced current density is much higher than displacement current density, therefore,
displacement current density is neglected [1].
Magnetic vector potential is defined as,
(12)
Using eq(11.3),(11.4) & vector identity, magnetic vector potential of different domain of the
figure (2) can be written as,
Ω1, Ω4 (13.1)
Ω2 (13.2)
Ω3 (13.3)
Figure 2, 2D axisymmetric geometry of induction coil and workpiece
For 2D axisymmetric geometry and in cylindrical coordinate, eq (13.1) can be written as,
(14)
Here,
θ, z,r= Cylindrical coordinate
6 B.Patidar, M.M. Hussain, A.P.Tiwari
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Aθ= θ Component of the magnetic vector potential (V.sec/m)
ω=Angular frequency (Rad/sec)
Finite element method (FEM) is used to solve the eq (14). FEM converts PDE into set of
algebraic equations in matrix [9] form as shown below,
(15)
Here, [K] = Stiffness matrix
[H]= Mass matrix
{A}= Magnetic vector Potential
{J}= Electrical current density
Eq (15) is solved by using suitable boundary conditions and forcing function. Once, magnetic
vector potential is determined, then other quantities such as coil and work piece equivalent
resistance, reactance, workpiece power, coil inductance, surface magnetic field etc are
computed.
Simulation
Simulation is done by using FEM based multiphysics software. Programming and simulation
are done in three steps i.e. preprocessing, processing and post processing [10], as shown in
the figure 3,
Geometry preparation
Materials and Their properties
Pre processing Boundary conditions and forcing function
Meshing
Processing Solution
Calculate other variables Post processing
Analytical and Numerical Validation of Coil and Work-Piece Parameters in Induction Heating Process
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Figure 3. Programming steps for simulation
2. MAIN RESULTS
Induction coil and workpiece dimensions and physical properties are given in table I and table
II respectively. These dimension and properties are used to calculate coil and workpiece
parameters both analytically and numerically. Table III gives the boundary condition and
forcing function used for solving equation (15) using FEM based multiphysics software,
Table-I. Workpiece dimension and properties
Sr. No. Work Piece Description
1. Material Graphite
2. Outer Diameter 160 mm
3. Height 180 mm
4. Electrical Conductivity at 2930K 1.42653X105 S/m
5. Electric permittivity 1
6. Magnetic permeability 1
Table-II Induction coil dimensions and properties
Sr.No. Induction coil Description
1. Material Copper
2. Inside diameter 215mm
3. Outside diameter 247mm
4. Height 200mm
5. Coil tube diameter 16mm
6. Coil tube thickness 2mm
7. No. of turn 9
8. Electrical conductivity at 2930K 5.8X107 S/m
9. Electric permittivity 1
10. Magnetic permeability 1
Table-III Boundary condition and forcing function
8 B.Patidar, M.M. Hussain, A.P.Tiwari
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Sr.No. Boundary condition Description
1. Outer boundary A=0
2. Asymmetry axis
3 Induction coil current 770 A
Figure 4(a), shows the geometry used for the simulation. Trigular elements are used for
domain discretization. Mesh density is refined at the surface of induction coil and work piece,
because of skin effect as shown in figure 4 (b). Figure 4 (c) also shows that magnetic flux
density is maximum at surface of workpiece, and it decays towards the centre of the
workpiece.
Figure 4(a) geometry (b) Meshing (c) Magnetic flux density (Bz) at 5 kHz
Figure 5(a), (b), (c) and (d) show the comparison of induction coil and workpiece resistance,
reactance, inductance and power calculated by analytical and numerical methods at different
frequency. From figure (5), it is observed that Analytical and numerical results are in good
agreement. The difference between analytical and numerical results is due to assumptions taken in
analytical method to simplify the mathematical calculations. Following assumptions are taken in
analytical method,
Air gap magnetic flux is constant.
Analytical and Numerical Validation of Coil and Work-Piece Parameters in Induction Heating Process
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No end/edge effect.
Magnetic field and electric field on surface of work piece are assumed constant.
During induction heating simulation following points need to be remembered for minimization of
error:
Minimum size of elements in induction coil and workpiece shall be less than penetration
depth.
External domain size shall be more than 10 times of induction coil. Small External domain
creates more reluctance to the magnetic flux path and gives error in numerically calculated
coil and workpiece parameters.
Current is used as forcing function to accurately calculate the mmf generated by the
induction coil.
0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 160.0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Rea
cta
nce
eq(O
hm
)
Frequency(kHz)
Analytical
Numerical
0 4 6 8 10 12 14 160.00
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
Resi
stan
ce e
q(o
hm
)
Frequency(kHz)
Analytical
Numerical
(a) (b)
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0 4 6 8 10 12 14 160
7.87.98.08.18.28.38.48.58.68.78.88.9
Ind
ucta
nce(µ
H)
Frequency(kHz)
Numerical
Analytical
0 4 6 8 10 12 14 160
20
30
40
50
Work
pie
ce p
ow
er(k
W)
Frequency(kHz)
Numerical
Analytical
(c) (d)
Figure 5 Comparison of analytical and numerical results (a) coil and workpiece equivalent
reactance, (b) coil and workpiece equivalent resistance (c) coil and workpiece equivalent
inductance, (d) work piece power
Figure (6) shows the induction coil and workpiece power calculated by analytical formulas at
different frequency. Figure (7) shows the voltage required in circular and rectangular induction
coil tube for same workpiece power. From figure (7), it is observed that, in rectangular coil tube,
less voltage is required compared to circular coil tube. This is due to the more coupling
between induction coil and workpiece in rectangular coil tube.
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 160
5
6
7
8
9
10
Coil power
Wo
rk
pie
ce p
ow
er(k
W)
Coil
pow
er(k
W)
Frequency(kHz)
0
25
30
35
40
45
50 Workpiece power
0 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 160
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Co
il V
olt
ag
e (V
)
Frequency(kHz)
Circular coil tube
Rectangular coil tube
Figure (6). Coil and workpiece power, Figure (7). Coil voltage for circular and rectangular
coil tube,
Analytical and Numerical Validation of Coil and Work-Piece Parameters in Induction Heating Process
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3. CONCLUSIONS
Analytical and numerical validation of coil and workpiece parameters in induction heating
process was carried out successfully. Analytical results are in good agreement with numerical
results. This analysis can be used to design and optimize the induction coil for different
industrial application like forging, melting etc. This study also helps for tuning of induction coil
with high frequency power source.
4. REFERENCES
[1]. Valery Rudnev, Don loveless, Raymond Cook, Micah Black, “Handbook of Induction heating”,
INDUCTOHEAT,Inc., Madison Heights,Michigan,U.S.A.
[2]. E.J Davies and P.G. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook. McGraw Hill, 1979.
[3]. Mark William Kennedy, Shahid Akhtar, Jon Arne Bakken,, Ragnhild E.Aune, “ Analytical and
FEM modeling of aluminum billet induction heating with experimental verification”, TMS( The
mineral, Metals & Materials Society),2012
[4]. Mark William Kennedy, Shahid Akhtar, Jon Arne Bakken,, Ragnhild E.Aune, “Review of Classical
Design Methods as applied to aluminum billet heating with induction coils”, EPD congress, San
Diego, California, February 27-March 3(2011),702-722.
[5]. Andrzej Krawczyk, John A. Tegopoulos, “Numerical modeling of eddy current,” Oxford science
publications, P-17.
[6].Lisiate Takau, Pat Bodger, “Low frequency modeling of induction heater using series equivalent
circuit, transformer equivalent circuit, and finite element analysis”, Australasian universities power
engineering conference, AUPEC 2013.Hobart,TAS, Australia,29 September-3 October 02013, p-1-6.
[7]. R.Baker, “Design & calculation of induction heating coil”, AIEE Trans, 57, (1957), 31-40.
[8]. C Chabodez, S Clain, R.Glardon,D, D Mari, J.Rappaz, M. Swierkosz, “Numerical modeling in
induction heating for axisymmetric geometries”, IEEE transactions on Magnetics.Vol33, No.1
January 1997, P 739-745.
[9]. Sheppard J.Salon,” Finite element analysis of electrical machine”, Springer international edition,
2009.
[10]. Ion Carstea, Daniela Carstea, Alexandru Adrian Carstea, “A domain decomposition approach
for coupled field in induction heating device,” 6th WEEAS international conference on system
science and simulation in engineering, Venice, Italy, November 21-23, 2007, P63-70
Proceedings of 6th National Conference on Multidisciplinary Research in Science & Engineering, MIT AOE
Alandi, Pune, 5-6 June 2015, pp.12-20, ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1
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GLYCIDYL METHACRYLATE-DIVINYL BENZENE
POLYMERIC ADSORBENTS FOR REMOVAL OF O-
CRESOL FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION
V.A.TARANGE1, A.M.KOTHA2*, P R THAKUR3 1 Department of Chemical Engineering MITAoE Alandi (D) Pune 412105 2 Department of Engineering Sciences MITAoE Alandi (D) Pune 412105
3 Department of Chemistry SPPU Pune 411007
Abstract
Phenol & phenolic derivatives like o-cresol proves to be a toxic chemical in wastewater. Phenolic contaminants are found in wastewater of various industries such as petroleum refining, textiles, iron and steel manufacturing, paper and pulp manufacturing etc. It is very important to remove phenols and aromatic compounds from contaminated water before discharge into any natural water because of their toxicity to aquatic organisms and eventually to human beings. Majority of phenols & phenolic derivatives are toxic substances in the form of hazardous wastes and suspended carcinogens.
Conventional processes for removal of phenols from industrial waters includes extraction, adsorption on activated carbon, electrochemical techniques, bacterial and chemical oxidation etc. All of these methods suffer from serious shortcomings such as high costs, incompleteness of purification, low efficiency, and formation of hazardous by-products.
Alternative methods of removal of different phenols from waste water have been explored in the present investigation. Removal of phenol from aqueous solutions is being done by using porous, cross linked polymeric resins of high surface area and porosity. Several resins based glycidyl methacrylate cross linked with divinyl benzene are synthesized and have been used for adsorption of phenols like o-cresol from waste water.
Key Words: polymeric adsorbents, adsorption kinetics, Phenolic derivatives, waste water
treatment
1. INTRODUCTION
Phenol and its derivatives are contaminants found in the waste water generated by several
industries1,2 such as paper and pulp, textiles, plastic manufacturing plants ,synthetic rubbers,
Glycidyl methacrylate-Divinyl benzene polymeric adsorbents for removal of o-cresol from
aqueous solution
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pharmaceuticals etc. Phenol concentration in the waste waters is known to range from 100 to
1000 mg/L to even 2-3 %3. Phenols are considered as prime pollutants as they are harmful at
even very low concentrations. It is therefore imperative to remove these contaminants before
discharge into natural water bodies due to their toxicity to aquatic environment and eventually to
human beings.
Conventional processes for the removal of phenols include biological degradation, chemical
oxidation, solvent extraction, incineration and many more. Adsorption methods4-,8 have also
been reported for removal of contaminants especially on activated carbons and other natural
adsorbents9-12.
Adsorption of phenol has proved to be one of the most effective techniques for removal of
phenols because of the its ease of operation, simplicity of design, regeneration and reusability
of the adsorbents for many cycles of phenol removal and no formation of harmful by products.
In comparison with conventional adsorbents, polymers are seen to be very effective due to the
fact that their porosity and surface area can be tailored and the polymers and also be easily
functionalized.
The objective of the current study was to synthesize novel polymeric adsorbents based on
glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) cross linked with Divinyl benzene (DVB) of varying porosity and
surface area for efficient removal of phenol.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Materials
The monomers Glycidyl methacrylate and Divinyl benzene were obtained from Sisco Research
Laboratories, Mumbai and Aldrich Chemical Co respectively. Cyclohexanol was procured from
Loba Chemie, Mumbai and Azo bis (isobutyro nitrile) and Poly vinyl alcohol from Himedia
Laboratories.
2.2 Synthesis of polymeric adsorbents
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The porous GMA-DVB copolymers were synthesized by suspension polymerization by varying
the amount of cross linking monomer as described previously13. Three polymeric adsorbents
GD100, GD 150 and GD 200 were synthesized by varying the amount of cross linking
monomer, DVB.
2.3 Determination of adsorption capacity of the polymeric adsorbents
Batch adsorption experiments were carried out by contacting the polymeric adsorbent with o-
cresol of initial concentration of 4 mmol/L to reach equilibrium at 30 °C. 1 g of dry adsorbent was
added to 100mL solution of o-cresol. The solution was shaken continuously for 24 hours to
attain equilibrium. 2 mL aliquots were sampled from the flasks at regular time intervals to
determine the adsorption kinetics. The residual concentration of –cresol was determined by UV
spectrophotometer by measuring the adsorption of o-cresol solution at 271 nm.
3. RESULTS
The adsorption of o-cresol on the three polymers at 271 nm are presented in Figure 1
Figure 1: Adsorption of o-cresol on polymeric adsorbents GD 100, GD 150, GD 200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 20 40 60 80
Am
ou
nt
Ad
sorb
ed
X 1
0-3
m
ol/
L
Time min
GD 100
GD 150
GD 2000
1
2
3
4
5
6
GD100 GD150 GD200
Am
ou
nt
O-C
reso
l Ad
sorb
ed
Adsorbents
10 min
20min
30min
60min
Glycidyl methacrylate-Divinyl benzene polymeric adsorbents for removal of o-cresol from
aqueous solution
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It is seen that adsorption of o-cresol is rapid initially and becomes slower near equilibrium.
Almost complete adsorption of o-cresol takes place in the first 30 minutes in case of all three
adsorbents. The o-cresol adsorption capacity was found to be maximum on GD 200 as seen in
Figure 1b. After one hour of contact with the adsorbents the amount of o-cresol removed from
aqueous solution by GD 100, GD 150 and GD 200 was 96, 92 and 97 percent respectively.
Table 1 lists some characteristics of the polymeric adsorbents. The surface area and pore
volume measurements of the adsorbents are indicated. It can be seen that as the amount of
cross linking monomer in the polymer increases the surface area and pore volume are also
found to increase.
Adsorbent Surface Area
(m2/g)
Pore volume
(cm3/g)
GD100 173 0.24
GD150 199 0.30
GD200 301 0.35
Table 1: Surface area and pore volume values of the three adsorbents
The SEM micrographs in Figure 3 represent the porous beaded nature of the polymers.
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Figure 3: SEM micrographs of the adsorbents a) GD 100 b) GD150 c) GD 200
Kinetic Studies
The adsorption dynamic curve of o-cresol onto GD 200 was studied at 303K. Kinetic models
were used to determine the rate of the adsorption process. Two kinetic models were used to
investigate the adsorption process i.e. pseudo first order and pseudo second order. Three
different initial concentrations of o-cresol were used.
0
0.000005
0.00001
0.000015
0.00002
0.000025
0.00003
0.000035
0 50 100 150
qe
mo
l /g
time in min
0
0.00001
0.00002
0.00003
0.00004
0.00005
0.00006
0.00007
0 100 200
q (
mo
l/g)
Time in min
q mol /g
0
0.00002
0.00004
0.00006
0.00008
0 50 100 150
q (
mo
l/g)
Time min
q(mol/g)versus t
q(mol/g)
Glycidyl methacrylate-Divinyl benzene polymeric adsorbents for removal of o-cresol from
aqueous solution
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Figure 4: o-cresol adsorption kinetics onto GD 200 at initial concentration of a) 0.0002M b)
0.0004M and c) 0.0005M at 303 K
The figure 4 shows that equilibrium can be reached around 150 min for adsorption of o-cresol
onto GD 200 polymer. Both pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models were
used to correlate the adsorption data. The pseudo first order kinetic equation can be expressed
as:
log (qe-q) = log qe – (k1/2.303) t
where ‘qe’ is the amount of solute adsorbed at equilibrium per unit mass of adsorbent, ‘q’ is the
amount of solute adsorbed at any given time ‘t’ and k1 is the rate constant. A plot of log (qe-q) is
made versus time t to give a straight line as shown in Figure 2.
The pseudo second order kinetic model is given as:
(t/q) = (1/k2qe2) + (t/qe)
where k2qe2 is known as initial sorption rate where ‘k2’ is rate constant. The plot of t/q versus t at
different adsorption parameters will give a linear relationship, which allows for computation of
‘qe’ and ‘k2’ as shown in Figure 3
The values of qe ,k1 and k2 are calculated from the slope and intercept of the curves
represented in Fig 2, Fig and Fig 4 for the three different initial concentrations of o-cresol
solutions. The values are shown in Table 2
y = -0.021x - 4.292R² = 0.848
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
0 50 100 150
log(q
e-q
)
time(min)
y = 27302x + 86884R² = 0.974
0.00E+00
1.00E+06
2.00E+06
3.00E+06
4.00E+06
0 50 100 150
t/q
time(min)
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Figure 5: Curve for a ) Pseudo first order kinetic model b) second order kinetic model for initial
concentration 0.0002 M at 303 K
Figure 6: Curve for Curve for a ) Pseudo first order kinetic model b) second order kinetic model
for initial concentration 0.0004M at 303 K
Figure 7: Curve for a) Pseudo first order kinetic model b) second order kinetic model for initial
concentration 0.0005 M at 303 K
y = -0.004x -4.533
R² = 0.780-5.4
-5.2
-5
-4.8
-4.6
-4.4
-4.2
0 100 200
log(
qe
-q)
time (min)
Log(qe-q) versus t
Log(qe-q)
Linear (Log(qe-q))
y = 15644x + 21570
R² = 0.997
0
1000000
2000000
3000000
4000000
0 100 200
t/q
time (min)
t/q versus t
t/q
Linear (t/q)
y = -0.004x -
4.292R² = 0.873-5
-4.8
-4.6
-4.4
-4.2
-4
0 100 200
log(
qe
-q)
time(min)
Log(qe-q) versus t
Log(qe-q)
Linear (Log(qe-q))
y = 11935x + 26639
R² = 0.996
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
0 100 200
t/q
time(min)
t/q versus t
t/q
Linear (t/q)
Glycidyl methacrylate-Divinyl benzene polymeric adsorbents for removal of o-cresol from
aqueous solution
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Initial
concn
(M)
Pseudo first order kinetic model Pseudo second order kinetic
model
Experimental
values of qe(mol/g)
after 24 hours
qe(mol/g) k1(min-1) R2 qe(mol/g) k2(litre/
mol min)
R2
0.0002 5.105 x 10-5 0.04836 0.848 3.66 x 10-5 8592.07 0.974 2.8x 10-5
0.0004 2.93 x 10-5 0.00921 0.780 6.39 x 10-5 11346.0 0.997 6.7x10-5
0.0005 5.10 x 10-5 0.0092 0.873 8.37 x 10-5 5347.2 0.996 8.6x10-5
Table 3: Values of qe, k1& k2 for different initial concentrations of o-cresol
Thus, from the above results we see that the adsorption of o-cresol onto GD 200 can be
approximated more favorably by the pseudo second order model than the pseudo first order
model. Also, adsorption equilibrium is seen to be reached even with a contact time around 150
min.
4. CONCLUSION
From the current study we can conclude that o-cresol can be effectively removed from aqueous
phase by GD polymers. Out of the three polymeric adsorbents prepared, GD200 shows the best
performance with 96.76% removal, followed by GD100 with 96.5% removal and GD150 with
92% removal in 60 minutes respectively. Also, the pseudo second order kinetic model fits the
adsorption process reasonably.
REFERENCES
1. A Dabrowski, P.Podkoscielny, Z. Hubicki, Chemosphere, 58, 1049-1070, 2005
20 V.A.Tarange, A.M.Kotha, P R Thakur
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2. A.Y. Dursun, C.S. Kalayci, J. Hazard. Mater. B123, 151-157, 2005
3. L.Boyadzhiev, S. Alexandrova, Sep. Sci. Technol, 1992, 27, 1307 Adsorption techniques
4. Wang R.C.; Kuo, C. C.; Shyu, C.C. J.Chem Technol., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1993, 41, 572
5. M. Ahmaruzzaman, D.K.Sharma, J.Colloid Interface Sci. 287, 14, 2005
6. M. Ahmaruzzaman, Adv.Colloid Interface Sci, 143,48, 2008
7. K. Babić, G.H.M. Driessen, A.G.J. van der Ham, A.B. de Haan, J. Chromatogr. A, 1142
(2007), pp. 84–92
8. M. Carmona, A De Lucas, J.L.Valverde, J.F.Rodriguez Chemical Engineering Journal
117,155-160, 2006
9. B.H.Hameed, A.A. Rahman, J. Hazard. Mater. 160,576,2008
10. O. Hamdaoui, E. Naffrechoux J. Hazard. Mater. 147, 381, 2007
11. O. Hamdaoui, E. Naffrechoux J. Hazard. Mater. 147, 401, 2007
12.S.Rengaraj, S.H.Moon, R.Sivabalan, B. Arabindoo, V.Murugesan J. Hazard. Mater. B89 185-
196, 2002
13. A.Kotha, C.R.Rajan, S.Ponrathnam and J.G.Shewale Reactive Polymers 28, 227,
1996.
