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Global inequality: A new approach for the age of globalization A book talk Branko Milanovic May 1, 2016

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Page 1: Presentation: Global inequality: A new approach for the ... Global inequality - … · Inequality driven by technological innovation and structural transformation (two technological

Global inequality: A new approach for the age of 

globalizationA book talk

Branko MilanovicMay 1,  2016

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The structure of the book

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Chapter 1. Current globalization, mid‐1980s to today: The rise of the global middle class and 

global plutocrats

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Real income growth at various percentiles of global income distribution, 1988‐2008 (in 2005 PPPs) 

From twenty_years\final\summary_data

X“US lower middle class”

X “China’s middle class”

Branko Milanovic

$PPP2

$PPP4.5 $PPP12

$PPP 180

Estimated at mean‐over‐mean

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Real PPP

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Why we do it? Political implications

• The objective of the work on global inequality is not just a description of the changes but drawing lessons on their political implications

• Point A  raises the issue of future political inclusion of the Chinese middle class

• Point B, of rich countries’ democracy in condition of income stagnation among many relatively poorer groups

• Point C, of global plutocracy

Branko Milanovic

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Global growth incidence curve, 1988‐2008 (by percentile)

Branko Milanovic

mean growth

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2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 100percentile of global income distribution

Usincg c…\twenty_years\dofiles\mygraphs

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Branko Milanovic

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Cumulative real per capita

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Percentile of global income distribution

Real income growth over 1988‐2008 and 1988‐2011  (based on 2011 PPPs)

1988‐2011

1988‐2008

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Global income distributions in 1988 and 2011

Branko Milanovic

twoway (kdensity loginc_11_11 [w=popu] if loginc_11_11>2 & year==1988, bwidth(0.14) title("Figure 3. Global income dstribution in 1988 and 2011")) (kdensity loginc_11_11 [w=popu] if loginc_11_11>2 & year==2011, bwidth(0.2)) , legend(off) xtitle(log of annual PPP real income) ytitle(density) text(0.78 2.5 "1988") text(0.65 3.5 "2011") xlabel(2.477"300" 3"1000"   3.477"3000"   4"10000" 4.699"50000", labsize(small) angle(90))Using Branko\Income_inequality\final11\combine88_08_11_new.dta

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log of annual PPP real income

Figure 3. Global income dstribution in 1988 and 2011

Emerging global “middle class” between $3 and $16

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Chapter 2. Inequality within countries: introducing Kuznets waves (cycles) to explain 

long‐term trends in income inequality 

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A1. Kuznets’ cycles in societies with a stagnant mean income

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How do societies with stagnant mean income look like?

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Seven centuries of GDP per capita in Italy, 1300‐2011

Data provided by Giovanni Vecchi.

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From Prados de la Escosura & Alvarez-Nogal, “The rise and fall of Spain 800-1850”

Cyclical nature of the Kuznets curve: Land rental/wage ratio over the long-term in Spain, 1282-1842

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Wool and wine production, rising demand for land, commercialsociety

Wars, decline of wool exports

Napoleonicwars

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Kuznets curve here? No. 

14From Prados de la Escosura & Alvarez‐Nogal, “The rise and fall of Spain 800‐1850”

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GDP per capita and rent‐wage ratio: Spain 1325‐1840

Land/wage…

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Key idea & key difference between pre‐industrial and industrial societies

• Kuznets cycles in pre‐industrial societies are visible only over time (since income is quasi fixed). They are mostly driven by non‐economic changes: conquests, wars, epidemics.

• Link between Kuznets and Malthusian cycles in pre‐industrial societies; but Kuznets cycles are broader because they are not necessarily driven by demographic changes 

• Little room for large increases in inequality because the average income level was very low (recall the inequality extraction ratio: inequality is limited by the level of average income)

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A2. Kuznets’ cycles in societies with a rising mean income

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Kuznets waves defined• Kuznets waves in modern societies are visible when plotted against income per capita. Inequality driven by  technological innovation and structural transformation (two technological revolutions), globalization and politics and policies. But also wars.