Proceedings of 6th National Conference on Multidisciplinary Research in Science & Engineering, MIT AOE Alandi, Pune, 5-6 June 2015 ,pp.21-31, ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1
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SELECTIVE HARMONIC REDUCTION TECHNIQUE FOR A MULTILEVEL INVERTER USING OPTIMIZATION
APPROACH
MRS. SARIKA DINESH PATIL1, SUMANT G KADWANE 2 1Department of Electrical Engineering
Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering & Research Nagpur, India
2Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering Nagpur, India
Abstract
A generalized formulation of Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) PWM for Multilevel Inverter is recently formulated in literature which can eliminate a large number of lower order harmonics. Various methods for calculating the firing angles for SHE PWM are known and still research in this area is ongoing. This paper presents a MATLAB based approach for modeling and simulation method suitable for studying SHE methods for researchers to apply them in various applications. In this paper a cascaded 3-Phase, 7- Level, H-bridge Multilevel Inverter using MATLAB/Simulink blocks is presented as a systematic approach for developing the model. The primary contribution of this paper is that the Simulink model developed can also be extended for higher level inverter applications. The proposed Model can generate stepped voltage waveform and can be programmed for a wide range of modulation indices
Key Words: Flexible AC Transmission System, Multilevel Inverter, Power Electronics, Selective Harmonic Elimination, SPWM-Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation 1. INTRODUCTION
Recently Multilevel Inverters are widely used in many industrial applications, where the
requirement is medium voltage and high power. Multilevel Inverter has been widely used for
chemical, oil, and liquefied natural gas plants, water plants, marine propulsion, power generation,
energy transmission, and power-quality devices, FACTS Devices [1-3]. Cascaded H-bridge
converter topology is prominently used and particularly useful for renewable energy and
DSTATCOM applications [4-5], [9]. While in comparison with traditional two-level voltage source
inverters, multilevel inverters have several advantages. The main advantage of multilevel inverter
is that of its stepwise output voltage. This advantage results in higher power quality, lower
switching losses, higher voltage capability moreover it also reduces the cost with transformer less
system at the distribution side. It has low distortion, low dV/dt and can draw input current with very
low distortion, can generate smaller common mode voltage, thus reducing the stress in the motor
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bearings in motor applications, and also it can operate with a lower switching frequency. Desired
output can be obtained from multilevel inverter with several number of dc voltages as inputs. If the
number of levels is increased the output voltage and current waveform approaches to the
sinusoidal waveform. The different topologies, control strategies and modulation techniques used
for Multilevel inverters have been presented in [6-7]. Reference [8] elaborates the industrial
applications of multilevel inverter. Consequently the reduced switching methods with lower
computation cycles are investigated in [10].
The generalized formulation of Selective Harmonic Elimination of multilevel inverter is presented
in literature recently. Half wave symmetry SHE PWM formulation is presented in [11-14], which
describes the formulation of SHE problem based on lower harmonic elimination technique. The
generalized problem for SHE is presented in various papers and nonlinear equations with
advanced computing methods like genetic algorithm, particle swarm optimization, bee algorithm
and bacterial foraging [13-17]. These papers primarily focus on the method of solving the nonlinear
equations but not the exact formulation of SHE problem with MATLAB/Simulink. Reference [20]
gives the MATLAB/Simulink Model of a Single-phase Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System. While
in present paper attempts to formulate the in depth MATLAB/Simulink based simulation of SHE
problem that will help the new researchers to carry out the research for further investigating new
SHE algorithms by spending less time in modeling the SHE problem.
1 REVIEW OF GENERALIZED SHE FOR MULTILEVEL INVERTER
The A multilevel cascade inverter consists a number of H-bridge cells that are connected
in series per phase, and each module requires a separate DC source to generate voltage
levels at the output of inverter.
+Vdc In1, In4 ON
Vout = 0 In1, In3 ON (1)
-Vdc In 2, In3 ON
The switching inputs shown as Si, i=1 to 4 in the Fig. 1 allows obtaining output voltage as per
(1). The H-bridge cells are serially connected over AC outputs to obtain expanded phase voltage
levels and therefore, the total output level is the synthesize of cells output of each H-bridge.
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Cascade Multilevel Inverter (CMLI) is one of the most important topology in the family of multilevel
and multi pulse inverters
Fig.1 Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter
It requires least number of components as compared to diode-clamped and flying
capacitors. The minimum number of levels and the voltage rating of the active devices (IGBTs,
GTOs, power MOSFETs, etc.) are inversely related to each other. More levels in the inverter will
lower the required voltage device rating of individual devices; or looking at it another way, a higher
voltage rating of the devices will enable a fewer minimum number of levels to be used. The
cascaded multilevel inverter consists of a number of H-bridge inverter units with separate dc
source for each unit and is connected in cascade or series as shown in Fig. 1.
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Fig. 2 Output voltage waveform of 7-level Cascaded Multilevel Inverter
The output voltage levels as seen from Fig. 2 of each phase and each line voltage is given
by (2) and (3) respectively.
m = 2s + 1 (2)
Switching devices = 2(m-1) (3)
DC Bus capacitors = (m-1)/2
where ‘s’ is the number of bridges, ‘m’ is the number of levels. The ratio of DC voltage source
naturally affects the output levels of a cascade multilevel inverter. The Fourier series expansion of
the general multilevel stepped output voltage is given in (4), where n is the harmonic number of the
output voltage of inverter.
(4)
Where
The switching angles can be chosen to obtain minimum voltage harmonics. Normally, these
angles are chosen so as to cancel the predominant lower frequency harmonics. The major
difficulty for selective harmonic elimination methods, including the fundamental switching
frequency method and the Virtual Stage PWM method, is to solve the transcendental equations for
switching angles.
To satisfy fundamental voltage and to eliminate 5th and 7th harmonics, three nonlinear equations
are as follows.
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(5)
(6)
(7)
These equations are nonlinear transcendental equations that can be solved by any iterative
method such as the Newton-Raphson method, using genetic algorithms and resultant theory. The
selective harmonic elimination method is also called fundamental switching frequency method
based on the harmonic elimination theory proposed in [18],[19]. This paper presents a multilevel
inverter model with mathematical model for SPWM modulator to minimize THD with
MATLAB/Simulink models as discussed in forthcoming sections.
2 DESCRIPTION OF MODEL FOR CASE STUDY OF 7-LEVEL INVERTER
The primary building blocks in MatLab can be divided into 3 subsystems namely: Reference
Generation, H Bridge Cell and Firing Circuit. The Reference sine wave is generated sine block with
120° displacement for each phase and amplitude as per the modulation index requirement. Fig. 3
shows the main H-bridge cell of one inverter used for implementation of the multilevel inverter. The
full bridge inverter module includes four power switches to form an H-bridge. The basic H
bridge block of inverter in MatLab is one of the fundamental block for building Multilevel cascaded
H bridge inverter.
A multilevel cascade inverter consists a number of H-bridge cells that are connected in
series per phase, and each module requires a separate DC source to generate voltage levels
at the output of inverter. MATLAB/Simulink Model is designed for Three Phase 7-Level Multilevel
Inverter with three different firing angles as θ1, θ2 and θ3.
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Fig. 3 H- Bridge Subsystem
These constant values of firing angles are then compared with the sine wave through
comparator and given to gate pulses of respective switches (IGBT) in H- Bridge Model. For three
phase generation the angles are displaced by 120° in each phase. The corresponding system for
generating firing pulses is shown in Fig. 4. The dead band is not considered in this simulation
model and complementary pulse is fed to the upper and lower switches of each leg of H bridge
inverter. Here sine wave is compared with firing angle θ. We need to calculate the proper values
of θ for evaluating the SHE algorithm. The values of three firing angles are set as θ1 = 12.49o, θ2 =
25.78o and θ3 = 56.14o.
2
G2
1
G1
<=
Relational
Operator2
>=
Relational
Operator1
A
From1
A
From
2
In2
1
In1
Fig. 4 Subsystem for generating firing pulses
Fig. 5 Simulink Model for SHE for 7 level inverter
In Fig. 5 the H-Bridge blocks are connected in series to build a phase for seven level
multilevel inverter and three phases are build to form the entire three phase inverter. The
corresponding firing angles are generated through constants as per the values of θ. Total 3 H-
Bridges per phase are configured in subsystem. The input to the gate pulse of this H-Bridge is
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given through input S1-S4. According to this, stepped waveform is obtained at the output side.
Although the simulation is carried out for 7-Level inverter the number of H-Bridge block can be
added to increase the level as per formula given in (2). The results of this scheme are presented in
section IV.
3 RESULTS
Fig.6 shows the PWM generated for 1-Phase of the multilevel
Inverter fed to each switch of respective H-Bridges connected in series. It is quite evident that
these PWMs combined together results into a 7-Level PWM pattern. The phase voltage of seven
level inverter as per the simulation explained in section 3. is shown in fig.7(a). The DC sources of
12V each are used in the H-Bridge blocks. The results show the step changes of 12V each and
resulting amplitude of V36 amplitude of the phase voltage. In consistent with these results the
magnitude of V72 appears in Line Voltages as shown in
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0.5
1
Time, s
PW
M 1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0.5
1
Time, s
PW
M2
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0.5
1
Time, s
PW
M3
Fig. 6 PWM Pulses for generating H bridge
Fig. 7(b). The different switching angles obtained for modulation index M=0.8 is shown in following
table.
SWITCHING ANGLES
M Switching angles
θ 1 θ 2 θ 3
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0.
8 12.49°
2
5.78°
5
6.14°
Also these results are obtained through Newton Raphson algorithm taking initial guess from
Bee algorithm [16] . The results are very close to the results of Bee algorithm. Table I shows the
switching angle for modulation Index M = 0.8. Whereas Table II shows the contents of lower order
harmonics and % of THD .
% OF HARMONICS
M Harmonics
0.
8
h 3 h 5 h 7
THD
0.68%
0
.53%
0
.48%
1
2.51%
designed as per Bee algorithm taken from [16].The corresponding harmonics order in Bar
Graph and List is obtained in Fig.7(c).
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
-100
-50
0
50
100
Time, sec
Ph
ase
Vo
lta
ge
, V
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2-40
-20
0
20
40
Time, sec
Lin
e V
olta
ge
, V
(a)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2-100
-50
0
50
100
Time, sec
Ph
ase
Vo
lta
ge
, V
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2-40
-20
0
20
40
Time, sec
Lin
e V
olta
ge
, V
(b)
Selective Harmonic Reduction Technique for a Multilevel Inverter using optimization approach
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(c)
Fig. 7 (A) Phase Voltage (B) Line Voltage (C) Bar Graph of FFT Analysis
The results obtained from simulation of MATLAB/Simulink shows that the harmonic THD
contents are 12.51% for phase voltage and 9.45% in line voltage using SPWM modulator. The
third, fifth and seventh harmonics are within 1% tolerance. 9th harmonic shall be automatically
cancelled and other higher order harmonics can be eliminated by conventional filter. While it is to
be noted that the fundamental harmonic is preserved and selected order of harmonics are very
small which strongly confirms the validity of proposed system.
4 CONCLUSION
Simulation of Multilevel Inverter for three phase 7-Level inverter with SHE in
MATLAB/Simulink is presented as a systematic design approach. This simulation model is a
generalized attempt for understanding simulation of multilevel inverter and can be extended for
desired number of levels. This is particularly useful for understanding simulation of SHE for
researchers who wants to do research in optimization of firing angles. Proper control strategies for
switching of the multilevel inverters are used. Care must be taken while implementing the switching
strategies as it is vital in the desired operation of the inverters .The harmonic distortions present in
the load current and voltage waveforms were observed and calculated through FFT analysis tool in
MATLAB/Simulink to validate the results.
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30 Mrs. Sarika Dinesh Patil, Sumant G Kadwa
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[18] H. S. Patel, R. G. Hoft, Generalized Harmonic Elimination and Voltage Control in Thyristor
Converters: Part I – harmonic elimination, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 9, pp.
310-317. May/June 1973.
32 Mrs. Sarika Dinesh Patil, Sumant G Kadwa
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[19] H. S. Patel, R. G. Hoft, Generalized Harmonic Elimination and Voltage Control in Thyristor
Converters: Part II –Voltage Control Technique, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
10, pp.666-673.Sept./Oct. 1974,
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OPTIMISATION OF STOCKYARD LAYOUT IN CONCRETE PRODUCT INDUSTRY
V.S. JAGADALE, PROF. DR. P.G. GAIKWAD
Department of Civil Engineering, N.D.M.V.P‟s KBTCOE, Nashik
Abstract
The Concrete product manufacturing industry produce and supply different pre-cast products to the construction industry. Sales in the industry based on season; demand is more in summer than in other seasons. Site layout management is a complicated task which includes Products space requirement, different handling and storage requirements, Production unit area, and Seasonal demand of the products. For the industry to manage such Irregularity and maintain a constant production rate, stock is built in winter mostly and dispatched in summer. Due to wrong stocking of products in the stockyard, the industry undergoes space congestion for the storage and dispatch of products. During dispatch of products, it is very difficult to find the products location for loading into Lorries, long queues are formed of Lorries and required service is not possible to maintain. The problems is planning site layout which include Suitable design of stockyard space, road connectivity, production unit space, and curing area. Adequate layout examines the parameters which affects the loading and dispatch process in the stockyard and strategies to optimize the stockyard layout. The proper stockyard layout will reduce the throughput time of products.
Key Words: Precast Products, Site layout, Arrival and dispatch pattern, Space occupancy 1. INTRODUCTION
Site layout planning is most neglected aspect in construction industry and engineers generally think
it will be done with progress of work. Most construction sites are in trouble due to incorrect
managerial decisions rather than due to technical problems. The site-based management helps for
significant improvements in the time and cost savings in construction process without including
additional work. Precast concrete products are moved to storage after the production from the
plants. To achieve adequate strength, the minimum time of curing required is about four weeks.
Due to seasonal demand, the products produced during winter stay for 2-3 months on the
stockyard. The allocation of products at different places in the stockyard affects the time required
for storage and retrieval of products. Products arriving on site are off-loaded into different places
should be the correct location. This problem may cause double or triple handling of products to
another location.
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The demand of products is different in each month depending on seasons; the industry accepts
“make-to-stock” production strategy. Through put time depends on location of products in
stockyard, the route followed by the lorry and number of resources present in stockyard for loading.
There are different products are produces and stored in the stockyard, the retrieval of products from
the various locations in stockyard is very difficult. The products produced first should be dispatched
first, and new products will occupy the resultant vacant space (not necessarily by the same type).[1]
The rotation of products to strategic locations, easy loading and dispatch process is necessary.
2. METHODOLOGY
In the present study information is collected from National cement Pipe Company situated in
Satpur, Nashik. There are different factors which affects the demand and supply pattern of
products. Study is done to find better results.
Lorrie‟s arrival pattern: Lorries arrive at unusual rates in service hours and their hourly arrival rates
are collected and graph is plotted.
Study site layout plan for existing vehicular routes, storage locations for different products. The
Annual demand and supply pattern of products is studied from collected data of year 2014 from
site. Clustering is done of group of concrete products that are frequently requested together, so that
the retrieval time of products to serve an order is minimised. One or more groups of products are
assigned to a storage location. Frequency analysis is done to identify the most frequent products
and allocate them in strategic locations on the stockyard. Study the space required for different
products and space occupancy chart of past year. The optimisation is to find the allocation of
products to different locations so that time and cost of storage and retrieval will be less and
efficiency of stockyard is will maximize.
3. ANALYSIS
Products are manufactured as per the production schedules and placed at different locations in the
stockyard. The delay of storage time can be removed by changing the allocation of products at
different locations.
Fig.1 Site layout plan of case study
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Arrival Rate- The rate at which Lorries arrive is served i.e. no. of Lorries arriving per hour is
calculated to study queuing time.
Service time for loading-
The service time for loading depends on the number of products and quantity to be loaded.
Frequency Rate-
The frequency analysis is done to find the frequently supplied products to allocate them at strategic
places in the stockyard. The analysis is done by grouping them based on frequency, such as
popular products (A), medium products (B), and less popular products(C). [3] The products which
have average frequency of more than one per day are classify as „A‟ class; which have frequency
less than one per day and greater than or equal to one per week were classify as B class products.
Similarly, the products having frequency less than one per week were classified as „C‟ class
products. [3] The graph of % products vs. % frequency is plotted from collected data and presented
in Figure 3.
Throughput time-
The time required for loading to complete specific order and queuing time on site is depending on
stockyard efficiency. The stockyard layout impacts to the throughput time i.e. time spent by a lorry
in the stockyard for loading.
Storage Space Utilization (SSU) ratio = storage space occupied / total available storage space.
4. RESULTS
Arrival rate is determined by collecting average number of Lorries arrived in the stockyard in total
working time monthly presented in fig.2
Fig.2 Arrival Rate- rate at which Lorries arrive
Frequency Rate-
The products which are analysed A class (22.6%) products constitute 84.3% of frequency; B class
(33.1%) constitute 11.1% frequency and C class (44.3%) constitute only 4.6% frequency.
Optimization of Stockyard Layout in Concrete Production Industry 35
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Fig.3: Frequency rate of products supply
Space Occupancy Chart- The space requirement for products A, B and C is different in every
month depending upon demand and supply.
Fig. 4: Comparison of Variation in Storage Space Utilization for „A‟ Products
Throughput time- The time required for the loading by changing positions of products is different is
analysed and graph of average throughput time and required months is plotted in Fig. 5.
Fig 5: Variation on Average Throughput Time with different Assignment of Products to Storage
Locations.
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5. CONCLUSION
The throughput time required for the current layout is high hence improved layout is necessary. By
changing positions of products the required time for the supply can optimized up to 9-10%. The
Strategies is has be study to reduce throughput time in yard by Defining product locations such as
Fixing travel routes, increasing loading resources, just-in-time production strategy, considering
stockyard space availability, and Implementing appropriate communication system and so many
factors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am very grateful to these intellectuals who did their best to help me during our project work. The
special gratitude goes to Prof. Dr. P. G. Gaikwad, Head of Civil Engineering Department,
N.D.M.V.P‟S K.B.T.C.O.E. who guided me especially in paper presentation activities and to all the
staff members of the Civil Engineering Department for their precious suggestions and guidance in
completion of this work. I remain indebted to Prof. R. V. Devalkar, for their timely and valuable
suggestions and excellent guidance for completion of this work.
REFERENCES
[1] Ramesh Marasini, Nashwan Dawood, Stockyard layout management for precast concrete products using simulation, The Environment Section School of Science and Technology University of Teesside, Middleborough TS1 3BA, (2001)
[2] Nashwan Dawood and Ramesh Marasini, Optimization of stockyard layout for the pre-cast building products industry, !5th annual ARCOM Conference, Liverpool John Moores University (Sept. 1999)
[3] Ramesh Marasini and Nashwan Dawood, A simulation model to manage and optimize stockyard layout: A case study in precast concrete products industry, In: Akintoye, A (Ed.) 16th Annual ARCOM Conference, Glasgow Caledonian University. Association of researchers in Construction Management, Vol. 2, 527-36 (sept.2000)
[4] Nashwan Dawood and Ramesh Marasini, An integrated database for real-time management of stockyard “Stockman”: A case study in precast concrete products industry. The Environment Section School of Science and Technology University of Teesside Middleborough TS1 3BA (2001)
[5] Arash Shahin, Mehdi Poormostafa, Facility Layout Simulation and Optimization: an Integration of Advanced Quality and Decision Making Tools and Techniques8. (May 29, 2011)
[6] Ramesh Marasini and Nashwan Dawood, Integration of genetic algorithms and simulation for stockyard layout planning. 18th Annual ARCOM Conference. Association of Researchers in Construction Management, Vol. 2, 821-30(Sept.2002)
[7] Ammar Al-Bazi, Nashwan Dawood, Enterprise simulation of the precast manufacturing industry, International conference on Information Technology in Construction. (2008)
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A SURVEY ON LINK PREDICTION USING TEMPORAL APPROACH
ANDHARE VIPUL, MAHAJAN PRATHAMESH, PANZADE AMOL, JOSHI
APURV Department of Information Technology, MIT Academy of Engineering, Alandi (D),
Pune, India
Abstract
In recent year link prediction considered as main area of research in social network. A link is predicated based on structural and temporal aspect of the social network. Feature vector used for predicting the links between the nodes of social graph. Many researchers proposed feature vector based on structural data of social graph. As the evaluation in internet web technology social network grows exponentially there for predicting accurate link structural data of social graph is not sufficient some temporal data of social graph such as no. of interaction is used to proposed temporal feature vector by many author. A survey on temporal feature vector is present in this paper.
Key Words: Link prediction, Feature vector, collaborative networks, structural and temporal link prediction, global and local similarity indices 1. INTRODUCTION
Social networks are those collaborating networks which are formed with the interaction between
autonomous entities and which leads to achieve common compatible goal and the strength of
interaction among the nodes is used to predict the future links. It is possible to represent
biological, social and information systems using such networks where nodes are represented by
entities of system and edges represents collaboration among them [1]. Further these edges can
be adorned with consideration of added information like time stamps and weights. Efforts taken
on estimation of possibility of presence of link between two nodes depending on observations of
known links and their features are known as link prediction.
Link prediction can be done by two types: (1) Structural, where a portion of graph is considered
for observation so that remaining possible collaborations between nodes can be predicted and
(2) Temporal, in which graph is observed at several time steps with the goal of predicting graph
38 Andhare Vipul, Mahajan Prathamesh, Panzade Amol, Joshi Apurv
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state at next time step [2]. As exploiting information of pattern of interaction is possible with
different approaches of temporal link prediction, it may be considered as more significant [3].
Both of link prediction types have practical applications which made it as important task in
network science however the challenges of complexities emerging in extensive real world
networks can be handled more optimistically [4]. Social network users are recommended for
possible interactions, applications like criminal investigations, Researchers can find other
individuals who are working in same domain.
In next section we have discussed concept of feature vectors, both structural and temporal
types.
2. FEATURE VECTOR
When to consider a huge dataset of social network, to predict the links which may or may not
form in future, it can represented as nodes and edges of graph and various graph attributes like
common neighbour, shortest path etc. for every pair of node can be calculated.
Various studies proposed feature vectors on the basis of structural data of social network but
since the data of networks is increasing very rapidly these methods are considered to be
inefficient to handle the dynamics of the network. Thus, some researchers proposed methods to
form temporal feature vectors using data of network at time t. In the temporal methods, the
current dataset is used which may vary with respect to time such as no. of interactions, degree
of nodes.
3. FEATURE VECTORS BASED ON STRUCTURAL ATTRIBUTES OF GRAPH
In structural types where nodes (ni, nj) represent individuals, edges (eij) represent relationship
among them. These node and edges can be represented as a graph. For every pair of node we
can calculate various graph attribute (viz. shorted path and common neighbour) which when
associated with the probability of appearing links in future, a feature vector is generated.
1) Local Similarity Indices: Local feature measured only the nodes attribute of the network and
the global feature uses all the paths in the network. Linyuan Lu and Tao Zhou [1] categorized
the locally-based similarity indices which are node-dependent such as Common Neighbours,
Adamic/Adar index, Jaccard‟s Coefficient, etc. are used to analyse the existence of a link in a
network based on proximity of nodes. As shown in table [Table I].
2) Global Similarity Indices: Global features consider complete graph information, for predicting
the existence of a link. They provide more efficient link prediction than local features. The
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global-based approaches i.e. KATZ status index, RWR algorithm, Sim-Rank algorithm, etc. are
path based approach. As shown in table [Table II].
TABLE I
METHODS OF LOCAL SIMILARITY
Sr .No Method Name Description Formula
1 Common neighbor
Common neighbor is the
method for which we can
find the common node
between predicate nodes
= |�(x) ∩ �(y)|
2
Adamic – Adar[11]
Index
This index refines the easy
including of common
neighbors by conveying the
less-connected neighbors
more weight.
3 Jaccard's
coefficient
It is define as the size of
fork of the neighbor Of two
nodes [12].
TABLE III
METHODS OF GLOBAL SIMILARITY
Sr.No Method Name Description Formula
1 Katz Index[12]
This index is based on
resemble of all paths,
which directly
Summation over all
possible paths.
2 Shortest path
distance[13]
In social network the
arrangement of links
between the two nodes
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is based on the path
distance between them.
---
3 Sim
Rank[13]
If two objects are
referenced by similar
objects, then they are
said to be similar. This
is defined by simrank
generic metrics
4. FEATURE VECTORS BASED ON TEMPORAL ATTRIBUTES OF GRAPH
The majority work in link prediction is performed by considering various states of the network to
predict the new links, but not considering the time as a constraint. While in time aware link
prediction, time is considered as one factor and other attributes are also applied resulting in
construction of a time weighted network.
Time stamps are built for each link formation and computing scores at different past times. Time
score is used to capture the important aspects of time stamps. Effectiveness of time score
varies for different network datasets and different time measures. If the two common neighbor
nodes have interacted in a specific period of time, then the time stamp for their link has higher
value and the links related to them which are not linked have higher probability of linking in
future than the common neighbors having links with lower time stamps.
In a dynamic social collaborative network, the formation of new links indicate the interaction
among nodes has started. The strength/weakness of the link is dependent on the frequency of
interaction.
Time varying social networks can be used to model groups whose dynamics change over time.
Individuals, represented by nodes, may enter or exit the network, while interactions, represented
by links, may strengthen or weaken.
Traditional collaborative network analysis techniques such as co authorship model and social
network model which often collect the data from a huge network statically. But in the temporal
network, we consider the data on time basis. The weights given to the links and the ranks given
to nodes change by the period of time. The feature vectors are formed temporarily and with
context of time the prediction is done [14].
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Fig. 1 Snapshot of the graph before prediction Snapshot of the graph after formation
of links
The user data available in social network consists of relationships which will be represented as
a link between them. Here the temporal link prediction is considered on time, i.e. the dynamics
of the network graph changes according to time. In other words we can say that the association
or links between the node pair becomes weak when they are not interacting with the each other
for a long time with respect to current time. The weight of links is given by the time they have
interacted. If two users have interacted with their common neighbours, then the probability of
them being linked in future is high. In the temporal link prediction, we analyse the static graphs
of the network taken at different time intervals. In fig 1 we have taken a snapshot of a network at
some instance. The nodes are the users of the network and the date of generation of the link is
given on the edges. The node Eva interacted with the neighbours Alies and John, so the link
between Alies and John is formed. Similarly, link between Eva and Bob is formed using the
temporal behaviour of the network. In the fig 2, the snapshot of the static graph of the network is
shown.
TABLE IIIII
METHODS OF TEMPORAL TYPES
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5. SURVEY Lankeshwara Muna Singh and Ryutaro Ichise proposed new technique of time aware index for
link prediction in social network [5]. Time stamp of interaction is the main part for the evaluation
of link. The new idea which focuses on the temporal link strength and time stamp and examines
the temporal type of prediction on the two data sets is proposed.
In [6] XiongcaiCai, Michael Bain, Alfred Krzywicki, Wayne Wobcke , Yang Sok Kim, Paul
Compton, and AsheshMahidadia consider the heterogeneous and reciprocal link prediction
problem and proposed a framework to address prediction of the sign of a link in heterogeneous
and reciprocal networks. Link prediction is defined as the inference of new interactions among
the members of a given social network.
Sr.No Method
Name
Description Formula
1 Vector Auto
Regressive
(VAR)
Method[14]
It is “baseline” method, which
generalizes the univariate
auto-regressive (AR) model to
multiple time-series.
~Xt ≈ At−1 · ~Xt−1 + ... + At−T ·
~Xt−T
2 The Lasso
Granger
Method
The Lasso algorithm for linear
regression is an incremental.
Algorithm that embodies a
method of variable selection
using the L1-penalty term.
w = arg min 1 n X (~x,y)∈S |~w ·
~x − y|2 + λ||~w||1
3 Time-aware
Maximum
Entropy[23]
This time-aware method works
by allowing to forget old
events, thus minimizing noise
which they might initiate.
wjlj ( )
4 Time
Score[5]
The vital aspects of time
stamps of interactions and the
temporality of the link
strengths. Time scorewhich is
basically assigned a weight for
future possible links.
S
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SuchetaSoundarajan, John E. Hopcroft presented the various methods for link prediction [7] and
shown enhanced local similarity metrics often outperform their associated base metrics. Though
no single metric was best for every network, they showed that one can perform cross-validation
or compare metric values for existing pairs of connected and un-connected nodes to determine
whether a particular method is likely to succeed on a given network. A related problem is that of
determining which base local similarity metric is best for a particular network.
In [8] new temporal distance metrics to quantify and compare the speed (delay) of information
diffusion processes taking into account the evolution of a network from a local and global view.
Analyzing how varying the window size aspects the temporal metrics. It is inversely proportional
to the temporal path length, temporal efficiency decreases as the window size increases.
Supervised Random Walks, a new learning algorithm for link prediction and link
recommendation is proposed in [9]. This approach requires no network feature generation and
in a principled way combines rich node and edge features with the structure of the network to
make reliable predictions. Supervised Random Walks are not limited to link prediction, and can
be applied to many other problems that require learning to rank nodes in a graph.
Daniel M. Dunlavy and Tamara G. Kolda considered bipartite graphs that evolve over time and
consider matrix and tensor-based methods for predicting future links [10] and presented a
weight-based method for collapsing multiyear data into a single matrix. They examine how the
well-known Katz method for link prediction can be extended to bipartite graphs and, moreover,
approximated in a scalable way using truncated singular value decomposition. Despite the high
level of noise, the CP method is able to get an AUC score of 0.845, which is much better than
then the “Last Period” method‟s score of 0.686. Daniel M. Dunlavy and Tamara G. Kolda also
considered the accuracy in the first 1,000 values returned. The CP-based method is 100%
accurate in its top 1,000 scores whereas the “Last Period” method is only 70% accurate.
Approach of solving link prediction problem using supervised matrix factorization is proposed by
Aditya Krishna Menon and Charles Elkan with better efficiency. By analysing existing link
prediction models authors suggested new mechanism to overcome problem of imbalance in
factorisation. Comparison between proposed model and other link prediction models is also
given [2].
Conrad Lee, Bobo Nick, UlrikBrandes and Pádraig Cunningham suggested features based on
social vector clocks which exploits different aspects of link formation [3]. Dataset of twitter is
considered to evaluate performance of vector clock link predictor (VLCP). Understanding of
actual mechanism behind link formation is focused in article [3].
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JeyanthiNarasimhanand Lawrence Holder given two step solution for link prediction in dynamic
networks. Feature construction approach with combination of domain and topological attributes
and edge selection learner are the two phases proposed. The problem of rank deficient Time
Feature matrix is not covered in article [16].
Complex network structures of evolving networks where nodes and links are added and
removed over time. A precise challenge is the description and explanation of dynamics network,
with a key test being the prediction of short and long term changes. For the problem of short-
term link prediction, existing methods attempt to decide neighborhood metrics that associate
with the form of a link in the next observation period. Recent search recommended that the
integration of topological features and node attributes can improve link prediction. [1] In this
paper, primary focus is on the link prediction problem and local information and use similarity
indices to distinguish the probability of future interactions are also focused. They considered the
two main classes of similarity indices: topological-based and node attribute.
Link Prediction techniques often focus on global properties or local properties. Abir De,
NiloyGanguly, SoumenChakrabarti they have describe a discriminative Link Prediction algorithm
that exploits two new signals First, a co-clustering algorithm provides community level link
density estimates, Second, links in the instant neighbourhood of the link to be predicted are not
interpreted at face value[11]. The evaluation of the new predictor using five different data sets
that are standard in the literature is done and new two-level learning algorithm for link prediction
is described. In the future the combination of the signals with supervised personalized
PageRank can be done. Another opportunity to replace item-wise or pair wise losses with list-
wise losses suitably aggregated over query samples.
Dashun Wang, Dino Pedreschi, Chaoming Song, Fosca Giannotti1, Albert-LászlóBarabási find
that the similarity between two those movements strongly correlates with their closeness in the
social network and explore how the predictive power hidden in such correlations can be broken
to address a challenging problem: which new links will develop in a social network. Mobility
procedures on your own predictive power, similar to traditional network-based measures. In this
work, they follow the trajectories and communication. Patterns of approximately 6 Million users
over three months, by using CDR data from an anonymous country, aiming to measure for any
pair of users [12]. They improvement in link prediction tasks by thoughtfully assimilation mobility
and network measures.
In the online social networks, the new links are formed among the users which have some
friends in common. There are two types of approaches to predict the links viz. local based and
global based. Normally the depth considered for local similarity index is maximum 2, but in [18],
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the authors have suggested to use depth more than 2. The method was more efficient for the
network as compared to the global approach. They designed their algorithm „FriendLink‟ for
signed and unsigned networks. Although the interactions like commenting and tagging are not
considered in their work.
The main challenge in data mining is to find the result for the query from a structured or an
unstructured datasets, in which the objects are linked to each other. The patterns of links are
very helpful in link mining. These datasets are generally multi-relational, semi structured or
relational databases. LiseGetoor in his paper [19], subcategorized the link mining tasks into
three types viz. Web page collection, Bibliographic domain and Epidemiological Studies. Mainly
6 challenges faced during the link prediction are discussed.
[20] Examines the main factors for link prediction in a collaborative network and provides a new
perspective and methods for prediction of the future links. The comparison between supervised
and unsupervised algorithms is done and the techniques for evaluation of the data are
discussed.
Andrew Arnold, Yan Liu and Naoki Abe proposed a systematic evaluation of the relative
performance of a host of related methods of temporal causal modelling based on Granger
causality and graphical modelling [21]. As shown in [21] the definition of Granger Causality is a
notion of causality that is highly relevant to the present context of temporal causal modelling
called “Granger Causality”. The present paper proposed that upto what extent temporal
information present in time series data can assist in the modelling and understanding of the
causal structures between time-persistent features, rather than temporal variables.
As Ben Taskar, Ming-Fai Wong, Pieter Abbeel and Daphne Koller shown that the use of a
probabilistic model over link graphs allows us to represent and exploit interesting subgraph
patterns in the link graph, these methods have been applied to the problem of predicting or
classifying a single link at a time. As shown in [22] that the problem of modeling link graphs has
numerous other applications, including: analyzing communities of people and hierarchical
structure of organizations, identifying people or objects that play certain key roles, predicting
current and future interactions, and more.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In this survey paper, we have reviewed several current papers on link prediction, temporal
graphs and time aware link prediction. The link prediction problems can be solved using various
algorithms present but one thing is noticed is that the problem which can be solved by one
algorithm need not be solved up to that extent by other algorithm. The time aware link prediction
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is done on the temporary data sets and the process of link prediction is different than the static
link prediction done on the static network.
REFERENCES
1. Linyuan Lu and Tao Zhou. Link Prediction in Complex Networks: A Survey. Elsevier Science 2010.
2. Aditya Krishna Menon and Charles Elkan. Link Prediction via Matrix Factorization. 2011. 3. Conrad Lee, Bobo Nick, UlrikBrandes and Pádraig Cunningham.: Link Prediction with
Social Vector Clock 2013. 4. Mohammad Al Hasan, VineetChaoji, Saeed Salem, and Mohammed ZakiLinkPrediction
using Supervised Learning Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy. 5. LankeshwaraMunasinghe and Ryutaro IchiseTime Aware Index for Link Prediction in
Social Networks. 6. XiongcaiCai, Michael Bain, Alfred Krzywicki, Wayne Wobcke , Yang Sok Kim, Paul
Compton, and AsheshMahidadiaReciprocal and Heterogeneous Link Prediction in Social Networks.
7. SuchetaSoundarajan, John E. HopcroftUsing Community Information to Improve the Precision of Link Prediction Methods.
8. V.Kostakos. Temporal Graphs. Physica A, 388 (6):1007{1023} 2009. 9. Lars Backstrom, Jure Leskovec: Supervised Random Walks Predicting and
Recommending Links in Social Networks. 10. Daniel M. Dunlavy and Tamara G. KoldaTemporal Link Prediction Using Matrix and
Tensor Factorizations ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery from Data. 11. Catherine A. Bliss, Morgan R. Frank, Christopher M. Danforth, Peter Sheridan DoddsAn
Evolutionary Algorithm Approach to Link Prediction in Dynamic Social Networks 12. Dashun Wang, Dino Pedreschi, Chaoming Song, Fosca Giannotti1, Albert-
LászlóBarabási: Human Mobility, Social Ties, and Link Prediction. 13. Pankaj Choudhary, Nishchol Mishra, Sanjeev Sharma A Survey on Link Prediction with
or without Time aware feature in Social Network. 14. Andrew Arnold Temporal Causal Modeling with Graphical Granger Methods. 15. Joshua O‟Madadhain, Jon Hutchins Prediction and Ranking Algorithms for Event-Based
Network Data. 16. JeyanthiNarasimhan and Lawrence Holder Feature Engineering for Supervised Link
Prediction on Dynamic Social Networks 2014. 17. Abir De, NiloyGanguly, SoumenChakrabartiDiscriminative Link Prediction using Local
Links,Node Features and Community Structure 2013. 18. Alexis Papadimitriou, Panagiotis Symeonidis, YannisManolopoulosFast and Accurate
Link Prediction in Social Networking Systems 2010 19. LiseGetoorLink Mining: A New Data Mining Challenge 20. Ryan N. Lichtenwalter, Jake T. Lussier,Nitesh V. Chawla New Perspectives and
Methods in Link Prediction. 2010. 21. Andrew Arnold, Yan Liu, Naoki Abe Temporal Causal Modeling with Graphical Granger
Methods 2007
22. Ben Taskar, Ming-Fai Wong, Pieter Abbeel, Daphne KollerLink Prediction in Relational Data
Proceedings of 6th National Conference on Multidisciplinary Research in Science & Engineering, MIT AOE Alandi, Pune, 5-6 June 2015, pp.47-50, ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1
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ISSUES OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES AND ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS
IMPLEMENTATION
DHANANJAY BHOLE Coordinator, Accessibility Research Group and ATBSLC,
Department of Education and Extension, University of Pune Recipient of National Role Model Award by President of India for Empowerment of Persons with
Disabilities in 2011
The Constitution of India unequivocally expresses its commitment to secure justice; liberty;
equality; and fraternity to all its citizens. The list of fundamental rights enumerated in the
Constitution guarantees among other provisions, access to equal opportunities of participation
in socio-economic and political processes to all, without exception arising on account of any
discrete individual or group identity. Citizens with disabilities are an essential part of human
diversity an all-encompassing welfare state bears the obligation to be accommodative of and
sensitive to their circumstances and requirements.
In a resounding acknowledgement of this obligation, India has ratified the UN Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD) and endeavored to ensure and promote the full
realization of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all Persons with Disabilities without
discrimination on the basis of disability. In fulfillment of this international commitment a revised
version of Rights of Persons with Disabilities Bill is being proposed to align national laws in
conformity with the international laws, which seeks to ensure furtherance of the rights
recognized in the UN CRPD.
Approximately 6% of the world’s population has certain kind of disabilities; 9% percent of world’s
total population of persons with disabilities lives in India. India is the home of largest number of
visually impaired people (15 million). In Indian society, there are innumerable obstacles and
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barriers that hinder persons with disabilities; these include among other issues, accessibility to
buildings environment, transportation, information and communications, which makes it
impossible for persons with disabilities to take part in the life of a community. Education,
employment and other community services are not fully reachable to the larger section of the
disabled population in India despite existence of various standards, guidelines, policies,
directives and laws.
Several government, non government and corporate organizations are working towards
betterment of persons with disabilities in their own pace and ways. But they fail to provide
accessible environment to the persons with disabilities due to the lack of proper approach of
government and public representatives for implementation of standards and guidelines. Public
places like roads, foot paths, traffic lights, cross walks, railway stations, airports, bus stands,
government office premises, corridors, stare cases etc is inaccessible for persons with
disabilities including visually impaired as well as wheel chair users. Braille signs or audio signs
are not available at most of the public access places like railway time table, elevators, etc.
Educational institutions also hardly provide their programs, services and activities accessible
and usable for persons with disabilities. Course curriculum, teaching methodology, examination
and evaluation systems are not available in electronic and accessible format. Web services of
government, corporate and non government organizations are also hardly accessibility-
compliant. Persons with visual disabilities cannot book their railway or air ticket on web, cannot
use online banking facilities and cannot do online shopping independently and without difficulty
inspite of availability of advanced assistive technology tools like screen readers, screen
magnifiers etc. because of accessibility barriers in these web services. Public web services are
not designed considering users with disabilities so that they can enjoy barrier free environment.
Life of persons with disabilities is so dependent on others and mercy of government in our
country that they never get feeling of living in an independent nation.
I would like to bring attention of all the stake holders such as government, non government and
corporate organization towards inaccessible environment for persons with disabilities through
this white paper. As a researcher in this area found that most of the facilities can be improved in
the city which will provide better life to persons with visual impairment if taken on priority.Such
as:
Issues of Persons with Disabilities and Accessibility Standards Implementation 49
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Foot paths, government buildings and traffic lights should be made accessible and all new
projects should be compliant with the accessibility guidelines given by ministry of urban
development.
BRT corridors should be demolished and new projects of BRT tracks should be canceled
because of its inconvenience.
City buses should be provided a kit that will announce bus stops and the staff should be
sensitized on the need of individuals with visual disabilities.
Public websitesof the Maharashtra state should be made accessible for persons with
disabilities as per any national or international accessibility standard or guidelines.
Educational institutions should be made obligatory to provide accessible services to persons
with disabilities such as accessible building infrastructure, website and other IT services
accessible.
Courses like web accessibility and accessible computing etc should be included in the
curriculum of Engineering, MCA, and M.Sc. degree programs. Also courses like building and
other civil constructional accessibility should be included in civil engineering, architectural
and design degree programs.
Banks, posts and government offices services should be made accessible and usable for
persons with disabilities such as internet banking software; core banking software postal
websites and IT services, e-governance services etc should be made accessibility
compliant.
Given the opportunities to them, persons with disabilities have proved that they are no less
competent or able than normal people. The office of the Commissioner of disability welfare can
undertake following few stapes for accessibility standards implementation:
The office can enquire the status of implementation and adaptation of accessibility
standards and guidelines in schools, secondary and higher secondary boards, colleges,
universities, banks, post offices, municipal corporations, district head quarters and other
government and corporate organizations and ensure proper compliance.
The office should direct all government and corporate organization to implement
accessibility standards and work toward making barrier free environment in a targeted
manner; e.g. they should be given 6 to 9 months for accessibility standard adaptation and
the organization should be asked to submit a report on efforts taken by the organization for
accessibility implementation and making barrier free environment.
50 Dhananjay Bhole
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This will also help to implement UNCRPD and PMO’s directives and PWD act and other
policies. Several issues of Persons with disabilities will be resolved due to provision of
barrier free environment to them and they will no longer be burden on the government.
Persons with disabilities not only get equal opportunities but also their productivity will be
increased and they will contribute in the nation development.
Proceedings of 6th National Conference on Multidisciplinary Research in Science & Engineering, MIT AOE Alandi, Pune, 5-6 June 2015, pp.51-62, ISBN: 978-93-84648-83-1
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COST EFFECTIVE STREET LIGHTS MONITORING SYSTEM (CESMOS)
ISHWAR KHUSPE 1, DR. M. V. BHATKAR 2
1 Final year M.E. Electrical (Power System), A.C. Patil College of Engineering, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, Mumbai University,
2 Ph.D. IIT Bombay, Principal, Jawahar Education Society’s, Institute Of Technology, Management & Research, Nashik, Pune University
Abstract
Provision of good rather best street lighting is a prime duty of every local civic authority to create confidence and safety amongst its citizens. It requires huge funds for new installations and subsequently maintaining the same. Apart from street lighting local authorities have more important functions to be performed, such as drinking water, sanitation, health and clean environment. Always, it is a daunting task of a cash starved municipality to provide facilities to its citizens. Currently, around forty percent expenses are spent by local civic bodies towards payment of power tariff and maintaining the street lighting. During day time, street light routine maintenance causes huge wastage of electrical power. At present various methods are used for monitoring street lights, spanning from manual on-off control to advanced intelligent monitoring system. Because paucity of funds, civic authorities are reluctant to install capital intensive intelligent street light monitoring systems. Besides this, all present street light monitoring systems uses electronic hardware and interfaces. This creates enormous quantity of hazardous electronic waste. The disposal of such e-waste adds to the burden on civic bodies. Intra wireless communication between street lights and segment monitor creates unnecessary electromagnetic pollution. This is a project work on an innovative cost effective technique to monitor street lights, which will drastically reduce the cost of present street light monitoring system. It will completely eliminate the electrical power waste during routine maintenance of street lighting. Further it will reduce the e-waste, and electromagnetic pollution which helps in creating safer, cleaner environment to future generations.
Key Words: Street lights, monitoring, e-waste, electromagnetic pollution.