• Cyclical movement of inequality: long Kuznets waves, often over fifty years 

• Kuznets  saw just one curve. We now know there may be many more.

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Malign and benign forces reducing inequality (downward portion of the Kuznets wave)

Malign Benign

Societies with stagnant mean income

Idiosyncratic events: wars (though destruction), epidemics, civil conflict

Cultural and ideological (e.g. Christianity?)

Societies with a rising mean income

Wars (through destruction and higher taxation: War and Welfare), civil conflict

•Widespread education (reflecting changing returns)•Social pressure through politics (socialism, trade unions)•Aging (demand for social protection)•Low‐skill biased TC •Cultural and ideological (pay norms?)

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19US_and_uk.xls

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Kuznets relationship for the UK, 1688‐2010

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19781962

1993

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2010

1913

Source: Ginis: for 1688, 1759, 1801, and 1867 from social tables for England/UK (as reported in Milanovic, Lindert and Williamson); for 1880 and 1913, from Lindert and Williamson (1983, Table 2); from 1961 to 2010, official UK data (disposable income per capita) kindly calculated by Jonathan Cribb, Institute for Fiscal Studies. GDP per capita from Maddison project 2014 version.

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Kuznets relationship for the United States, 1774‐2013

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19471979

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1933

Source: Ginis: 1774 and 1860 from social tables created by Lindert and Williamson (2013). 1929. Radner and Hinricks (1974);  1931 and 1933: Smolemsky amnd Plotnick (1992). GDP per capita from Maddison project 2014 version. From 1935 to 1950 from Goldsmith et al (1954); from US Census Bureau, Income, poverty and health insurance coverage in the United States (various issues); gross income data adjusted to reflect disposable income. 

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21Source: Ginis: from 1861 to 2008 from Brandolini and Vecchi (2011) and personalu communication; for  2010 from LIS. GDP per capita from Maddison project 2014 version

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Kuznets relationship for Italy, 1861‐2010

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Kuznets waves look more dramatic in logs…

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Kuznets relationship for the United States, 1774‐2013

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Kuznets relationship for the UK, 1688‐2010

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19781962

1993

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1913

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Downswing of Kuznets first cycle and upswing of the second Kuznets cycle in advanced economies

Level of maximum inequality (peak of Wave 1)Gini points (year)

Level of minimum  inequality (trough of Wave 1)(year)

Approximate number of years of downswing of the Kuznets wave

Reduction in inequality (Gini points)

GDP increased (how many times) during the downswing

The second Kuznets wave (increase in Gini points)

United States 51 (1933) 35 (1979) 50 16 4 Strong (+8)

UK 57 (1867) 27 (1978) 110 30 >4 Strong (+11)

Spain 53 (1918) 31 (1985) 70 22 <5 Modest (+3)

Italy 51 (1851) 30 (1983) 120 21 <9 Strong (+5)

Japan 55 (1937) 31 (1981) 45 24 6 Modest (+1)

Netherlands 61  (1732) 21 (1982) 250 35 7 Modest(+2)

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Average per decade real  per capita growth and Gini change during the downward portion of  the first Kuznets wave (the Great Levelling)

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Average change in

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Average real per capita growth rate per decade

Spain 1953‐1985 

Japan 1937‐1981

USA 1933‐1979

Italy 1861‐1983

UK 1867‐1978

Netherlands 1732‐1982

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What drives 1st Kuznets cycle down and 2nd Kuznets cycle up?

Downward portion of Kuznets 1~1900 to 1980

Upward portion of Kuznets 21980‐?