1. INTRODUCTION
Providing street lighting is one the most important and expensive responsibilities of a city. Street
lighting is a particularly critical concern for public authorities in developing countries because of its
strategic importance for economic and social stability. Inefficient lighting and absence of proper
monitoring systems, causes significant waste of financial resources each year. Inadequate lighting
creates unsafe conditions to the citizens too. Energy efficient technologies and design can cut
street lighting costs dramatically (often by 25-60%). These cost savings can enable municipalities
to expand street lighting to additional areas, increasing access to lighting in low-income and other
under privileged areas. Any improvements, in lighting quality and monitoring systems, can improve
safety conditions for both vehicle traffic and pedestrians. In India and developing countries, it is
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quite often, street lighting is poorly designed and inadequately maintained. Thus, consumes large
amount of energy and financial resources.
India and South Asian countries are amongst the fastest growing regions in the world. Fast
growing population, urbanization and industrialization create extra pressure on civic bodies to
provide basic facilities. These local civic bodies are always having shortage of funds to provide
essential services to its citizens. The highly sophisticated street light monitoring systems require
hefty funds. Present, street lighting systems without any monitoring, requires hours of maintenance
keeping all street lights burning. This non efficient method of maintenance, leads to huge amount
of loss of electricity.
1.1. ENVIRONMENTAL DEMANDS It is especially important to the responsible local municipal authorities to implement the energy
saving potential in street lighting by upgrading the technology of their installations. While adopting
new technology they have to adhere, current regulations in force. Regulations regarding lighting
levels, electrical safety, electro-magnetic radiation (EMR), disposing electronics waste and
emission of greenhouse gases are strictly to be observed. The regulations regarding reduced use
of electronic components and its disposal have to be strictly followed and practiced. So that norms
which are set by international/local environmental laws, are met and collectively we can
accomplish environmental demands which are the need of the hour.
1.2. LITERATURE REVIEW
To get the insight of the research work in the various fields such as bad effects of EMR, electronic
waste disposal and street light monitoring system, following published literature were reviewed.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [1], defines the laws and regulations pertaining to
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR)-emitting products. It defines, any product which works on
electricity emits electromagnetic radiation.,
Paolo Vecchia, Rüdiger Matthes, Gunde Ziegelberger James Lin, Richard Saunders, Anthony
Swerdlow [2], discussed, the health issues pertaining to exposure to high frequency
electromagnetic field.
J. D. Lee, K.Y. Nam, S.H. Jeong, S.B. Choi, H.S. Ryoo, D.K. Kim [3], elaborated, on the
development of ZigBee based street light control system. This control cum monitoring systems
uses ,the ZigBee based communication protocol (2.4GHz) , the main emphasis were on to reduce
uneasiness of handling and difficulty of maintenance in operating light control system, were
discussed. Status feedback of the lamp is obtain by using remote street light controller module
(which is installed on lamp post), consisting of ZigBee module, digital circuit unit and power supply.
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The lamp status is further communicated to Remote Concentrator (RC) which is installed zone
wise. This RC consist of Code division multiple access (CDMA) module, ZigBee module , display
screen, digital unit and power supply too. The RC, further communicate with central control center
for the analyzing the data and to decide appropriate action by using software.
Wu Yue ,Shi Changhong, Zhang Xianghong, Yang Wei [4], were discussed, the design of new
intelligent street light control system by using ZigBee communication protocol as referred above.
Sung Kwan Cho, Vijay Dhingra [5], had described, the street lighting control based on LonWorks
power line communication. It uses the interfacing electronic devices fitted on each and every lamp
post and communicates the status of a lamp to segment controller cum router. A very similar to the
monitoring systems discussed in [3].
David Daza, Ramon G. Carvajal, et al. [6], discussed the issues pertaining to street lighting
network formation mechanism based on IEEE 802.15.4 protocol. The main thrust was, to reduce
the number of gateways which are required to send the data to central management system.
On the similar lines, the respective authors of [7], [8], [9], had discussed the street light monitoring
system based on various communication protocols. In which, it was observed that, advanced
electronic modules are used for monitoring and controlling lamp ballast from central controlling
centre via segment or zonal controller with the use of various IT wireless network architecture.
The advancement and development in semiconductor technology, in very large scale
integration(VLSI), in Radio Frequencies (RF) communication with increase in allowable frequency
spectrum and in power line communication (PLC), created vast scope in present days street lights
monitoring systems. The development in digital electronics made rapid use of microprocessor,
microcontroller, microcomputer to make each device enough smart. Now days these high end
electronic components are the parts of street light monitoring systems. As explained earlier,
automatic switching and various advanced methods of control (monitor), using such high end
electronics were suggested and implemented by the scientist and engineers.
2. PRESENT SYSTEMS OF STREET LIGHT CONTROLS & MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Along with the basic services (water, health, sanitation, roads and transport) to be provided by the
local city authorities, effective lighting along with roads and streets is a must priority for the citizen’s
safety. Presently, various methods are used to monitor and control street lights. Few popular
methods adopted to monitor street lights are listed below.
a) ON - OFF control by manual intervention
b) ON - OFF control by photo sensor (PS) and / or astronomical digital clock (ADCL)
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c) Programmable logic contoller based ON – OFF/voltage control for group dimming facility
along with PS and ADCL
d) Individual lamp control with relay/electronic circuit, monitored from central location,
using different technologies for example- i] RF communication, ii] ZigbBee
communication protocol, iii] Power Line communication iv] LonWork communication
protocol, and v] IEEE 802.15.4 network protocol
From the listed methods, “a” and “b” are still functional throughout the world on large scale. As a
pilot project method “c”, is used in few cities for power saving after midnight hours till dawn. Due to
high capital investment, methods “a, b and c” are only use for the purpose of provision of adequate
illumination during night. No feedback of lamp status is send to controller for maintenance and
operational measures. Method “d” provides with variety of functions of monitoring, and energy
saving with communication directly from lamp post to central management system or from lamp
post to segment controller (monitor). This is further relayed to central management system. A
representation of common methodology adopted in the above technologies, for example using
ZigBee protocol, is illustrated schematically in the figure 1.
Figure 1: Street light monitoring using ZigBee protocol ( Courtsey www.wulian.cc)
In the figure 1, the overall electronic communication is divided, it two parts, namely short distance
communication and long distance communication. A short distance communication means a
sensed signal transmitted between individual lamp post and segment monitor (controller). A long
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distance communication represents the communication between segment monitor and central
management system. To complete the functionality of long distance communication, existing
technologies, d(i) to d(v) uses, the present backbone of modern communication technologies,
such as- Global System for Mobile (GSM), General packet radio service (GPRS), CDMA etc., or
internet. For short distance communication, protocols such as Zigbee/PLC/ Lonwork (ANSI 709.2)
or KNX (KNX is a networking standardization based on EN 50090, ISO/IEC 14543) are used. All
these protocols, basically requires communication interface (a printed circuit board with lots of
semiconductor devices are mounted on it) with ballast, which adds to the cost of the project.
Presently, a massive development of mobile communication and its rampant and excess use
radiates hazardous electromagnetic field (electromagnetic smog) in the surrounding which is
creating health problems.
2.1. QUESTION OF E-WASTE AND ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR)
As per E-Street Project in Europe [10], on an average for each nine inhabitants, one light point is
required. In India for 4378 cities and towns [11], on an average 18 millions street light points are
required to provide safety during night. At present worldwide population is over 7 billion. It is
expected to grow as more than 9.26 billion. Out of the total figure, approximately, 70 percent of the
world population will be urban by 2050. The most of the growth will occur in less developed
countries. That is over 6.482 billion inhabitants will be living in urban area. Therefore to cater the
need of illumination on street, parks, roads etc., over 0.72 billion light points will be required. With
the use present technologies, it means same numbers of interfacing cards (PCBs) are going to
deployed on lamp posts just to know the status of street lights.
By considering total street light points worldwide, the staggering quantity (0.72 billion) of
electronics PCBs are required to communicate with segment controller to know the status of lamp.
If we can reduce this amount of e-waste, certainly it will be a great help to environment. The bad
effect of recycling of printed circuit boards on environment and human life is discussed [12], in the
reference. The question is, how we can reduce the number of interfacing PCBs, so that there will
be a reduction in the e-waste due to street lights alone. Answer to this question is affirmative. To
reduce this staggering quantity of e-waste, the innovation suggested in the project work, will have
to implement worldwide. Thus by reducing e-waste, it will help the utilities to focus on more
important issues.
Since, the inception of micro oven to cook the food in the advanced life style of citizens, the ill
effect of high frequency radiation is debated across the world. Today, the extensive use of cell
phones and other electronic communication devices are inevitable parts of our modern life. Various
government and non-government organizations are doing research on the issues of bad effects of
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electromagnetic radiation on life of humans and animals. The ionization effect of EMR damages
the Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) structure, as well as non-ionization effect of EMR is certainly
linked to specific diseases such as cancer. According to the FDA, a radiation-emitting device is
defined as, any product that uses electricity to power an electronic circuit. All electronic products
radiate electromagnetic at varied intensity levels. Even though, exposure to non-ionization
radiation from laptop is harmful too. In short, there is no real “safe” level of radiation exposure.
When it comes to be safe against EMR, is to avoid extra doses of electromagnetic radiation
whenever, where ever you can.
3. SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENT (INNOVATION)
In the world very few local civic authorities are strong in financial status. All others are always in
the socio economic crunch. With the issues of funds paucity, an installation of highly intelligent
solution for street lights is a distant dream. In India too, till date, not a single civic body is in a
position to deploy complete street lights monitoring system in the entire city. With the following
objectives, it is intended towards development of new cost effective technique for monitoring
streetlights.
A low cost solution, so that utilities from developing nations can get benefit of energy
saving and have less capital intensive, low operation and maintenance(O&M) cost
street lights monitoring system.
Utilities can help the nation to achieve the targeted emission of carbon di oxide (CO2 )
by sustainable reduction in energy wastage.
Huge reduction of e- waste and waste management costing.
A humble efforts to make mother earth green, clean, toxic free and EMR safe.
3.1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Any Street light feeder (segment of street lights) is consisting of many number of lamp posts fitted
with luminaries. For the monitoring functionality, it is supported with additional electronic control
gear fitted on individual lamp post and in the cabinet of segment controller (monitor). The lamp
status, i.e., on or off is communicated to segment controller by using any one technology listed in
the section 2.0. This is further communicated to central monitoring system by using existing
information technology infrastructure. A proposed, CESMOS will be consisting of following
components-
I. Luminaries on the street lamp post.
II. The segment monitor in the power supply cabinet that handle and manage a
segment of street lights.
III. The mobile network that provides the communications between the segment
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monitor and the back office or central monitoring system. For this communication,
existing GSM/CDMA information technology (IT) infrastructure can be used.
IV. The central monitoring system (management information system), allows the
management of all street lighting poles in a city/town.
The proposed system gives emphasis on the sensing parameters between segment monitor and
individual lamp. The status of individual streetlight can be obtained from segment monitor only.
Thus, we can completely eliminate electronics components required to interface with the lamp,
which is fitted in the luminaries. This interface is required by all other modern technologies to
declare the status of the street lamp. The CESMOS isn’t having any such interface between
segment monitor and individual lamp post. The research methodology was followed as -
i. Characterization of existing Street light configuration
ii. Algorithm to calculate required electrical parameters
iii. A proof of concept (POC). A working model is consisting of CESMOS with five lamp
post of street light feeder. To facilitate the work, it was decided that working model
(POC) would be supplied with dc power.
4. CHARACTERIZATION OF STREET LIGHT CONFIGURATION [13]
In any city or town main emphasis of deploying street lighting is to have adequate illumination level
on the roads. For this various designing software were used to decide number of lamp posts, type
of luminaries, and their arrangement along the street. For the implementation of proposed
CESMOS, street lighting is to be studied on the following points
i. Types of streets according to lights arrangement
ii. Characterization of single street light segment
4. 1. TYPES OF STREETS ACCORDING TO LIGHTS ARRANGEMENT In India, present lighting systems in urban cities are mainly deployed by municipal or local civic
authorities. A day to day operation, is governs by themselves or by local electric power distribution
companies. According to standards, to provide required illumination level on the street during night
period, various configurations of street lighting systems are used. These are broadly classified as-
i. Street with single luminaries on one side, which is illustrated in figure 2.
ii. Street with multiple Luminaries along the median (divider) of the road, figure 3.
iii. Street with single luminaries on the side and facing opposite, figure 4.
iv. Street with single luminaries on both side with staggered arrangement, figure 5.
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Figure 2: Street with single Luminaire Figure 3: Street with multiple luminaries
Figure 4: Street with facing poles Figure 5: Street with staggered poles
These configurations [14], are supplied with three phase power of 415, volts 50 Hertz alternating
current (AC). Depending on wattage capacity of individual lamp ie 70 Watts(W), 150W and 250W,
and length of the circuit/street, within the constraint of permissible voltage drop, 6.0 sq mm,
10.0sq mm and 16.0sq mm, 4core , PVC/XLPE, 1100 V, Indian Standard, aluminum armoured
cables are mainly installed. Number of lamp posts on a single circuit is decided by the permissible
voltage drop, and the wattage capacity of a luminary, such that required level of illumination should
be obtained during night. A street distribution feeder ( or segment feeder) comprises of necessary
electrical switchgear along with timers and photo sensors. It may have additional hardware as
astronomical switch and transformer to dim the street lights after midnight hours.
The lamp post has suitable terminal box along with cutout or miniature circuit breaker. From
terminal box to luminaries, (2 + 1 runs) a single core PVC flexible wire or 3 core PVC flexible cable
of 2.5 sq mm, aluminum conductor, is laid.
4.2. CHARACTERIZATION OF SINGLE STREET LIGHT SEGMENT
Following are the main features of single street light segment deployed for a particular street, is
listed below.
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i. According to standard IS 1944 (Part I,II,V,VI and VII) street light system for a particular
street will have fixed number of lamp post which are separated by a equal span.
ii. All Luminaires of same rating are used to satisfy requirement of lux level on that
street(Lamps type, rating and ballast or ignitor of same manufacturers)
iii. 6 sq. mm, 10 sq. mm and 16 sq. mm, 3- phase, 4- cored Al. conductor, PVC/ XLPE
insulated and armoured cables are used.
iv. Street lights are distributed amongst three phases, in R-Y-B-R-Y-B…..sequence
In India , cables of leading manufacturers such as Asian Cable, CCI, Finolex , Polycab etc.,
are used for street lighting installation. Confirming to Indian Standards IS 1554 / Part - I / 1988,
sample data for commonly used, aluminium, 4 core, PVC insulated, armoured cables of different
sizes is listed below.
Table 1: Parameters of 4 core , aluminium, steel armoured, PVC insulated Cable Size In Sq. mm
AC resistance at 70
0 C, 50 Hz
Ohm/Km
Reactance at 50 Hz Ohm/Km
Capacitance µF/Km
Impedance at 70°C Ohm/Km
Voltage Drop V/Km/A
10.0 3.7000 0.0938 0.60 3.700 6.410
16.0 2.3000 0.0862 0.80 2.300 3.980
25.0 1.4400 0.0854 0.84 1.440 2.500
Courtsey : Polycab Cables From the table 1, for the proof of concept, unit length parameters are selected for 10 sq.mm cable.
The street light configuration explained in the figure 2, is considered to explain monitoring
methodology of street lamps. For demonstration of POC, a segment of five street lamp posts with
same wattage capacity is considered. The schematic diagram of street segment with five lamp
posts connected to R-phase of the supply is explained in the figure 6. The effect of reactance and
capacitance is negligible compared to resistance of the cable. Hence, ac resistance is considered
as series impedance and lumped at the center of a span (a distance between two lamp post). At
each node or lamp post equivalent load impedance (total impedance of luminaries including all
electrical parts) is connected between phase and neutral. The electrical representation of a street
lighting is shown in the figure 6.
It is impended that, the impedance ( i.e. ratio of voltage to current) of the circuit is unique for each
case of individual non-working lamp post as well as for any combinations of non-working lamp
posts. This property is utilized for the building up of the algorithm and for development of
management software suitable for street light monitoring. If non-working lamp posts are more than
15 % of total street lights on a single phase, it is considered as a major fault and immediate
attendance of maintenance crew is required.
5. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS OF CESMOS
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1 Street Light power feeder Pillar 2 Terminal box of lamp post 3 Span of the lamp post
3
2 1
1
3
R Y
R
B R Y
R
B
Figure 6. : Electrical representation of street light
segment
To implement the concept of CESMOS, various devices are interfaced to achieve the desired
monitoring system. The functional blocks of CESMOS are represented in the figure 7. The
CSEMOS is mainly comprises of two main systems named as, segment monitor and central
management system respectively.
1
.
Figure 7 : Functional blocks of proposed CESMOS
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The individual functions of each block and its location is listed in the table 2.
Table 2 : Description of blocks used in CESMOS
6. CONCLUSION
A successful demonstration of working model of CESMOS, as a proof of concept, is carried out.
Under the future scope, for actual deployment of the presented CESMOS, to monitor the street
lighting, it should be design as an industrial product. If presented CESMOS is implemented by
local civic authorities, in true sense, it will brings the following outcome- but not limited to-
A true Cost effective system for monitoring the streetlights.
Name of the Block Functions to be performed
Segment Monitor It is to be installed inside the street feeder panel and consisting of
integrated module such as current sensor, voltage sensor, ADC,
microcontroller and sending end modem.
Current sensor Consists of ACS 712 [15], hall effect current sensor, which senses the
current flowing through the street lights feeder.
Voltage sensor Consists of suitable PT for ac operation and resistance divider network
for dc operation. It senses the source voltage, which supply the power
to street segment
Analogue – Digital Convertor
(ADC)
Consists of 10 bits resolution inbuilt ADC functionality of
microcontroller board for precise current measurement. It receives
raw signal from current sensor and converts it into digital output
Microcontroller Ardunio UNO microcontroller board [16], is used to controls the
operations of ADC and GSM modem1.
GSM Modem 1 it transmits the SMS comprising of data related to particular street and
non-working street light over GSM network.
GSM network A dedicated GSM support from network operator to relay the signal
from segment monitor to central monitoring system
Central Monitoring System It is located at the electrical maintenance cell of local civic authorities.
It will have entire street lighting data such as street name , segment
monitor name, etc. It is broadly consists of recipient GSM modem and
monitoring server
GSM Modem 2 It receives data from GSM Modem 1 and passes to monitoring server
for further processing.
Monitoring Server After processing the data, it will pop up alerts about street lights status
and helps the administration to take various decisions related to
street lighting.
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Ease on operation and maintenance of street lights
Use of data for administrative and managerial decisions
Huge saving of electrical energy over traditional method of street light maintenance
Reduction in CO2, to earn carbon credits
An alarm for power theft
Huge reduction of e- waste and waste management costing
No electromagnetic radiation pollution due to high frequencies
A major contribution to make environment more cleaner , more safer and lesser toxic
REFERENCES
[1] U.S. Food and Drug Administration(FDA),”Laws and Regulations (Radiation-Emitting Products)” [2] Paolo Vecchia, Rüdiger Matthes, Gunde Ziegelberger James Lin, Richard Saunders, Anthony Swerdlow,, Exposure to high frequency electromagnetic fields, biological effects and health consequences (100 kHz-300 GHz), A report by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection(ICNIRP), 2009 [3] J. D. Lee, K.Y. Nam, S.H. Jeong, S.B. Choi, H.S. Ryoo, D.K. Kim, “Development of Zigbee based street light control system,” IEEE PES Power Systems Conference and Exposition proceedings, October 29 – November 1, 2006,Sheraton Altanta Atlanta, Georgia, USA [4] WU Yue ,SHI Changhong, ZHANG Xianghong, YANG Wei,” Design of new intelligent street light control system”, 8th IEEE International Conference on Control and Automation ,Xiamen, China, June 9-11, 2010. [5] SungKwan Cho, Vijay Dhingra,” Street lighting control based on LonWorks power line communication”, Echelon Korea Asia Pacific Ltd., 27F WTC Samsung-dong, Kangnam-gu, Seoul,Echelon Corporation, 550 Meridian Avenue, San Jose, CA 95126 USA. [6] David Daza, Ramon G. Carvajal, et al., “Street Lighting Network formation mechanism based on IEEE 802.15.4”, Eighth IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad-Hoc and Sensor-2011, University of Sevilla School of Engineering, Seville, Spain [7] Gustavo W. Denardin, Carlos H. Barriquello, Rafael A. Pinto, Marcelo F. Silva,Alexandre Campos and Ricardo N. do Prado,” An intelligent system for street lighting control and measurement” , Member, IEEE Federal University of Santa Maria – UFSM, Electronic Ballast Researching Group – GEDRE, 2009 IEEE ,Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil. [8] Hengyu Wu, Minli Tang * (Corresponding author), Guo Huang, “Design of Multi-functional Street Light Control System Based on AT89S52 Single-chip Microcomputer”, 2nd International Conference on Industrial Mechatronics and Automation -2012, Qionghai, Hainan, 571400, China. [9] S. V. Viraktamath, G. V. Attimarad, “Power Saving Mechanism for Street Lights using Wireless Communication”, Proceedings of 2011 International Conference on Signal Processing, Communication, Computing and Networking Technologies (ICSCCN 2011), Attimarad Dayanand Sagar College of Engineering Bangalore, Kamataka, India. [10] Project Report on, “Intelligent Road and Street lighting in Europe”, E-street Project-2006-2008. [11] G. Hari Kumar, “Energy efficiency in municipal water pumping and street lighting: a potential candidate for CDM? ”, TERI , India. [12] Ing. Valer Micle and Drd. Ing. Valentin Tofană, “Environmental impact generated by the metal recovery processes from waste electric and electronic equipment industry”, 5th Research/Expert Conference with international participations ”Quality 2007”, Neum, B&H, June 06-09, 2007. [13] “Street lighting design and construction” , a Network Standard Ns119 , by Australian Grid, Sydeny, May 2011. [14] Thane Muncipal Corporation “ Street light tender document” 2014. [15] Hall effect current sensor,” ACS712,” The Allegro®, MicroSystem Inc. USA [16] http://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/ArduinoBoardUno
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Li INTERCALATION PROCESS IN Si10H15/MONOVACANCY GRAPHENE MONOLAYER
COMPOSITE - IMPLICATIONS TOWARDS Li-ION BATTERIES
PRIYA FRANCIS1, S.V. GHAISAS1
1 Department of Electronic Science, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune-411007
Abstract
Silicon cluster and graphene together are expected to improve the energy as well as power density of Li-ion battery. The holding capacity of silicon for Li and its transport through the defective (vacancy clustered) graphene is expected to be responsible. Here we report the importance of vacancy for the Li intake process in hydrogen passivity Si10 nanoparticle (Si10H16 NP) using ab-initio methods. A single H vacancy in the Si10H16 NP allows the Li atoms to binde with it otherwise not. A maximum of three Li atoms were added into the single vacancy hydrogenated Si10 NP and further studied the interaction of these Lithiated clusters on monovacancy graphene monolayer. The minimum energy path of Li for transferring from single vacancy hydrogenated Si10 NP to graphene surface shows a very small barrier indicating easy mode of transfer of Li to graphene surface.
Key Words: Intercalation, Graphene,Li-ion Batteries.
1. INTRODUCTION
The search of new anode material in Li based batteries for the replacement of existing carbon
based material ends at Si because of its high Li intake capacity [1] apart from its abundance, low
cost, biomedical and semiconductor technology applications. However, to become a reliable
anode, silicon has to succeed in the following scientific and technical challenges. First one is the
mechanical fracture due to the large volume changes i.e. expansion and contraction during lithium
insertion and extraction during charging and discharging process. It is reported that the
electrochemical alloying reaction of Li with Si involves volume expansion of up to 400% during
lithium insertion [2, 3]. The large volume change induces stress in the material and leads to
cracking and pulverization of silicon, which causes the loss of electrical contact and thereafter
capacity fading. Again, the repetitive volume expansion and contraction constantly shifts the
interface between Si and the organic electrolyte, hence preventing the formation of a stable solid
electrolyte interface (SEI) layer, which in turn results in a low coulombic efficiency and a decrease
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in capacity during battery cycling. The unstable SEI is another challenge that Si has to face as an
electrode [4]. Over the years the experimentalists and theorists have come up and been doing the
research to improve the performance of Si based anode materials. Most of the experimental work
is related to the morphology of the Si such as Si nano wires [2], nano tube [8], double walled nano
tubes [9], 3D porous Si particle [10],10 nm sized Si nano particles [11] and Si hollow nano spheres
[12]. The advantage of these nano structural aspect is i) the provision of empty space to
accommodate the Si volume changes ii) unconstrained strain relaxation without mechanical
fracture during Li insertion[13] . Usually these structures are been supported, encapsulated or
coated by carbon material for providing a good electrical contact [13 -15].Graphene is considered
as a potential electrode material for Lithium ion batteries [5]. To improve the performance of the
batteries, silicon clusters are embedded in graphene sheets [5]. It is observed that this combination
leads to relatively higher power and energy density in the batteries. While the presence of silicon
clusters help in holding larger number of lithium ions, the vacancy defects in graphene help in
transporting lithium ions. Experimental study on composite structures of silicon and carbon indicate
that Si/C composite structures have long cyclic life as well as high lithium storage capacity [6].
Experimental studies are also available in the reversible lithium storage in nano size silicon
graphene composites [7]. Motivated by experimental research works the present study aims at
understanding the lithiation process in Si10H16 NP and Li intercalation process in SinHm/Graphene
composite using first principles methods.The results of this study would be an addition to the
existing first principle study related to the Si/graphene/ composite for Li based rechargeable
batteries.
2.Computational Methods
We consider Si10H16 NP as the basic structure for the Li interaction process. It is conceived from a
bulk cut cluster of 10 Si atoms passivated by 16 H atoms [21, 22]. By removing an H atom from
this NP create a single vacancy, Si10H15 NP.Graphene monolayer is modeled by 9 x 9 supercell
consisting of 162 carbon atoms.A monovacancy is created by removing a single carbon atom from
the supercell. The Lithiation process in NP are calcualted using a 20 x 20 x 20 Å3 supercell .A
supercell in the lateral direction with a 20 Å vacuums in the vertical direction is used for the
calculation of Li / Si10H15 / graphite composite. The relatively large lateral supercell was used to
reduce the interaction of the vacancies with their periodic images so that they could be treated as
isolated defects. We used the calculated value of 2.451Å as graphene lattice constant. A spin
polarized density functional approach (DFT) is used with projector augmented wave (PAW)
pseudo-potentials [23,24]. Exchange correlation energy used for the calculation is from Perdew,
Burke, and Ernzerhof (PBE) [25]. The iterations are performed until the changes in energy and
forces between the consecutive runs are below 0.0001 eV and 0.001 eV/Å, respectively. Gamma
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point calculations are performed for the geometry optimizations under Monkhost pack
scheme.Nudged Elastic Band (NEB) method is used for finding the minimum energy path for Li
transerfer from Si10H15 NP to the graphene surface.
3.Results and Discussions
Fig.1 shows the interaction of Li in Si10H16NP. Three different cases were considered here.1) A
single Li atom has been placed inside of Si10H16 NP. 2) A single Li atom has been place outside of
Si10H16 NP. 3) Two Li atoms have been placed one inside and outside of Si10H16NP. Fig. 1(a)-(c)
shows the corresonding optimized geomerties. From the formation energy values calculated by
using the following equation (1) it is clear that Li doesnot bind with the Si10H16 NP.
Ef = - {E total LixM - x Etotal Li- E total M} -----------------------------------------(1)
Where Ef is the NP formation energy, Etotal LixM is the total energy of hydrogenated silicon NP with
Li, Etotal Li is the total energy of an isolated Li atom, E total M is the total energy of hydrogenated
Silicon NP without Li, x represents the number of Li atoms added in the NP.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.1. Interaction of Li with Si10H16 NP(a) Li inside of Si10H16, Ef =+0.37eV (b) Li outside of
Si10H16 NP, Ef = +0.18eV (c) Li inside and outside of Si10H16 NP, Ef =+0.31eV. Big sphere with
blue colour represent Si atom, small blue colourspheres represent H atom, and white
colour sphere represent Li atoms.(Colour scheme is same for all the figures)
The interaction of Li with a single H vacancy on Si10H16NP shows the improvement in the binding.
In all three cases Li atoms interacted with the Si10H15 NP.Fig. 2 shows the interaction of Li atoms in
Si10H15 NP.In the three different cases as mentioned above Li has bonded with Si10H15NP with a
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Li-Si bond distance lies in the range of 2.3679 - 2.6777 Å. The interaction of Li atoms with this NP
changed the Si –Si bond distances from 2.3319 to a maximum of 2.4772 Å without breaking the Si
structure.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.2. Interaction of Li with Si10H15 NP(a) Li inside of Si10H15, Ef = -1.90eV (b) Li outside of
Si10H15 NP, Ef = -2.76eV (c) Li inside and outside of Si10H15 NP, Ef =-2.82eV.
From the formation energy values it is clear that the presence of vacancy made possible Li
interactions in hydrogenated Silion NP. A vacancy creates dangling bonds and an excess charge
concentrates on that position and helps Li atom to bind with the NP.These characteristics of
hydrogenated Si NP are comparable with the characteristics of crystalline Si during the Li
interactions [15]. Experimental research work shows the improvement in the power density as well
as cycling performance of Li- ion batteries by using the combination of nanostructured silicon and
graphenen with vacancies or defects compared to the commercial graphitic electrode material [14].
After studying the Li interactions in Si10H16 and Si10H15 NP, we have studied the Si10H15NP
interaction on graphene to understand the Li interactions in SiNP/graphene composite. A
monovacancy graphene monolayer is been considered for the same. By removing a single carbon
atom from the graphene surface a monovacancy is created.Fig 3. shows the interaction of Si10H15
on monolayer graphene. The optimized geometry shows Si10H15 NP interacted with the graphene
surface by forming a H-C-Si bond. The Si10H15NP has given its single H which had been attached
to the Si atom having dangline bond.On the graphene surface this H atom is attached to the
carbon atom which is having the dangling bond.Here H-C ,S-C bond distances are respectively
Li Intercalation Process in Si10H15/ Monovalency Graphene Monolayer Composite- Implications towards Li-ion Batteries
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1.09 and 1.98 Å .The binding energy for the combination is -2.13 eV.The presence of vacancy in
both the surfaces helps to bind strongly with a high binding energy.
Fig.3. Si10H15 on monovacancy graphene monolayer, yellow colour sphere represents
carbon atom.
The Li transfering process from inside the Si10H15 NP to the graphene surface has been performed
in to two steps. First to optimize the geometry of Li/Si10H15/monolayer graphene composite, where
the Li atom is placed (i) insdie of Si10H15 (ii) outside of Si10H15. In the next step Nudged elastic
band method (NEB) is used for finding minimum energy paths of the Li transitions from inside to
outside.The optimized geometries of Li / Si10H15 / monolayer graphene composite with binding
energy is given in Fig .4. Fig. 4(a) shows the optimized geometry of Li inside / Si10H15 / monovacancy
graphene composite. Through H-C-Si bond, Li / Si10H15 NP are attached to the graphene
monolayer. The Si-C and C-H bond distances are 2.0560 and 1.0784 Å respectively. Li is binded
inside of the Si10H15 NP and the Si -Li bond distance varies from 2.3852 to 2.6782 Å. The binding
energy of this composite structure is -1.24 eV. Fig. 4(b) shows the optimized geometry of Li outside/
Si10H15 / monovacancy graphene composite. Here Si atom bearing the dangling bond is shared
between C as well as Li atom with bond distances respectively 2.0991 and 2.6060 Å. Li atom is
attached to the graphene surface with a Li-C bond distance of 2.2728 Å. The H-C bond distance is
1.0614 Å. The binding energy of this configuration is -2.30 eV.
(a) (b)
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Fig. 4. Optimized geometry of Li / Si10H15 / monovacancy graphene monolayer composite. where
Li is kept inside and outside of Si10H15 on monovacancy graphene. (a) Li inside (b) Li outside.
For using NEB methods, we have generated three images by changing the position of Li atom
manually.Performing the optimization of these three images along with the optimised geometry of
Fig. 4(a) and (b) as initial and final images, calcualted the minimum energy path for Li atom to
come out of the Si10H15NP. The corresponding images with minmum energy order is given in Fig.
5. From these images, the barrier potential is calculated and it is +0.128eV.These results shows
that Li atom transfer from inside the Si10H15 to the graphene surface is a very low barrier potential
process and Li atom can come very easly to the graphene surface.
Fig. 5. Intermediate three images for the minimum energy path (MEP) for the Li / Si10H15 /
monovacancy graphene monolayer composite (Li / Si10H15 / 9x9_1_G) system.
4. Conclusions
To summarize, the ab initio calculation of Li interaction process in Si10H16 NP reveals the
importance of the vacancy for the Li atom to interact with the NP. This result shows that as in the
case of crystalline Silicon [15], in hydrogenated Silicon NP also role of vacancy is important for
Lithiation process. The minimum energy path for the Li intercalation process in Si10H15/monolayer
Li Intercalation Process in Si10H15/ Monovalency Graphene Monolayer Composite- Implications towards Li-ion Batteries
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graphene composite shows that Li atom can easily transfer from silicon NP to the graphene
surface with very low barrier potential.
Acknowledgement
We thank C-DAC India for the utilization of PARAM series of supercomputers for the calculations.
PF would like to thank Govt. of India for UGC-SRF/NET Fellowship.
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[3] Hatchard T D, Dahn J R ,J. Electrochem. Soc. 151, A838( 2004).
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12, 904(2012).
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[7] E Z Wang, C Zhong, S L Chou and H K Liu, Electrochem. Commun.12, 303( 2010).
[8] Mi-Hee Park, Min Gyu Kim, Jaebum Joo,Kitae Kim,Jeyoung Kim,Soonho Ahn, Yi Cui and
Jaephil Cho, Nano Lett., 9,3844( 2009).
[9] .Hui Wu, Gerentt Chan, Jang Wook Choi, Ill Ryu, Yan Yao, Matthew T. McDowell, Seok Woo
Lee1, Ariel Jackson, Yuan Yang, Liangbing Hu and Yi Cui, Nature nanotechnology,7,
310(2012).
[10] Hyunjung Kim, Byunghee Han, Jaebum Choo, and Jaephil Cho, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47,
10151(2008).
[11] Hyejung Kim, Minho Seo, Mi-Hee Park, and Jaephil Cho, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49, 2146
(2010).
[12] Yan Yao, Matthew T McDowell, Ill Ryu,Hui Wu, Nian Liu, Liangbing Hu, William D Nix, and Yi
Cui Nano Lett. 11, 2949( 2011).
[13] Mi-Hee Park, Min Gyu Kim, Jaebum Joo, Kitae Kim, Jeyoung Kim,Soonho Ahn, Yi Cui, and
Jaephil Cho,Nano Lett., 9(11), 3844(2009).
[14] Xin Zhao, Minjie Li, Kuo-Hsin Chang, Yu-Ming Lin,Nano Research,7(10),1429(2014).
[15] Jinmei Huang, Zhiqiang Wang, Xin Gong, Musheng Wu, Gang Liu, Xueling Lei,Jianxiong
Liang, Hanbiao Cao, Fenjin Tang, Minsheng Lei, Bo Xu,Chuying Ouyang,Energy Technol. 1,
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[17] Zhang X, Brynda M, Britt RD, Carroll E, Larsen DS, Louie AY, Kauzlarich SM, J .Am .Chem
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HONEY BEES HAVE GEOMETRICAL SENSE – A MATHEMATICAL APPROACH
SONAWANE D. S. 1, HIWAREKAR A. P. 2, DHANORKAR G. A.3
1 Vidya Pratishthan’s College of Engineering, Baramati, India, 2 Vidya Pratishthan’s College of Engineering, Baramati, India,
3 Vidya Pratishthan’s College of Engineering, Baramati, India
Abstract
Number theory plays a vital role in Mathematics. Some rare and interesting properties about the less liked number ‘six’ are discussed. Further using mathematical known theory, some real life examples are discussed which convince that other living beings too have mathematical sense. Key Words: Elementary Number theory, Partial differentiation, animal science, maxima, minima.
1. INTRODUCTION Honey bees collect honey which is useful in human life. It is seen that there is uniform shape of a
honeycomb. This fact enables to keep faith on the geometrical awareness of the honeybees. We
realise that for the same perimeter ‘p’ the area occupied by an equilateral polygon with ‘n’ vertices
goes on increasing as ‘n’ increases. In the process, the largest area is given by a circle.
Simultaneously, we must tile a plane surface without any portion missing. This is possible only for
the polygons from triangles to hexagon. Thus, a regular hexagon is the optimal polygon which
gives the largest area such that the neighbouring regular hexagons are well tiles together. Honey
bees are quiet aware of this fact and they are making use of this sound Mathematics in their
routine life.
While watching a cricket match, we eagerly wait for the most exciting stroke of the game - a
soaring six. There are some interesting properties of this less liked and little hated number.
2. MAIN RESULTS
There are various types of numbers such as perfect number, triangular number, prime number,
Armstrong number and many more. An attempt to investigate some interesting properties of the
number ‘six’ is made here.
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2.1 Perfect number: If the addition of all divisors of a natural number excluding itself equals that
number, then it is a perfect number. E.g. 6, 28, 496, 8128,… . One interesting property of a perfect
number is that the sum of the reciprocals of all its divisors is always 2. Another property of a
perfect number is that it is a triangular number. The converse is not true.
2.2 Triangular number: Numbers like 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, … are triangular numbers. This is
because the number of crosses (x) equal to a triangular number can be arranged in the form of a
triangle.
If we group the set of even numbers as (2,4,6), (8,10,12), (14,16,18),… then we find that for every
group, the sum of first two numbers is a multiple of 6 while the third number is also multiple of 6.
2.3 Prime number: A natural number greater than 1 that can be divided only by 1 or itself.
Theorem 2.1: From the set of prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, … ; for every number ‘p’
except 2 and 3, either p-1 or p+1 is multiple of 6.
Proof: A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by 2 and 3 both. For every number p, p-1 and p+1
both are even. i.e. divisible by 2. Further among the three consecutive integers p-1, p and p+1,
either p-1 or p+1 is divisible by 3. Hence, we conclude that for every prime number p except 2 and
3, either p-1 or p+1 is multiple of 6.
{6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, …} is a set of multiples of 6. The last digits are even numbers. Thus, if the
last digit of any number is odd, the number is not divisible by 6. Further when last digit is
i) either 2 or 8, the number obtained by deleting that digit forms the A.P. 1, 4, 7, …;
ii) 4, the number obtained by deleting that digit is from the A.P. 2, 5, 8, …
Now we discuss a very interesting problem which leads to a very important conclusion. For the
same, we have an important theorem as follows.
Theorem 2.2: For the same perimeter ‘p’, an equilateral triangle among all types of triangles gives
the largest area.
Proof: Consider that we have a thread of length ‘p’ units. We have to find the type of triangle
whether equilateral, isosceles or scalene which will produce maximum area. For this, we use the
theory of calculus. Let a, b and c be the sides of a triangle with perimeter ‘p’ such that the area is
maximum. By Heron's formula,
,s s aA ea s s cr b
where 2
a b cs . Here we put .p a b c
2 2 2 2
p p p pArea a b c .
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12 2 2 2
16Area p p a p b p a b .
Let 4 3 2 2 24 4 4 4 12f p p a b p a b ab 2 28 8p a b ab (1)
where a, b are variables and p is a constant. For finding maxima and minima of the function f, we
differentiate it partially with respect to a and b respectively.
we get
3 2 24 8 12 16 8f
p p a b p ab ba
(2)
3 2 24 8 12 16 8f
p p b a p ab ab
(3)
0f
a gives
2 22 3 4 2 0p p a b ab b …
(4)
0f
b gives
2 22 3 4 2 0p p b a ab a … (5)
2 22 4 3 2 0a b p a p pb
2 24 3 4 3 8 2
4
b p b p p pba
2 2 24 3 16 9 24 8 16
4
b p b p pb p pba
2 24 3 16 8
4
b p b p pba
4 3 4
4
b p b pa
4 3 4
4
b p b pa and
4 3 4
4
b p b pa
2
pa and 2a p b
Case i) ,2
pa 2a a b c a b c … (6)
Similarly equation (4) gives b a c … (7)
74 Sonawane D.S., Hiwarekar A.P., Dhanorkar G.A.
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(5) and (6) gives a b b a a b
(6) gives 0c 2
pa and 2a p b . Thus a b with 0c is no more a triangle but a line.
Case ii) 2a p b 2a a b c b b c
Similarly equation (4) gives a c . Thus, 3
pa b c .
22
28 16
fr p pb
a
2
,3 3
8
3p p
r p
2212 16 16
fs p pa pb
a b
2
,3 3
4
3p p
s p
22
28 16
ft p pa
b
2
,3 3
8
3p p
t p
2 4
,3 3
480
9p p
rt s p and ,
3 3
0p p
r .
So, f attains maxima at 3
pa b c .
Hence the theorem is proved.
Area of triagle
221
0.048116 3 3 3 12 3
p p p pp p .
Remarks:
2.1 We conclude that the area of every higher order polygon also will attain maxima when all the
sides are equal. The area of a regular polygon for a fixed value of perimeter ‘p’ will attain maximum
when it is a regular polygon.
Further for any polygon with ‘n’ vertices, the sum of internal angles is 2 180n and each angle of
a regular polygon is 2 180n
n.
2.2 Among all quadrilaterals, a square will give the maximum area. A square with perimeter ‘p’ will
have each side 4
p and hence the area will be
220.0625
16
pp .
2.3 A regular pentagon will have each internal angle 3 180
1085
and corresponding area will be
20.0688p . See Fig.1.
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Fig. 1
2.4 A regular hexagon shown in Fig.2 will consist of six tiled equilateral triangles with each side 6
p
and each angle 3
c
. Hence, the area is 21
6 sin 60 0.07222 6 6
p pp .
Fig. 2
2.5 Thus, for the same perimeter ‘p’ the areas occupied by an equilateral triangle, square, regular
pentagon and regular hexagon are 20.0481p ,
20.0625p , 20.0688p and
20.0722 p respectively.
2.6 As the numbers of sides of a regular polygon ‘n’ tends to infinity, we get a circle. For a circle
with perimeter ‘p’, 2 r p . 2
pr
22 20.0796
2 2 4
p p pArea r p which is even larger than
that in the case of a regular hexagon.
2.7 But it is not possible to tile identical circles close to each other as shown below in Fig. 4 and
Fig.5. Some portion of the plane surface among the circles remains unutilized.
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Fig. 3 Fig. 4
2.8 One more thing is that on a plane surface a number of regular hexagons with equal perimeter
can be tiled together with no any gap between any two regular hexagons which is not possible with
any higher order regular polygon. See Fig. 5 and Fig.6.
2.9 That might be the reason why honey bees love ‘six’. The cells in a bees’ honeycomb are
always hexagonal. Bees might know that the area of a regular hexagon is ultimately larger than
that of an equilateral triangle, square and regular pentagon without wasting any plane surface area
and will hold more honey for the same expenditure of material.
Fig. 5
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Fig. 6
3.CONCLUSIONS
3.1 For the same perimeter ‘p’ the area occupied by an equilateral triangle, square, regular
pentagon and regular hexagon goes on increasing. In the process, the largest area is given by a
circle.
3.2 We can tile a plane surface without any portion missing by a regular polygon of order up to six
only.
3.3 Honey bees are small insects useful to human society as we get nutritious, herbal honey from
them. It is interesting to see that such a small species not only understands but also apply
mathematics in their routine life, why should not the humans?
3.4 Mathematics teaching can be made interesting if we invent examples wherein various living
beings apply mathematics and include such examples in our discussions with proper reasoning,
then the things will definitely be fruitful.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are thankful to Dr. S. B. Deosarkar, Principal VPCoE, Baramati and Vidya Pratishthan,
Baramati for motivation and support to this work.
REFERENCES
[1] Ramana B. V. – Higher Engineering Mathematics, McGraw-Hill.
[2] Bali N. P., Goyal Manish – A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics, Laxmi Publications.
[3] Lagu R. G, Tarey D. T. – The Joy of Mathematics, OXFORD university press.
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon.
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagon.