Malign forces(wars)

•Wars•Hyperinflation (against creditors)

Benign forces(economics, social,demography)

•Social pressure through politics (socialism, trade unions)•High taxation•Widespread education•Aging (demand for social protection)

•Movement of labor from manufacturing into heterogeneous services•Rents from tech innovations•Globalization •Technological change•Free global movement of capital•Policy changes (endogenous)•TOP impossible to disentangle

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Brazil, China’s inequality in the Kuznets framework

27twoway (scatter Giniall gdpppp if contcod=="CHN" & year>1960, connect(l) ylabel(40(10)60)  xtitle(2000 6000 12000) ytitle(Gini) xtitle(year)) (scatter Giniall gdpppp if contcod=="BRA", connect(l) text(62 12000 "Brazil") text(48 12000 "China") legend(off))Using gdppppreg5.dta

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“Endogeneity” of World War I• Domestic maldistribution of income => High profits and insufficient domestic demand => Foreign investment => Need to control territories where investments are made => Large armies  

• The same logic applied by each power leads to conflict• “The actual practice has been for business men to secure the assistance of their governments  in pushing  for markets, investments, and concessions outside their own country, in competing with business men of other nations similarly supported by their governments, and in bringing diplomatic or political pressure to bear on the government or people of any weak country where their trading or other economic interests are threatened. It is this illicit and underhand use of foreign policy by private business interest which has converted economic internationalism into the peril it has shown to be.  (Hobson, The evolution of modern capitalism: a study of machine production, pp. 492‐3)

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From Thomas Hauner

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Chapter 3. Inequality between countries: from Karl Marx to Frantz Fanon and back to Marx? 

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La longue durée: Global inequality From Karl Marx to Frantz Fanon and back to Marx?

Branko Milanovic

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Issues of justice and politics

1. Citizenship rent2. Is global equality of opportunity an objective to pursue?3. Migration, citizenship and national welfare state

Branko Milanovic

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Global inequality of opportunity

•Regressing (log) average incomes of 118 countries’ percentiles (11,800 data points) against country dummies “explains” 77% of variability of income percentiles

•Where you live is the most important determinant of your income; for 97% of people in the world: birth=citizenship.

•Citizenship rent or citizenship premiumBranko Milanovic

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Is citizenship a rent?

• If most of our income is determined by citizenship, then there is little equality of opportunity globally and citizenship is a rent (unrelated to individual desert, effort)

•Key issue: Is global equality of opportunity something that we ought to be concerned or not?

•Does national self‐determination dispenses with the need to worry about GEO? 

Branko Milanovic

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Rawls’ views on inter‐generational transmission of wealth

Group Inter‐generationaltransmission of collectively acquired wealth

Argument Policy

Family Not acceptableOr at least to be limited

Threatens equality of citizens

Moderate to very high inheritancetax

Nation Acceptable Affirms national self‐determination(moral hazard)

International aid

Branko Milanovic

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Migration: a different way to reduce global inequality and citizenship rent•How to view development: Development is increased income for poor people regardless of where they are, in their  countries of birth or elsewhere

•Migration and LDC growth thus become the two equivalent instruments for development

Branko Milanovic

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Growing inter‐country income differences and migration: Key  seven borders today

Branko Milanovic

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The logic of the migration argument

• Population in rich countries enjoys the citizenship premium• They are unwilling to share, and thus possibly reduce (at least “locally”) this premium with migrants

• Currently, the premium is full or 0 because citizenship is (broadly) a binary variable

• Introduce various levels of citizenship (tax discrimination of migrants; obligation to return; no family etc.) to reduce the premium

• This should make native population more acceptant of migrants

Branko Milanovic

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Trade‐off between citizenship rights and extent of migration

Branko Milanovic

Full citizen rights 

Seasonal workers (almost 0 rights)

Migration flow13% of world population*

0

* People who would like to migrate according to a world‐wide Gallup poll

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Chapter 4. Global inequality in this century and the next 

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Interaction of mean income convergence and Kuznets waves 

1. Will convergence economics spread to Africa?2. Evolution of income inequality in the US and China3. Hollowing out of the Western middle classes: populism vs. plutocracy4. Global reminder: capitalism the only existing social system