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IMPACT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON MACROECONOMIC VARIABLES
SAIKAT GHOSH1, DR. AMARESH KUMAR2
1. PG (M.Tech) Scholar, Manufacturing Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur 2. Associate Professor, Manufacturing Engineering Department,
National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to build an effective model which indicates the impact of Quality Management on various Macro-economic variables such as inflation, exchange rate and foreign direct investment. The main assumption taken to establish the relationship is that there is single monetary policy irrespective of the country. A conceptual model has been proposed in this paper and to show the relation, various statistical tools such as scatter diagram, correlation test, Regression analysis, Durbin Watson statics & analysis of variance (ANOVA) are computed by Minitab17. For the purpose of developing this model Gross domestic product (GDP) growth acts as a bridge between Total Quality Management and foreign direct investment (FDI), inflation, exchange rate. Where the first relationship is shown between the Sigma level (Quality management index) and GDP, in the later parts the relation between GDP and Consumer price index (inflation index), FDI and Exchange rate are shown. The mathematical relationships between the variables are also established here. From this analysis we strongly conclude that there is positive relation between Quality Management and GDP, inflation, FDI, exchange rate.
Key Words: Sigma level, GDP, Exchange rate, FDI. 1. INTRODUCTION
This study attempts to correlate Quality Management and Macroeconomic variables.
1.1Quality Management
In any competitive economy, continuous quality improvement is one of the most essential
aspects. Competitiveness is measured by three parameters- quality, price and delivery
[1].Quality has become the most important consumer decision factors in the selection among
competing products and services. The phenomenon is widespread, regardless of financial
institution, or a military defense program [2]. Understanding the market and continuous
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improvement in quality leads the organization towards success and growth. However, the main
goal of implementing quality initiatives has been to increase the satisfaction level of customer
[3].
1.1.1 Sigma level
Sigma level estimates the defects rate per million level opportunities. Generally sigma level
determines how well a process is maintained. The higher the sigma level not only is the
indication of less defect rate but also shows a better quality management.
1.2 MACROECONOMIC VARIABLE
Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies
work. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production,
consumption, savings and investments), and the issues affecting it including unemployment of
resources and the public policies that address the issues like monetary, fiscal and other policies.
Macroeconomics is a study of economy with broader vision. It examines the economic wide
phenomenon such as inflation, economic growth, exchange rate, unemployment rate and many
more. Macroeconomics evaluates the economic growth and performance either in comparison
of other economies or time series analysis. The goal for studying macroeconomics is not to
explain economic growth but also improve the economic policy. Here the term monetary policy
means the management of a specific nation‟s money.
1.2.1 Gross domestic product (GDP)
Gross domestic product equals the total value of goods and services produced in a country
during one fiscal year. Economic growth can be measured by the amount of goods or services
produced in an economy over a specific time period where as economic growth is sated as “a
multidimensional process of change focused on the betterment of the community state, and/ or
country and aimed at producing more „life sustaining‟ necessities such as food, shelter, and
health care and broadening their distribution, raising standards of living and individual self
esteem, and expanding economic and social choice” (Todaro 2005, page 4). Economic growth
and economic developments are often use as an interchangeable term.
Developmental theories would like to add healthcare availability, education attainment, political
freedom and equality of income distribution also with GDP per capita to measure the
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development. Modern theory like to add some more attributes like infrastructure, lack of trade
barriers and fair judicial systems.
1.2.2 Inflation
One of the most important concepts of macroeconomics is inflation. When the price level rises,
each unit of currency buys less goods or services than previous [4]. Inflation affects an economy
in both the positive and negative way. Negative inflation increase in the opportunity cost of
holding money, whereas positive inflation may discourage investment and savings, and if
inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern
that prices will increase in the future. Here for the purpose of examine this study; Consumer
Price Index (CPI) is used. CPI measures changes in the price level of consumer goods and
services purchased by households. The annual percentage change in a CPI is used as a
measure of inflation. Generally developed countries like US, UK, Japan uses CPI as an inflation
index.
1.2.3 Exchange rate
It is the relation between two currencies, rate at which one currency will be exchanged with
another one. It generally indicates the purchasing power of one currency for same item or goods
with the respect of another currency. Abruptly exchange rate shows the competitive value
among those specific countries monetary policy.
1.2.4 Foreign direct investment (FDI)
FDI is a controlling ownership in a business enterprise in one country by an entity based in
another country [5]. FDI is the investment from overseas for merger and acquisition, new
infrastructure growing and reinvestment.
2. MAIN RESULTS
The stated model tries to prove a strong relationship among variables. Data, those are taken to
show the relationships are: GDP vs. Sigma level: Regional economic data from China Statistic
Yearbook, 2010 [6] & GDP vs. CPI, FDI, Exchange rate (time series data from 1980-2010,
India): The World Bank IBRD IDA. The relation 1 is in the context of China and others are in the
context of India, as told previously it is assumed that there is single monetary policy irrespective
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of countries. Here for showing the relationship sigma level, CPI are used as the index of Quality
management and inflation respectively.
2.1 SCATTER DIAGRAM
Scatter diagram is a tool that analyzes the relationship between two variables for a set of data.
The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one variable
determining the position on the horizontal axis and the value of the other variable determining
the position on the vertical axis [7].
Figure 1
87654321
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
Sigma level
GD
P g
row
th
Scatterplot of GDP growth vs Sigma level
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Figure 2
Figure 3
100806040200
10
8
6
4
2
0
Consumer Price Index
GD
P G
row
th
Scatterplot of GDP Growth vs Consumer Price Index
5040302010
10
8
6
4
2
0
Exchange Rate
GD
P G
row
th
Scatterplot of GDP Growth vs Exchange Rate
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Figure 4
It is found that there is positive gradient and linear correlation for the entire fig Nos. 1 to 4. For
this case, to find the correlation factor correlation analysis is done in the next.
2.2 CORRELATION ANALYSIS
Correlation is important because it can easily indicate a predictive connection of data sets. It
tells us two things: direction of the relationship and degree of the relationship. In this paper
Pearson‟s Product Moment correlation coefficient (PPMC) & Spearman‟s rank order correlation
coefficient (Spearman rho) are calculated with the use of Minitab17. Theoretically the range for
these coefficients should be between -1 and +1.
Relationship
No.
Relation between
(Variables)
Pearson‟s Product
Moment correlation
coefficient
Spearman‟s rank
order correlation
coefficient
1 Quality
management
(Sigma level)
GDP
growth
.970 .991
2. GDP growth Inflation .456 .405
0.40.30.20.10.0
10
8
6
4
2
0
FDI
GD
P G
row
th
Scatterplot of GDP Growth vs FDI
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(CPI)
3. GDP growth
Exchange
rate
.325 .290
4.
GDP growth FDI .292 .395
Table 1, Correlation coefficient
Here both the correlation coefficient PPMC and Spearman rho are calculated. For examine the
correlation analysis the higher value of coefficient will be analyzed. For the first relationship
between sigma level and GDP growth Spearman correlation coefficient is calculated as .991,
which shows a very strong correlation between them. For the explanation of GDP growth CPI
relation, PPMC has more numerical value (.456) than Spearman rho. Interpreting this we can
found a moderate correlation among them. PPMC holds greater value (.325) for the Exchange
rate and GDP growth relation also, hence it proves a weak correlation and for the last case,
GDP growth and FDI spearman rho (.395) conclude a correlation of marginal level between
moderate and weak.
2.3 REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression analysis is a statistical process, used for estimating the relationship among various
variables. It specially analyzes how dependent variable changes when independent variable is
changed. For this specific purpose linear, quadratic and cubic regression are analyzed.
Relationship
No.
Relation between
(Variables)
Coefficient of
determination
(
Standard
error of
regression
(S)
F value P value
1 Quality
management
(Sigma level)
GDP
growth
96.6% .0833 28.72 .010
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2 GDP growth Inflation
(CPI)
23.3% 2.11 4.21 .025
3 GDP growth
Exchange
rate
16.1% 2.20 1.73 .185
4 GDP growth
FDI 36.4% 1.92 5.14
.006
Table 2, Regression & ANOVA
According to the numerical value of (largest one) the respective regression type is selected
for the interpretation. Here Cubic regression line is found suitable one for GDP vs. sigma level,
GDP vs. exchange rate, GDP vs. FDI study, and Quadratic regression for GDP and CPI
relation.
2.3.1Interpretation of coefficient of determination (
Coefficient of determination measures how well the regression line represents the data. It is
useful because it gives the proportion of the variance that is predictable from the other variable.
is always in the range from 0 to 1. It represents the percent of data that is closest to the line
of best fit. For the first case it is proved that about 96% of the total variation in GDP growth
attributed to sigma level. On the later part there are almost 23%, 16%, 36% dependency of CPI,
exchange rate and FDI upon GDP growth respectively.
2.3.2 Interpretation of standard error of regression (S)
Standard error of regression represents the average distance between the observed values and
the regression line. Smaller value of standard error is expected because it indicates the
observations are closer to the fitted line. Here for this purpose we have found .08%, 2.11%,
2.20%, 1.92% average distance of the data point from the fitted line, for all the 1 to 4 relations.
S must be <= to produce a sufficient narrow 95% prediction interval [http://blog.minitab.com].
Hence all the values here are in the level that shows a better result.
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2.3.3 Interpretation of P & F value
The P value or calculated probability is the estimated probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
( ). The term significance level ( ) is used here to refer to a pre chosen probability. Hence we
can assume that
Null Hypothesis ( : There are no relationship between the relation no.1,2,3,4
Alternative hypothesis ): there are relationships among the relation no. 1,2,3,4
(Opposite to null hypothesis)
Theoretically when P < α, it is assumed that null hypothesis is rejected. Later Fisher
suggested a probability of one in twenty (0.05) as a convenient cut off reject the null
hypothesis [8] .That‟s why the 3rd relation shows null hypothesis is true and for the other
cases null hypothesis are false.
Here for the respective relations, F values are 28.72, 4.21, 1.73 and 5.14. It is very much
clear that when F to have a value close to 1 it shows the null hypothesis true [9]. So for
this specific purpose the 3rd relation shows the null hypothesis true, else all the relation
depicts that there alternative hypothesis as true.
2.3.4. Mathematical relation
With the help of regression analysis it is found that there is mathematical relationship (according
to type of regression, standard error of regression, value) between all the relations stated
here.
GDP growth= 2.167+.487 - 0.07562 +.004707 ………………………………..
i
GDP growth= 5.977- .0573 + .001540 ……………………………………………
ii
GDP growth= 11.18 -.8288 + .03217 - .000349 …………………………….
iii
GDP growth = 5.378 + 21.72 + 54.9 -259.4 ………………………………
iv
.4867 - .07562 + .004707 3.319 - .01365 + .000566 ……………
v
.4867 - .07562 + .004707 = 9.013 - .8288 + .03217 - .000349 vi
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4867 - .07562 + .004707 = 3.211+ 21.72 + 54.9 -259.4 … vii
2.4 Durbin Watson Test
For examine this rule we can assume that there is no relation for the relation no. 1,2,3,4.
Relationship
No.
Relation between
(Variables)
Autocorrelation
coefficient
(Durbin Watson
statistic)
1 Quality
management
(Sigma level)
GDP
growth
2.01011
2 GDP growth Inflation
(CPI)
2.01991
3 GDP growth
Exchange
rate
1.82998
4 GDP growth
FDI 1.92349
Table 3, Durbin Watson statistic
The values of Durbin Watson test always between 0 and 4. But it totally depends upon the
degree of freedom on both the variable. And after tally both the upper limit and lower limit for all
the cases it is found that there is according to the Durbin Watson table the all the calculated
points lies in the part where probably false. Which proves that there is relation between
sigma level, GDP, CPI, exchange rate. For all the cases DW > , this means that the
regression results are sensible and the model can be accepted.
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3. CONCLUSIONS
Throughout the experiment positive gradient are found for all the scatter diagrams. Linear
correlation has been found among all the variables, in the range from very strong to weak. Later
the coefficient of determination shows a maximum dependency around 96% whereas the lower
as 16%. In the 95% significance level standard error of regression shows its results between
predefined limit. Whereas through the P & F value interpretation the 3rd relation is found to be
null hypothesis true, rest shows the payoff as stated model. Here autocorrelation coefficient
found as significant. Mathematical relationship from regression analysis and DW > make the
proposed model significant.
Quality Management
(Sigma level)GDP Growth Exchange Rate
Inflation
(CPI)
FDI
1 3
4
2
Figure 5, proposed model
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REFERENCES
[1] ATotal Quality Management , B. Janaikrisnan, R.K. Gopal , PHI learning pvt ltd, ISBN No.-978-81-2295-9
[2] A Introduction to Statistical Quality and Control, Douglas. C. Montegomary, John Willey
& sons, ISBN No.-978-0-47-16992-6
[3] An empirical investigation of the relationship between quality initiative and financial performance, Ali Uyar, Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 2008
[4] Why price stability?, Central Bank of Iceland, Accessed on September 11, 2008.
[5] Zhang et al., International conference of Artificial Intelligence and software Engineering, 2013
[6] Utts, Jessica M. Seeing Through Statistics 3rd Edition,Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005, pp
166-167. ISBN No. 0-534-39402-7
[7] Quinn, Geoffrey R; Keough (2002) Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologist (1st edition) Cambridge, UK Cambridge University pp 46-69, ISBN No. 0-521-00976-6
[8] J.H. Zar, Bio-statistical analysis, fifth edition 2010, ISBN No. 0131008463
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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER CONTROLLED ELECTRO-MECHANICAL MOUNT FOR
MANEUVERING AN ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
SANKET GARADE1, PROF. DR. RAJIV B.2 1Department of Production Engineering and Industrial Management,
College of Engineering, Pune 2Associate Professor, Department of Production Engineering and Industrial
Management, College of Engineering, Pune
Abstract
It is essential requirement in area of astronomical research to develop a machine (known as alt-az mount) with which it will be helpful to track and view astronomical objects. This mount will be helpful in maneuvering a telescope and controlling it to point to the desired object in the sky. Computer software will send slew commands (for movement) to the mount which will in turn maneuver the telescope using electronic motors and mechanical assembly of the mount. The mount can be operated in 2 modes – Normal and Scanning. In Normal mode, the mount will simply move the telescope according to the arrow keys (up/down/left/right) selected on the software. In Scanning mode, the telescope will perform a line by line scan of the area of the sky selected in the software.
Key Words: Telescope, mount, alt-az, stepper motor, worm gears.
1. INTRODUCTION
A. Telescope
A telescope is an instrument that gathers light and focuses that light into an image. In turn, this image
can be magnified for viewing. A telescope is mounted in such a way that allows you to swing it freely
from one object to another in the sky.
An astronomical telescope is used to observe celestial objects such as planets, stars, deep-sky-objects
such as galaxies, nebulae, comets etc.
B. Telescope Mounts
Telescope mounts come in various types. The most two common types are equatorial mounts and alt-
az (altitude-azimuth) mounts.
Equatorial mounts are more complex to design but are ideal for astronomical viewing as it allows
movement aligned to the celestial objects i.e. about the polar axis.
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Alt-az mounts are comparatively simpler to design and are primarily meant for terrestrial viewing.
However these mounts are also used for astronomical viewing. The mount discussed in this paper is an
alt-az mount.
C. Need of an automated mount
An automatic mount facilitates fast navigation of the night sky when doing night sky observations.
Compared to manual navigation of the telescope, an automatic mount requires less physical efforts
as well, which can be very higher especially when using heavier telescope (larger than 8 inch scopes)
In cold regions, staying out in the cold for an entire night doing observations can be a problem. In
such cases, the observation can be done by sitting inside a room and controlling the scope using a
computer.
For long exposure photographic observations, a mount is used to avoid star trails which occur due
to the rotation of the earth.
Sky survey is done by many amateur astronomers around the world. In this, they scan an area of
the sky looking for possibly new comets/meteors etc. This scanning can be done with minimum efforts
when using a automated mount.
2. REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATIONS
Load specifications: The mount must be able to maneuver a telescope which is maximum 1kg in
weight and has maximum dimensions: length = 18 inches and diameter = 3 inches
Performance specifications: The mount should have an angular resolution of 0.1°.
Power specifications: The mount must be powered by 12v dc voltage either through a power supply
or a battery.
Dimensions: the mount (excluding the telescope) must fit in a box of 30cm x 30cm x 60cm.
Communication specifications: It should communicate with an external device like PC/laptop over
serial port. This communication will be used to carry the motion commands and information from PC to
the mount and vice versa.
3. Methodology
The entire system will be as shown in the block diagram (Figure 1). The computer will be the master of
the system and will issue commands to the electronic control board. This board will accordingly drive
the stepper motors using the motor driver boards. The stepper motors will be connected to the gear
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boxes which will finally cause the motion of the 2 axes of the mount. The 2 axes will be vertical and
horizontal,
Figure 1- Block Diagram
known as altitude and azimuth axes respectively in astronomical terms. Hence the mount is also called
an “alt-az” mount.
Each gear box contains 1 worm and worm-wheel gear set. The worm is driven by a stepper motor
having step angle 0.9°. The worm-wheel is connected to the load. In case of azimuth motion, the load is
the horizontal turn-table (red colour in Figure 3) along with the attached telescope. In case of altitude
motion, the load is the telescope.
4. OPERATING MODES
The mount will be operated in 2 modes – Normal and Scanning. Overview of the same in shown in
Figure 2.
A. Normal mode
In this mode, the telescope will be simply moved up/down/left/right using the arrows keys on the
software. The resolution of the movement can also be controlled from the software. Lesser resolution
will be used in moving the telescope from one point to another when the points are far away. This will
help is faster movement. On the other hand, higher resolution will be used to perform very small
changes in the telescope’s position. This will result in slower but fine control when pin-pointing to
objects in the field of view of the telescope.
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B. Scanning mode
In this mode, the telescope will be used to scan a particular region of the sky. This kind of scanning
activity, performed by amateur astronomers, is called “sky survey”. Sky surveys result in observing and
finding new celestial objects such as comets.
In this mode, the arrow keys will be used to position the scope to a desired start point in the sky. Then,
the area to be scanned (e.g. 5° x 3°) will be entered along with the desired quadrant.
On pressing the “Zero” button, the mount will begin line-by-line scan of the selected quadrant and will
cover the selected area of scan. The scan will be performed in a pattern where the scope will traverse
the horizontal dimension first (i.e. 5°) and move up/down in a small vertical increment of 0.5° (fixed). It
will again cover the horizontal distance followed by another vertical increment and keep on doing this till
the vertical dimension (3°) is fully covered.
Figure 2 - Operating modes
The speed of scanning can also be selected from the software before beginning the scan.
5. DESIGN
The design of the mount system is split into 3 parts each of which is given below.
A. Mechanical design
The mount is divided 2 sections according to the drive direction – Horizontal drive (blue) and vertical
drive (red). The horizontal drive is enclosed in the base of the mount. It drives the turn-table on which
the vertical dive assembly rests.
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The vertical drive assembly consists of 2 pillars. One pillar houses the vertical drive whereas the other
acts as a support to the telescope. Both these pillars have coinciding shafts which protrude out to
connect to the telescope.
The 3D model of the mount is developed using CATIA V5 software.
Figure 3 - Designed model of the alt-az mount with the telescope
Both the drives have similar construction. Each drive consists of – stepper motor, coupling, worm-wheel
gears and bearings. The stepper motor shaft is connected to the worm shaft through an encoder
coupling. The worm gear is made from EN-8 mild steel and the worm-wheel is made from Phosphor-
Bronze material. The gears are assembled in a housing made of 6mm thick acrylic sheets. 10mm inner
diameter ball bearings are used to support the gear shafts.
B. Electronic design
The electronics module consists of a control board and 2 motor driver boards.
The control board takes commands from the PC over the serial port and in turn gives drive signals to
the driver boards. It also sends back to the PC status of the controller and other information. The
control board uses an ATMega32 micro-controller.
Two driver boards are used, one for each drive. The driver board uses a L297 IC as the stepper motor
controller. It receives the driving clock pulses and other control signals from the control board.
Depending on this, it issues the winding sequences according to the selected step mode and direction.
The winding sequence is given to the driver IC L298N which has a H-bridge driver within. The motor’s
four windings are connected to the four outputs of the L298N in a bipolar motor configuration.
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A stepper motor with 0.9° step angle is used as a prime mover. It is used in full step mode to maximize
the torque output. The motor is of a standard NEMA 17 size.
The control board also has a failsafe feature wherein it stops the mount operation in case of a
communication failure, i.e. if there is no communication received from the PC for a timeout period of 2
seconds.
Figure 4 - Electronic design - block diagram
The schematic and board layout is designed using ExpressSCH and ExpressPCB software
respectively.
The entire electronics is powered from a 12V DC power supply adapter.
C. Software design
The screenshot of the developed software is shown in Figure 5. This software application is used to
control the telescope in both the operating modes.
To start, the COM port of the PC is selected from the drop down menu. The “Connect” button is used to
connect to the selected COM port and then “Start” button is pressed. Default selected mode is
“Normal”. The arrow keys in the “Normal” frame can be used to the move the telescope in the
respective directions.
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Figure 5 - Mount control software interface
By selecting “Scanner” button, the mount enters the scanning mode. Here it needs to be brought to an
initial position using the four arrow keys. Once the initial position is set, the Quadrant and Area is set
and scanning can be started by pressing the “Zero” button. Once scanning has started, the arrow keys
cannot be used till the scanning is complete. If it is needed to stop scanning at anytime, the “Stop”
button can be used to do the same.
The status strip at the bottom of the window gives various statuses received from the mount’s electronic
control board.
The software application has been developed in Microsoft Visual Studio using C# language.
6. CONCLUSION
An alt-az telescopic mount was successfully designed and developed from scratch. The developed
mount was able to achieve the targeted system requirements such as 1Kg load and 0.1° angular
resolution. It is working correctly as per the designed operating modes and their controls. The failsafe
feature is also working as expected and stops the mount in case of communication failure.
References
[1] Permanent Magnet Motor Technology – Jacek F. Gieras
[2] http://www.celestron.com/support/knowledgebase
[3] http://ascom-standards.org/
[4] http://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/
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GaN SCINTILLATOR DETECTOR CHARACTERIZATION SIMULATION GEANT4 SOFTWARE AND VOLTAGE PRE-
AMPLIFIER SIMULATION
SELVA HEPSHIBHA1, DR. P.P. VAIDYA2
1Lecturer, Dept. of Instrumentation, V. P. M. Polytechnic, Thane, India 2HOD, Dept. of Instrumentation, V.E.S. Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India
Abstract
This paper describes GaN as a Scintillator Detector, its properties and its characterization using Geant4 software.
Scintillator Detectors are widely used to detect radiation with very high accuracy, and novel
scintillators are the need of the hour. Actual hardware testing of nuclear radiation detectors is difficult and subject to various legal contingencies, hence software simulation setup of the entire system is the most optimum solution, and this has led to the following research. Also the electronic output of such a scintillator is further processed using a Voltage Pre-amplifier circuit; such that optimum, noise reduced output can be obtained.
Key Words: Scintillator detector; GaN detector; Geant4 software;detector characterization, Voltage Pre-amplifier. 1. INTRODUCTION
The need of nuclear detection covers multitude of areas ranging from agriculture to medicine, from
weapons to power.
There are various types of nuclear radiation detectors like Gas filled detectors (IC), Scintillator
Detectors and Semiconductor detectors.
Scintillator detectors have multiple features that motivate me towards this area of research. Few
of them are listed below:
High density
High efficiency for converting the energy of incident radiation into scintillation photons
Transparency to its own scintillation light (for good light collection)
Good linearity over a wide range of energy
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A short rise time for fast timing applications (coincidence measurements)
Low cost
Radiation hardness
Production capability and
Durability of operational parameters.
There are numerous types of Inorganic Scintillating crystals available in nature in abundance.
This paper puts light on GaN as a novel scintillating detector due to its following properties:
Available in both Wurtzite and ZincBlende crystal structure.
Wurtzite type exhibits Scintillating properties.
Density 6.15gm/cm3
Direct band gap
Excitonic emission around 3.4eV
2. SCINTILLATION PRINCIPLE
If a material gives off light when radiation interacts with it, it is said to scintillate. The amount of light
given off is proportional to the amount of incident radiation. This light can be measured and the
information used to calculate the amount of radiation exposure.
Different types of scintillating material are used to detect different types of radiation. For eg, a thin
layer of Zinc Sulfide is generally used to detect alpha radiation; an Anthracene crystal is used for
beta; and a NaI(Tl) activated crystal detects gamma. The basic functioning of the detector is the
same no matter what type of scintillation material is used.
a. Working of a Scintillator
Crystal structure of inorganic materials determine their energy states and thereby the Scintillation
properties of the same. Electrons have discrete band of energies in crystal lattice: Valence (lower)
& Conduction (Upper). Electrons absorb energy and get elevated to higher levels; however in the
pure crystal form the return of electron to Valence band is inefficient. Further, the typical gap widths
are such that the resulting photon’s energy is too high to lie in the visible range.
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Impurities called as activators are added to create special sites in the lattice, at which the normal
energy band structure is modified from that of the pure crystal. This creates energy states in the
forbidden gap, through which the electrons can de-excite back to the Valence band, and emit light
in the visible range. These sites in the crystal lattice are called Luminescence centres or
Recombination centres.
The extremely low light output of a scintillation pulse, brings to light the need of a device to convert
light signals into usable current pulse, without adding noise to the signal. PMT serves this purpose.
They find applications in optical spectroscopy, laser measurement and astronomy.
B. Study of an existing Scintillator Detector
Figure 1. Image of an Existing Scintillator Detector
Figure 2. Block diagram of the above Scintillator Detector
Scintillati
on Head
Shaping
Amplifier SCA Counter/
Timer
High
Voltage
Supply
Low
Voltage
Unit
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The various components of the NaI(Tl) Scintillator is listed and explained briefly below:
1. Scintillation Head (SH 644/ SH 644W)
a. NaI (Tl) Scintillator
b. Photomultiplier tube
c. Preamplifier
2. High Voltage Unit (HV4831B)
3. Counter timer (EC5104)
4. Single Channel Analyzer (SC604C)
5. Shaping Amplifier (PA 4901)
6. Compact 8K Multi Channel Analyzer system
3. GEANT4 SOFTWARE
Geant4 stands for GEometry ANd Tracking. Geant4 is a toolkit for the simulation of the passage of
particles through matter. It uses Monte Carlo methods. It is the successor of the GEANT series of
software toolkits developed by CERN.
Its area of application includes high energy, nuclear and accelerator physics, as well as studies in
medical and space science. The software is open sourced and is used by a number of research
projects around the world. Geant4 is provided under the Geant4 Software License.
A. Features Of Geant4
Geant4 provides the following features which allow less time needs to be spent on the low level
details, and researchers can start immediately on the more important aspects of the simulation.
(i). Geometry: It is an analysis of the physical layout of the experiment, including detectors,
absorbers, etc. and considering how this layout will affect the path of particles in the experiment.
(ii). Tracking: It is simulating the passage of a particle through matter. This involves considering
possible interactions and decay processes.
(iii). Detector response: It is recording when a particle passes through the volume of a detector,
and approximating how a real detector would respond.
(iv). Run Management: It is recording the details of each run (a set of events), as well as setting up
the experiment in different configurations between runs.
(v). Visualization, Histogramming, Multi-threading, etc.
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4. SCINTILLATION PRINCIPLE
Using this GEANT4 software one can simulate real time scintillator detector behaviour. A nuclear
detector can be characterized with respect to its external construction and experimental behaviour
for given radiation input.
We have considered three different parameters to characterize the GaN scintillator detector
behaviour, the dopant study and the detector thickness.
A. Dopant Study
Figure 3. Energy Band structure of an activated crystalline scintillator
Dopants are required to raise the energy of excitation of the electrons so that light output will
become measurable.
Types of Dopants for GaN
For GaN scintillator detector the various dopants under study are Europium, Indium, Cerium,
Silicon, etc.
Using GEANT4 software we can simulate the effect of these dopants with the base scintillating
material GaN with respect to the number of counts in the peak region. The result is tabulated as
below:
Dopant Total Counts Peak counts Peak to Total Ratio
Europium- Eu 36929 5250 14.21%
Indium- In 36707 4900 13.34%
Cerium- Ce 36714 4900 13.34%
Silicon- Si 36548 5150 14.09%
Table 1. Peak to total ratio of counts for different dopants for 1% doping
According to the above table Europium gives better peak to total ratio of counts as compared to
other preferred dopants.
Activator Excited States
Band Gap
Conduction Band
Scintillation
Photon
Valence Band
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Advantages of Europium as a dopant:
1. Efficient red emission at 622nm used in electroluminescence devices.
2. It gives a relatively simple energy diagram
3. The optical transition between its ground state level and lowest emitting level provides important
information on different Eu3+ centres in the GaN lattice
Dopant Concentration
The following table shows the result of varying the dopant concentration on the count rate. The
dopant considered is Europium (Eu-63).
Dopant Concentration Total Counts
0.1% 36729
0.5% 36799
1% 36859
2% 37008
Table 2. Total counts for different concentrations of Eu as dopant
Thus, we see that increasing the dopant concentration has a direct effect on the total counts
obtained, although not linear. For our further experiments we have fixed dopant concentration to
1%.
B. Detector Thickness
Detector Construction
Figure 4. Energy Band structure of an activated crystalline scintillator
Detector Total Peak Peak to
Source
0.75”
2”
D
E
T
E
C
T
O
R
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Thickness Counts counts Total
Ratio
1” 90960 22734 24.99%
1.5” 130070 38659 29.72%
2” 169177 54584 32.26%
3” 327766 112974 34.46%
Table 3. Variation in peak counts with Detector Thickness
Thus we see that as the detector thickness increases the counts increase indicating that the
absorption of radiation is proportional to the detector thickness.
5. VOLTAGE PRE-AMPLIFIER DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
Figure 5. Multisim Simulation of a Voltage Pre-Amplifier
Figure 6. Multisim Simulation Result of a Voltage Pre-Amplifier
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Since Output of a Scintillator detector is in Voltage units, a Voltage Pre- Amplifier is used. The
circuit diagram of a Voltage preamplifier comprises of an emitter follower configuration for the BJT
which is required for driving the load. As output of PMT is in mV or V, no amplification is required.
6. CONCLUSION
The emerging need for finding alternative sources of energy has attracted many eyes to the nuclear
sector. The alarming effects nuclear radiation could have on human health, along with the necessity
of quantifying the results, within no time; nuclear detection has gained prime importance. These
factors have led to the above study.
Out of the various techniques available for detection my paper puts emphasis on Scintillator
detectors due to its striking features like High conversion efficiency, radiation hardness, etc.
One of the most recent scintillating materials under study is GaN. This detector setup has been
simulated using a GEANT4 software which is a low cost and safe solution for testing the results.
Also the electronic output has been tested using the Voltage preamplifier circuit which is simulated
using Multisim software.
As a future scope the output from GaN scintillator will be applied to the tested circuit and further
modifications will be done to the circuit to get desired output corresponding to energies for standard
sources of radiation.
REFERENCES
[1] William W. Moses, “Current trends in scintillator detectors and materials”, Nuclear Instruments
and Methods in Physics Research A 487 (2002) 123–128
[2] Glenn F. Knoll. “Radiation Detection and Measurement”, Third Edition
[3] Ei Ei Nyein1, Uwe Hömmerich, Chanaka Munasinghe, Andrew J. Steckl, and John M. Zavada,
“Excitation-Wavelength Dependent and Time-Resolved Photoluminescence Studies of Europium
Doped GaN Grown by Interrupted Growth Epitaxy (IGE)”, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 866 ©
2005 Materials Research Society
[4] Agostinelli.S, Allison.J, Amako.K, et.al. “Geant4- a simulation Toolkit”, Nuclear Instruments and
Methods in Physics Research A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and associated
Equipment, 506(3)
[5] Instruction Manual on Scintillator Head, Shaping Amplifier, High Voltage Unit and MCA,
Electronics Coporation of India, Hyderabad.
[6] Principles of Radiation Detection, Nuclear Engg. Lab Manual.
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PROPER HOMOTHETIC VECTOR FIELD FOR MAXIMAL SYMMETRIC TRANSVERSE SPACES
S. D. KATORE1, R. S. RANE2, S. S. DABHANE3 1PG Department of Mathematics, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati
University, Amravati 2Department of Mathematics, Y. C. Arts and Science College,
Mangrulpir 3Department of Mathematics, Dr. Sau. Kamaltai Gawai Institute of
Engg. & Tech., Darapur
Abstract
We study homothetic vector fields for maximal symmetric transverse spaces using direct integration technique. It is shown that above space-time admits proper homothetic vector field.
Key Words: Proper homothetic vector field, direct integration technique, maximal symmetric transverse spaces.
1. INTRODUCTION
Many authors have been examined different types of symmetries and its significant role in the
Einstein’s theory of general relativity[1,2]. Due to lack of linearity property, unlike Killing, affine
symmetry, conformal symmetry, homothetic symmetry is difficult to study[3-6]. Homothetic vector
field is very important to discuss the solution of Einstein’s field equations (EFE). Here four
dimensional, connected, Hausdorff space-time manifold with Lorentz metric of signature
is represented by . For any vector field on can be decomposed as
, (1.1)
where and are symmetric and skew-symmetric tensor on
manifold respectively. If
(1.2)
then X satisfies the equivalent conditions
, . (1.3)
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Then is called a homothetic vector field on . If is homothetic and is non-zero Homothetic
constant, then it is called proper homothetic and it is Killing. The usual notations for covariant,
partial and Lie derivative are denoted by semicolon, a comma, and the symbol respectively.
In this paper we investigate the homothetic vector field of maximal symmetric transverse spaces
using direct integration technique.
2. HOMOTHETIC FIELD EQUATIONS AND THEIR RESULTS
Consider maximal symmetric transverse spaces in usual coordinates (t, r, θ, ϕ) with line element
, (2.1)
where
Using equation (1.3), we obtain the following homothetic field equations for (2.1)
(2.2)
(2.3)
(2.4)
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
(2.10)
(2.11)
Using equations (2.3),(2.4),(2.5) and (2.10) ,we get,
, (2.12)
, (2.13)
, (2.14)
. (2.15)
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where , and are functions of integration. In
order to find (t, r, θ), and we need to solve remaining
six equations. Due to lengthy calculations here we will present results only. It follows that there exist
one possibility when above space-times (2.1) admit proper homothetic vector fields as
, , , .
where , , are constants.
In this case the space-time (2.1) takes the form
,
where and are non-zero constants. The proper homothetic vector fields in this case are
, , , .
where , ,
3. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have studied maximal symmetric transverse spaces according to their proper
homothetic vector field using direct integration technique. After examine all possibilities we found
that there is existence of proper homothetic vector fields and we get new metric for which
homothetic vector fields have been determined.
REFERNCES
[1] Stephani, H., Kramer, D., MacCallum, M.A.H., Hoenselaers, C. and Hearlt, E., Exact Solutions of Einstein’s Field Equations Cambridge University Press, 2003. [2] G.S.Hall, Symmetries and Curvature structure in General Relativity, World Scientific, 2004.
[3] R.F.Bilyalov, Sov,Physics, Vol. 8, 1964, pp. 878-880.
[4] L.Defrise-Carter, Commun.Math.Physics, , Vol. 40, 1975, pp. 273-282.
[5] G.S.Hall, J.Math.Physics, , Vol. 31, 1990, pp. 1198-1207.
[6] Michael Steller, Ann.Geom, , Vol. 29, 2006, pp. 293-311.
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POKA-YOKE AUTO CHECKING SYSTEM FOR B-PILLAR ASSEMBLY COMPONENT
P.V. BHAMARE1, DR. RAJIV B2, MR. B. N. SADAVARTE3
1M.Tech. Student,
2Associate Professor,
Production & Industrial Engineering Dept., College of Engineering, Pune - 411005
3Director Disha Engg and Automation, 25/2, Near CDSS,
Erandawane, Pune, 411005
Abstract
Poka-yoke is a Japanese improvement strategy for mistake-proofing to prevent defects (or nonconformities) from arising during production processes. Poka-Yoke is a preventive action that focuses on identifying and eliminating the special causes of variation in production processes, which inevitably lead to product nonconformities or defects. This paper presents an approach for an automated assembly checking system of B-Pillar component, whether the assembled object are present in the given place or not. The system provides a fast inspection of objects and makes a necessary programmable decision. According to the inspection result of the entire assembled object the respective bulb of that object will response. If there is absence of any object then respective object bulb will not be glow and after the 5 sec Buzzer will start. As per the Indication of Buzzer the worker comes to know that assembled components are either missing or misplaced. There are total six no of assembly component and for detection of that component six no of photoelectric switches are used. One Optical Sensor is used for presence of B-pillar component on the Poka-Yoke. The necessary programmable action is taken form PLC (Programmable logic Controller). Key Words: Poka-Yoke, B-Pillar, PLC. 1. INTRODUCTION
Mechatronics is a branch of science where mechanical, electrical, electronics, and IT should be
considered together in the design stage itself to obtain a compact, efficient and economic
product rather than designing the components separately, which has proven many advantages
in today life. Similarly the industrial automation provides many sophistications & good quality
productivity with electronics, e.g. filling the bottles in the pharmaceuticals industry, printing on
bottle or on tablet boxes is being done automatically with very high speed. The robotics
assembly of a car in automobile industry & material handling in industry with conveyor belts,
management of wear housing & the car parking in market place, video capturing of sensitive
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area is also the major revolution in electronics with automation of conveyor belt, for
transposition of a job, the inspection of jobs assembly also very important. In today’s
competitive world any organization has to manufacture high quality, defect free products at
optimum cost. The new culture of total quality management, total productive management in the
manufacturing as well as service sector gave birth to new ways to improve quality of products.
By using various tools of TQM like KAIZEN, 6 sigma, JIT, JIDCO, POKAYOKE, FMS etc.
organization is intended to develop quality culture.
In early years during inspection of the assembly product was checked and selection and
rejection is done conventionally. Initially this process was manually done by worker but now due
to industrial revolution and automation it is done automatically. Due to automation the chances
of occurrence of error reduces and appropriate product get selected .Thus product quality
increases and expenses can also be lessen. The result is that product quality increases and
decreases the overheads on the product thus the cost of product decreases.
2. RELATED WORK P.R. SenthilMurugan [1] is to design a Mechatronics system to monitor the dimensions of the
product (clevis) using the pneumatics system with the help of Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC).The clevis is placed in the clevis holder, which is used to hold the work piece tightly. Then
the pneumatic cylinders which are controlled by PLC XE 102 extend and retracts based on the
ladder logic diagram. The calibrated gauges are attached in the pneumatic cylinders, if the
GO/no GO gauge travels smoothly inside the hole, it can be concluded that the dimensions of
the hole is in accordance to the specified standard dimensions. This system improves the
dimensional inspection and also eliminates the human errors and can be done at lower cost. R.
B. Nirmal & R. D. Kokate [2] presents sequence detection and monitoring system for geared
shaft assembly based on programmable logic controller (PLC) technology. PLC based assembly
system which recognizes that the worker has to pick up washers, gears, guide sleeves, circlip
etc as per the pre-defined sequence. All sensor output fed to Controller and it will detect the
sequence if it is ok then operation complete indicator will turn glow. If sequence is not follow it
will not process next operation. Main advantage of system is that system is very effective in
preventing defects from being passed to next process which reduces Reworks, Scrap, and
Wrong shipments. Ganesh B.Shinde, Vishal P.Ghadage [3] present hoe to describe the initial
steps in the implementation of PLC based auto weighing control system for automation industry.
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3. B-PILLAR COMPONENT
Fig 1: B-pillar Component with assembled object.
This is the B-pillar Component of upcoming four wheeler of Mahindra. It included the six
assembled component as indicated in the figure 1. The project task is to find out that all six
component is present in proper place or not and if they are not present take a necessary
programmable decision to minimizes the error, increase accuracy and minimizes the time
required.
4. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SYSTEM
Fig 2: Block Diagram of System
Assembly Components
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A. OPTICAL SENSOR
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. Specification: Operating Distance: 3 feet, Operating Temperature: -14° to 158° F (-
10° to 70° C), Power required: 3.3 to 15 VDC @ 40 mA, Standard Cable: 8 feet (2.4 m).
Fig: Optical Sensor
B.PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCH
A photoelectric switch is a device used to detect the distance, absence, or presence of an object
by using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric receiver. They are used extensive
ly in machinery, textile, metallurgy, tobacco, railway, war industry and so on. There are three diff
erent functional types: through beam (opposed) retroreflective, and diffused type (proximity
sensing).
Fig: photoelectric Switch
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C.PLC
PLC is the heart of our project. Optical sensor, photoelectric switch, and the auto cycle and
emergency switch connected to the input module and output module of PLC is connected to
pneumatic cylinder and indicators. [4]& [5] The Programmable Logic controller is solid state
equipment, designed to perform the function of logical decision making for Industrial control
applications. The PLC acts as a total replacement for hard wired relay logic with an effective
reduction in wiring and panel size; and of course, with increase in flexibility and reliability. It has
been experienced that majority of the faults with systems using PLCs are due to external
causes like, malfunctioning of field or external devices such as sensors, limit switches, push
buttons etc. The programming application allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic.
Generally this software provides functions for troubleshooting and debugging the PLC software,
for example, the portion which is highlighted the logic to show the current status during
operation or by simulation. PLC program that is ladder diagram programs are typically written in
a special application or software on a personal computer then downloaded this file by a direct-
connection cable or over a network to the PLC.
D. INDICATOR
Indicators are used to show whether the job is reject or accept by the pneumatic cylinder. There
are total Six no indicators and one Buzzer. The no of indicators is same as no of inspected
assembly component. The buzzer will indicate if the system gives warning to the worker that
something going wrong.
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5. FLOWCHART
Fig: Flowchart of the Process
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6. SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SYSTEM
Fig 3: Schematic representation of project
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7. PROTOTYPE MODEL OF SYSTEM
Fig 4: Prototype model of the System
8. OPERATIONAL FLOW
1) Operator will put component on the resting pad or fixture.
2) After that component automatically sense by the optical sensor and after 2 sec
component will be clamped by two pneumatic cylinders.
3) Press auto cycle button.
4) Sensor holding unit will came forward by the pneumatic cylinder.
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5) If there are all assembled component are present then all respective indicator bulb
will glow.
6) Then punching cylinder will came forward and punch component then sensor holding
unit will retract and cylinder will declamped.
7) End of the cycle.
8) If there is any assembly objects are absent then after 5 sec buzzer will start and red
indicator bulb will glow.
9) The absent object indicator will not glow and declamped is not possible and sensor
holding bracket as it is unless and until operator will push Emergency Switch.
10) After reset, declamped and sensor holder retract then assembled the missing part.
11) Then remove the B-Pillar, Assembled the missing part and reinsert the part on the
system and check it by the next cycle.
9. ADVANTAGES OF THE SYSTEM
1) Enhanced Productivity.
2) The highest level of quality can be achieved.
3) Find errors and correct mistakes - where they occur.
4) Reduce Reworks, Scrap, and Wrong shipments.
5) Flexible configuration allows for maximum efficiency.
6) Accuracy and Speed is more.
7) Faster Control Action.
8) Programming of ladder is short and easy.
10. CONCLUSION
In industry the production speed should be high because the demand of the product is more.
But when we inspect the object manually then it will take more time for inspecting the
component and overall speed the production will decrease. So by using this POKA-YOKE auto
checking co system we totally overcome this problem. Indicating 30% increase in production.
With this monitoring system error will be detected while processing which results in zero
rejection. Despite the simplicity of the method used, this system presents: Higher efficiency.
Lower operating cost. Accuracy in monitoring. Thus, this system proved to be a versatile and
efficient Control tool in an automobile industrial application.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I owe many thanks to many people who helped and supported me during the execution of this
project. My deepest thanks to Dr. Rajiv B. the guide of project and Mr. B .N. Sadavarte for
giving me the opportunity to doing Internships in their company .Both the guide are guiding and
correcting various technical details and documents of mine with attention and care. They have
taken pain to go through the project and make necessary correction as and when needed.