Branko Milanovic

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500

5000

1988 1993 1998 2003 2008 2011

Annu

al per cap

ita after‐tax income in  interna

tiona

l dollars

US 2nd decile

Chinese 8th urban decile

From summary_data.xls

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US and China’s growth at the same income level(GDPpc in Maddison’s  1990 $PPP) 

twoway (lowess growth gdpppp if contcod=="CHN" & year>1980) (lowess growth  gdpppp if contcod=="USA" & gdpppp<9000, text(0.07 1980 "China") text(0.015 1950 "USA") legend(off) xtitle(GDP per capita in 1990 G‐K dollars) ytitle(growth rate))Using Polity_Maddison_2013.dta

China

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Difference in the combined (population‐weighted) growth rates of the large emerging economies (excluding China) and rich countries, 1951‐2014: Since the mid 1980s rich economies have never grown faster than large emerging economies, even excluding China

Branko Milanovic

Large emerging economies are India, South Africa, Brazil, Indonesia and Vietnam. 

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The US “perfect storm”• Rising share of capital income in total net income• Unchanged or increased concentration of capital ownership (Gini is in excess of 85)

• Increased association between high capital and labor incomes (see the next slide; Atkinson and Lakner)

• Continued or increased homogamy (assortative mating): the process which goes on for some 30 years (Greenwood et al.)

• Continued or increasing ability of the rich to “buy” policies (Bartels, Page)

45

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Based on LIS data;us87_13_revised.xls 

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Gini coefficients of capital and labor income: US 1974‐2013

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Probability (in percent) of being in top 10% by capital (labor) income if a person is in top 1% by labor (capital) income

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If in top 1% by labor income

If in top 1% by capital income

Lakner and Atkinson (2015)

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Stylized correlation between capital and labor income in history  (across persons)

Classic capitalism

Capitalists begin to work; labor gets some K income

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“New capitalism”

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Correlation coeff.

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Policy responsiveness to the divergent preferences of the rich, middle class and the poor

49From Martin Gilens, Affluence and Influence

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The “plateaing ” of the urban Gini in China, 1981‐2014 

50Calculated from Chinese urban household surveys (published data)

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Urban Gini in China: 1981‐2014 (based on official household surveys) 

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Where are now China and the US?

China 2013 United States 2013

GDP per capita

Gini First Kuznets wave Second Kuznets wave

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What might drive the 2nd Kuznets cycle down?• Progressive political change (endogenous: political demand)• Dissipation of innovation rents• Low‐skilled biased technological progress (endogenous)• Reduction of the skill premium as education expands further (but I am skeptical of its relevance)

• Global income convergence: Chinese wages catch up with American wages: the hollowing‐out process stops (but other poor countries on the horizon…)

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Is this an optimistic or pessimistic theory of changes in income inequality?• The question boils down to whether there are endogenous forces that would curb and check increase in income inequality under capitalism

• Such forces can be benign: political pressure and greater taxation, ideology, low‐skill biased technological change, greater supply of educated labor, aging population and demand for social services

• Or they can be malign: as they were in the run up to World War I where insufficient domestic demand led to the competition for control of colonies (imperialism) and ultimately war

• Such forces cannot  be excluded today.53

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Chapter 5. What next? Ten short reflections on global inequality (here: only one) 

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The 21st century reduction of inequality should rely less om redistribution of current income and more on equalization of labor and capital endowments

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Policy implications (summarized) 

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• Focus on deconcentration of asset ownership (ESOPs, special tax benefits for small investors) and equalization of returns to education (public education)

• Thus, focus on pre‐distribution and taxation of inheritance rather than increased redistribution of current income (i.e., working on equalization of stocks rather than on flows)

• European welfare state’s ability to combat increased inequality by “traditional tools” of taxes and transfers is limited by (i) increased ethnic and cultural heterogeneity and (ii) mobility of capital and high income earners

• Reform of political funding• More diverse forms of citizenship (to allow for greater migration)• Multilateral migration quotas• Movement away from single‐minded pursuit of horizontal equality

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Glossary of new terms

• “Elephant graph”•Kuznets waves in pre‐modern and modern societies•Malign and benign forces that reduce inequality• Endogeneity of World War I•Citizenship rent or premium• Trade‐off between citizenship as a binary category and reduction of global inequality and poverty

• Focus on deconcentration of asset ownership