REFERENCES
[1] P.R. Senthil Murugan Programmable Logic Controller based Mechatronics System for
Metrological Inspection of Clevis.
[2] R. B. Nirmal & R. D. Kokate PLC based Sequence detection & monitoring system for geared
shaft assembly International Journal of Electronics, Communication & Instrumentation
Engineering Research and Development (IJECIERD).
[3] Ganesh B.Shinde, Vishal P.Ghadage PLC Based Auto Weighing Control System
International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) ISSN: 2321-0869,
Volume-3.
[4] Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers” Cengage Learning-India edition-Garry
Dunning-3 rd Edition-2012.Page 33-54,141-149.
[5] Programmable Logic Controller” s-John W .Webb.Ronald A. Reis- 5 th Edition-
2009.page38-40.
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PROTEO: A NEW APPROACH TO NETWORK-ON-CHIP
AATRAY KUMAR SINGH
ELECTRONICS (VLSI & EMBEDDED SYSTEM) MIT ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
PUNE 412105
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to present the basic ideas behind the development of our Network-on-Chip (NoC) architecture, called Proteo. The system designers are moving into higher abstraction levels and usage of reusable IP (Intellectual Property) blocks is increasing. The communication between the IP blocks is of increasing importance and thus also be designed in a reliable and fast way. One proposed solution to this problem is to use Network-On-Chip (NoC) architectures, which are built up from reusable interconnect IP blocks. In this paper an interface router IP for Proteo network is introduced and implemented. The network implements packet switching in a hierarchical topology. A NoC needs a considerable amount of resources that can be shared with other system level tasks, like power saving and fault tolerance mechanisms.
1. INTRODUCTION As the feature dimensions scale down to deep submicron regime (below 0.25 m) the integration
density is not limited by the individual feature sizes e.g. of circuit metallization layers, but by
electrical phenomena, capacitive and inductive crosstalk between the interconnect lines. These
effects will have a great impact in maximum operating frequency and power consumption. In this
environment, communication within logic blocks will still be synchronous, but between them it will
become asynchronous in order to solve the problem of clock skew and delay. This is the Globally
Asynchronous Locally Synchronous (GALS) paradigm. In the System-on-Chip (SoC) designs of
the future there will be hundreds of functional IP blocks and a large amount of embedded Dynamic
Random Access Memory (DRAM) in a single chip. Communication requirements in this kind of
systems are very demanding, because each of those IPs can communicate in Gbit/s range. Due to
increased communication requirements the traditional bus-based solutions are not useful anymore,
thus new kind of communication architectures must be developed. One proposal to solve the
communication paradigm in SoC designs is to use NoCs, which are built up from reusable IP
blocks. These networks are scalable because there can be as many Intellectual Property (IP)
blocks as needed connected into the network, without dramatic problems in wiring delays,
capacitance, clocking etc. The global interconnects need to be treated as similar IP blocks as
processor cores or embedded memories. New flexible and configurable communication channel
architectures need to be identified. These communication channels will not form dedicated buses
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as currently implemented on-chip and on PCBs, due to noise and scalability speed constraints.
Thus, the overall communication scheme will resemble more computer networking than traditional
bus based design. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides the reader with a
practical understanding of the Proteo network. Then section 3 is dedicated to the architecture of
the proteo network on chip. Then in Section 4 the interface router is explained in more details.
Section 5 is dedicated to the synthesis results of the router and Section 6 for the reconfigurable
noc design. Then section 7 provides the protocols for the proteo noc. Eventually sections in 8,
conclusions are drawn and also the present limitations of this router and future research are
discussed.
2. PROTEO NETWORK ON CHIP
The NoCs are constructed from several basic building blocks, like routers or switches, bridges,
links etc. The routers are used to route packets from one place to another. The IP blocks are
also connected into them through some fixed interface. The bridges can connect several sub-
networks together and the links are used to connect all building blocks together. Characteristics
of the network used are strongly depending on how these basic blocks are implemented. This
paper presents a flexible layered interface router IP implementation of the network router for the
Proteo NoC. Proteo network is an on chip packet-switching network, which is developed in TUT
to solve communication problems of the future SoCs. Proteo can be seen as a set of
interconnection IP, which connects functional IPs together.
The Proteo network is constructed from two kinds of blocks: interface router IP and bridge IP.
The interface router IPs are used to connect functional IPs to the network and bridge IP is used
to connect several sub-networks together. An example network is shown in Fig. 1. In this
example there are three sub-networks connected together with two bridges. Nodes with two input
output link pairs have been used in sub-network 1, of which topology is a bi-directional ring.
Topology of the other sub-networks can be selected freely. Possible topologies are for example
different kinds of trees and meshes. There can be also other sub-networks behind these sub-
networks. Proteo does not restrict the complexity of the network topology. The Proteo NoC
supports several different kinds of communication protocols, network topologies and packet
formats. The Proteo NoC is described on two different abstraction levels. This paper
concentrates on the low-level model of the interface router IP. These models are used for logical
implementations, as well as to estimate physical properties like area, latency and delays of the
Proteo network. There are also high-level models of Proteo building blocks, used for
performance estimations and simulations of the larger networks. More detailed description of
Proteo architecture, its protocol, packet formats and different kind of building blocks can be found
in.
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Fig. 1: Example Network.
3. THE PROTEO ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of our system is discussed at a more physical level.
A. Overview
The basic hardware elements in our network are hosts, nodes and links. Every host will be
connected to the network using a dedicated node as a wrapper. Our nodes present a VSIA
compliant interface. This standard specifies three different downwards compatible Virtual
Component Interfaces (VCI):peripheral (PVCI), basic (BVCI) and advanced (AVCI). Links and
nodes are available as part of a library. They include parameters to customize their number of
channels and dimensions, their interface options, supported data sizes and protocol features,
based on requirements of functionality, throughput and Quality of Service (QoS).
Our target domain is that of heterogeneous systems, with many different types of IPs co-working
in the same chip. The system is divided in clusters, using a hierarchical network. This will
comprise multiple subnets with different performance, topologies, packet formats, etc. The
subnets are typically point-to-point structures, so each link can be effectively tuned to its
individual traffic requirements.
B. Topologies
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Currently, the topology being explored is a hierarchical network built from a system-wide
bidirectional ring and several subnets with star (or bus) topology (Fig.2). The use of regular
topologies allows easy routing and direct replication of blocks throughout the system.
The connection of a host to the main ring or to a subnet depends on the available information at
the host interface level: stars are formed with BVCI elements, while blocks implementing the
AVCI interface can be attached directly to the ring. An interesting property of stars is that they
allow the presence of several BVCI initiators in the same cluster, which is not supported directly
by the standard.
Fig. 2: Example topology.
In the star topology well define two types of node: the satellite, which wraps in packets the
information presented at its interface, and the hub, which keeps track of the pending transactions
and routes the packets from node to node, while connecting the star to the rest of the network.
The ring nodes are essentially homogeneous, implementing different features depending only on
the needs of the hosts attached to them.
C. Hardware Elements
The architecture of a typical node is inspired in SCI standard, which is a standard interface
developed for multiprocessor systems. SCI implements a rich set of mechanisms covering most
of the needs of high performance systems. Our node architecture extends the basic SCI
architecture to allow a configurable number of dimensions and channels (Fig.3 and 4).
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Fig. 3: Basic node architecture.
We have chosen a highly modular structure that makes easy its configuration and tuning. Links
provide a high level interface, so they are effectively treated as modular elements and
independently tuned. It must be easily modifiable and extensible, so we can use it to compare
the behavior of different design choices.
It must be relatively lightweight, so that large networks can be simulated. As we develop a
synthesizable version of the different blocks, we should be able to back annotate the information
we gather from the physical implementation in the high level model. Models at other levels of
abstraction can be easily co simulated, for example synthesizable blocks. We could use the
model for verification of the final design.
Fig. 4: Extended node architecture with three I/O links and
two channels in the first link.
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4. STRUCTURE OF INTERFACE ROUTER IP
The basic structure of the interface router IP consists of one incoming link and one outgoing link.
This approach allows Fig. 5: Structure of the router IP. only one-directional communication in a
simple ring topology. If the designer wishes to use bi-directional communication or more complex
topologies, the basic structure is duplicated and the interface router IP is constructed from
several layers. This layered approach allows us to build up networks with different kind of
topologies. The interface router IP with two layers and two input-output link pairs is presented in
Fig. 2.
The interface standard used defines that there can be two different kinds of actors in
communication, called initiator and target. The initiators can generate requests to the target and
the target can only respond to these requests. Because of this definition we must also design two
different kinds of interface router IPs. The basic structures of both routers are similar to each
other. Because Proteo is a re-usable and flexible communication network there has to be a well-
defined interface to connect different kinds of functional IP blocks into it. The interface used
between interconnection IPs and functional IPs is Virtual Component Interface (VCI), which is
defined by VSI Alliance.
Fig. 5: Structure of the router IP.
The VSI Alliance defines three different versions of the VCI, Peripheral Virtual Component
Interface (PVCI), Basic Virtual Component Interface (BVCI) and Advanced Virtual Component
Interface (AVCI). Currently Proteo network supports BVCI and AVCI standards. The
implementation in this paper uses BVCI. The interface is used to generate Proteo packets from
VCI standard signals when the functional IP sends data into the network and on the other end it
will extract those signals from packets.
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There are several FIFOs in each interface router IP. Those FIFOs are called Output, Input and
Bypass FIFO. All the
FIFOs are generic register banks and they are used to store packets. The Output FIFO is used to
store packets from the functional IP block to the network. The packets that have been sent are
stored in the Output FIFO until the interface deletes them from there. Before deleting, the packet
can be sent again if the interface is requested to do so. The Input FIFO is used to store packets
from the input link to the interface and the By Pass FIFO is used to store packets which are
bypassing the interface router. The Input and By Pass FIFOs are simple FIFO buffers without
any kind of re-send capabilities. The Input FIFO is a little different from the By Pass FIFO,
because the Overflow Checker can delete the start of the packet from it if the entire packet does
not fit into it. The Multiplexer and De-Multiplexer blocks are used to handle traffic between the
interface block and different layers. These blocks are left out in case when there is only one layer
in the interface router IP. The Multiplexer block is used to direct packets from the Input FIFOs to
the Interface. It checks the status signals from Input FIFOs and if there is a packet in some FIFO
it will tell that to the Interface. After the Interface has read the entire packet from the FIFO the
Multiplexer starts checking FIFOs again. The De-Multiplexer block reads packets from Output
FIFO, detects their destination address and according to a routing table it routes packets to the
correct Distributor block.
The Greeting block receives packets from the previous node. First it detects the packets
destination address. Then
it compares the destination address to its IP block address and if they are equal it writes the
packet to the Input FIFO through the Overflow Checker. If the addresses are not equal it writes
the packet to the By Pass FIFO. The Overflow Checker block receives packets from the Greeting
block. This block is used to check the contents of the packet. The Overflow Checker also checks
that the entire packet fits into the Input FIFO. In case that the Input FIFO becomes full in the
middle of the packet the Overflow Checker controls the Input FIFO so that the start of the packet
is deleted. When the Overflow Checker deletes a packet from the Input FIFO it will also generate
a Re Send packet to the sender IP block. The Re Send packet will take care of the re-
transmission of the original packet.
The Distributor block is used to transmit packets to the output link from the FIFOs. The
Distributor waits as long as there is a packet in some FIFO and then transmits one packet from
that FIFO. The priority of the FIFOs can be changed very easily, but in default the highest priority
is for the ByPass FIFO, next priority is for the Overflow Checker and the lowest is in the Request
FIFO. This default priority secures that the network traffic through the interface router is not
delayed. Also more complex arbitration schemes can be implemented.
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5. PROTOCOLS
If the communication needs are characterized correctly, we can enable/disable protocol features
at each node. Just a basic packet format has to be defined and kept throughout the network
(Fig.5).
Fig. 6: Generic packet format.
In the stars the transactions can be split or not, depending on the interfaces involved (PVCI or
BVCI). The requester places its request at the node interface. The node converts it to packet
format. The star-hub takes this packet and delivers it to the target node, while logging in an
internal table the start of the transaction. Given that these basic interfaces don’t support out-of-
order responses, the next packet presented by the target node will be sent to the first pending
requester in the list for that node. In this way well allow the use the PVCI and the BVCI in multi-
requester environments. When the target of the transaction is not in the star, the star-hub adds
the extrain formation needed to the packet and forwards it to the ring.
In the ring, transactions are split and out-of-order responses are allowed. The AVCI-interface
presented by the blocks
attached to the ring provides more information about the transaction, like node, thread and
packet identifiers. The nodes can be made quite simple and still form complex networks,
because their functionality is restricted to the lower levels of the protocol stack.
6. PERFORMANCE
There are several methods how the performance of the network can be estimated. There are
several things that affect to total performance figures, like maximum clock frequency, latency
through the synchronous parts, etc. Maximum allowed clock speed is estimated from the
synthesis results. In this technology the maximum achievable clock frequency is 1GHz. Latency
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of the interface router IP can vary a lot depending on the current status of the network. The
latency through the router can be quite small if there is no packet in the Output FIFO. On the
other hand if the Distributor is just sending a packet from the Output FIFO the bypassing packet
must wait in the By Pass FIFO until the packet is sent.
Minimum latency of the bypassing packet is four clock cycles, when the maximum latency can
be calculated as in (1).
Imax=4+ PL/WW............................ (1)
In (1) PL defines the maximum packet length in bits and WW defines the word width in bits. The
latency figures from the input link to the functional IP block and from IP block to the output link
are very similar to each other. Typical latency in these cases is similar to the maximum latency of
the bypassing packet. Total performance of the network can be also estimated with different
kinds of test cases. In the test case the network is used to handle traffic caused by some test
program, this kind of test cases can be found from.
7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
The future of highly integrated systems is pointing at a network-on-chip solution to the problems
of interconnection, productivity and heterogeneity. We are trying to extend our NoC proposal to
the fields of testing, fault tolerance and low-power techniques. The synthesizable interface router
IP block for Proteo NoC implementation was presented. The presented interface router IP is
constructed from several layers. The interface router IP can be used to implement packet
switching NoC architectures with different kinds of topologies.
Implementation of the interface router does not restrict the complexity of the network topology.
The interface router
IP uses VCI interface standard to connect the functional IP blocks into the Proteo network. The
interface router IP was designed using VHDL and it was synthesized with Synopsys and 0.18mm
standard cell technology. The achieved area and performance figures were also presented. The
area figures show that onchip communication can be handled with Proteo network with tolerable
area penalty. Future plans include: demonstrate the feasibility of complex hierarchical networks
using our approach, obtain estimates of network and protocol performance by means of
simulations and finish the implementation of the basic set of building blocks and gather low level
statistics.
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REFERENCES
[1] David Siguenza-Tortosa, Jari Nurmi”Proteo: A New Approach to Network-on-Chip”, IEEE
Oct,2002
[2] Avi Kolodny”Networks on Chips (NoC) Keeping up with Rents Rule and Moores Law”, IEEE
March 2007
[3] Kangmin Lee, Se-Joong Lee, and Hoi-Jun Yoo,”Low-Power Networkon- Chip for High-
Performance SoC Design” IEEE 2006.
[4] Benini, L., De Micheli, G.: Networks on Chip: A New SoC paradigm. IEEE Computer 35(1),
January 2002, pp. 70-78.
[5] Robbe Vancayseele, Brahim Al Farisi, Wim Heirman, Karel Bruneel and Dirk
StroobandtRecoNoC: a Reconfigurable Network-on-Chip,. IEEE,2010
[6] P. Guerrier and A. Greiner, ”A Generic Architecture for On-Chip Packet-Switched
Interconnections”, Proc. Design, Automation and Test in Europe (DATE) 2000, 250-256.
[7] A. Hemani, A. Jantsch, S. Kumar, A. Postula, J. O berg, M. Millberg, and D. Lindqvist,
Network on a chip: An architecture for billion transistor era, in Proceedings of the 18th IEEE
NorChip Conference. IEEE, November 2000.
[8] Sonics micronetwork: Technical overview. http://www.sonicsinc.com/Pages/ Networks.html.
[9] SystemC website. http://www.systemc.org/.
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FinFET TECHNOLOGY: A REVIEW
ABHIJIT B. DALVI MIT Academy of Engineering Alandi(D), Pune, 412105
Abstract
Right from the beginning till today, Planar technology has gone through huge amount of scaling. Today’s state-of-the-art Process technologies have minimum feature size of the order of few tens of nm. For example 45nm, 28nm.Though technology scaling is providing advantage in terms of Speed, other effects because of very short device geometries are becoming prominent and have posed a question or kind of brought a limit on further scaling of Planar CMOS technology. This brought in a major change in MOS device structure itself. People have started looking for alternative structures of MOS devices and are also looking for different technologies like CNT to continue further scaling and to Moore right. This paper tries to review one such technology called FinFET. It is MOS device with change in structure. In this paper we will see the structure of the device and also see how this new device structure tackles problems posed by conventional Planar Technology.
Key Words: MOS devices, CNT
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the advent of semiconductors and throughout the long history of designing integrated circuits
for everything from computer hardware to multifunction mobile devices, the basic tenet of Moore's
law has remained the same: the number of transistors on a given area of silicon doubles every two
years. Between the foundries developing advanced process nodes and their consumers' insatiable
demand for more functionality, the industry has fulfilled Moore's Law. The transistor count on
today's advanced multi-core processors is reaching the 3billion range, a long way from the 6800
processor of the mid 1970s that had just 5000 transistors[1].
Digital CMOS ICs rely on how well a MOS device acts as switch. Ideal switch has infinite
resistance in OFF state and zero resistance in ON state. Practical switch should have very high
OFF resistance and very low ON resistance.MOS device behaves quite well as a switch when
device geometries especially its length is high. But when length starts to shrink many short channel
effects come into picture and switch level behaviour starts degrading. This is what is being seen in
current nanometer technologies. This deviation is mainly because of sub-threshold characteristics
are affected by scaling. When sub-threshold characteristics approach characteristics after
threshold, then device no more acts as switch, it acts as resistor.In MOS device channel region is
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controlled by Gate voltage. Device performance is defined by how much influence gate has on
channel area. As influence of gate decreases, leakage from source to drain increases which in turn
degrades OFF resistance[4].
New MOS device structure explained in here, provides greater control over channel region, by
controlling it from multiple sides. Multiple device structures are proposed which provide greater
control over channel region. FinFET belongs to a class of Multigate Devices or MuGFETs. One
more process technology called Ultra Thin Body SOI is also a competitor with FinFET technology.
In this paper structure of finFET and its effect over performance is reviewed. FinFET technology
currently supports gate lengths of 14 to 16nm. The main advantage of FinFET is that, finFETs can
be fabricated using conventional CMOS process technology.
2. STRUCTURE AND ELECTRICAL BEHAVIOUR
The graph shown in Fig.1 shows ID vs VGS for varying device sizes. As device sizes shrink
leakage increases and therefore we get higher values of IOff and when it tends to be almost equal
to ON state current of device, switch behaviour is lost. Device starts acting as resistor. To reduce
IOff and improve sub-threshold slope, better control over channel is required. This can be achieved
if we control channel from multiple side, which is main idea behind finFETs.
Fig. 1. VI characteristics for varying device geometries
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Fig. 2. Planar Vs finFET device structures
Fig.2 shows FET in Planar and FinFET technology. As can be noticed from figure, source and
drain regions are lifted upwards, they are taller and thinner. In finFET gate wraps around the thin
fin from multiple sides as compared to only one top side in planar technology.
In MOS device, influence of Gate over channel is limited to very small region near gate. Remaining
region is uncontrolled and charge leaks through these regions. In finFETs, Since channel region is
very thin and controlled from both sides, we get better OFF and ON resistance and lesser IOff
values. Fig.3 depicts different multi-gate structures including fin-FET device.
Fig. 3. Multigate Device Structures
Yellow colored region is channel. Region shown by purple colour is Oxide and Pink Colour shows
Bulk region. As can be noticed from finFET structure in Fig.3 gate is on three sides of channel
region separated by thin Oxide layer. However, thickness of oxide on top side is more as
compared to sides. This is done to improve electrostatics of device. That is why finFETs are
double gate devices. The ideal structure for FET will look like GAA-Gate All Around structure with
gate wrapping fully aroung channel region as shown in fig.3.But fabrication of such a structure is
quite difficult, so people resorted to finFET or TriGate Structures[2].
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3. TECHNOLOGY
This section lists some important aspects of finFET fabrication. Fig.4 shows a cross sectional view
of a fabricated FIN.
Fig. 4. Formation of a fin
Formation of fin includes following steps.
1. Deep trenches are dug into Silicon bulk.
2. Trenches are filled with Oxide.
3. Some extra oxide from trenches is etched back to reveal fin Structure.
As device structure is changed effective width is addition of two fin heights and fin width. This
might help in achieving higher integration density, but is limited by fin pitch which is distance
between adjacent fins[1].
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Fig.5 shows 22nm finFET fabricated by Intel.
Gate is wrapping aroung number of fins can be easily seen. Each fin is an individual MOS
transistor. Dimensions of Fins and spacing between them are not in control of designer, as
compared to planar process. This means that, device widths cannot be varied continuously and
they are discrete.
4. CHALLENGES
1. Reducing Fin height variability is a major challenge. Using SOI over process partly eliminates
this problem, but is costlier.
2. Problems related to double patterning come into picture. Double patterning increases number of
Fabrication steps and this variability. It include variation parasitics because of misalignment.
Effects of double patterning must be considered while RC extracting circuits.
3. Design rules have become quite complicated.
4. Since device geometries shrink, electromigration increases.
FinFET Technology: A Review 133
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5. CONCLUSIONS
In this Paper we reviewed finFETs and tried to compare it with Planar MOS device. Following
conclusions are drawn.
1. FinFETs have better I-V characteristics as compared to device of same size in Planar
technology.
2. FinFETs are easy to scale and can be fabricated using same planar CMOS processes.
3. FinFETs can be fabricated over bulk or SOI.
Double Patterning is used in this technology as device geometries and spacing are quite small.
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