presenter: doug steventon, ve7ept...2 slide 4 ([dp«« can be taken at industry canada offices ($20)...
TRANSCRIPT
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Slide 1
Amateur Radio
Basic Certificate
Course
Bulkley Valley Amateur Radio Society
2018
Presenter: Doug Steventon, VE7EPT
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Slide 2 Bulkley Valley Amateur Radio SocietyAffiliated with Radio Amateurs of CanadaProvincial Emergency Radio Communications Service (PERCS)
EMBC Volunteer Emergency Radio Communicationswww.bvars.org facebook Twitter
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Slide 3
Several commercial certificates are also considered equivalent
to Basic or Advanced Amateur certificates
See RIC-3 — Information on the Amateur Radio Service
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Slide 4 Exam…….
• Can be taken at Industry Canada offices ($20) or with an
external Accredited Examiner.
• No age or citizenship requirements, must have Canadian
address.
• 100 Multiple Choice Questions.
• No hard time limit (usually about an hour).
• Closed book, can use calculator not capable of storing
formulas etc..
• 70% for pass, 80% for Honours (gives additional
privileges).
• Can be repeated (different version) as often as necessary at
mutual convenience.
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Slide 5 Exam Composition…..
Questions
001 - Regulations and Policies 25
002 - Operating and Procedures 9
003 - Station Assembly, Practice and Safety 21
004 - Circuit Components 6
005 - Basic Electronics and Theory 13
006 - Feedlines and Antenna Systems 13
007 - Radio Wave Propagation 8
008 - Interference and Suppression 5
More detail: https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf01008.html#s5
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Slide 6 Course Sequence…..
Regulations and Policies (revisited in sections below)
Basic Electronics and Theory
Circuit Components, power supplies, batteries
Modulation and Signal Types
Transmitter/Receiver Basics and Station Assembly
Radio Wave Propagation
Antenna Systems and Feedlines
Operating and Procedures
Safety
Interference and Suppression
Exam!
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Slide 7 Study Materials…..
Presentation Slides
Industry Canada documents https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf01008.html
https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf01226.html
Industry Canada exam questions and practice exam
generator http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/025.nsf/eng/h_00040.html
ExHaminer 2.5 (Radio Amateurs of Canada)http://wp.rac.ca/exhaminer-v2-5/
Commercial manuals and on-line courseshttp://wp.rac.ca/study-guides-2/
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Slide 8
• Radio Communications is a Federal Government jurisdiction,
also regulated by International Treaties.
• "Radiocommunication Act" is administered by Industry Canada1
• Authority to make "Radiocommunication Regulations“ comes
from the Radiocommunication Act.
• The Amateur Radio Service is defined in the Regulations:
The "amateur radio service" is a radiocommunication service in which radio apparatus are used for the purpose of self-training,
intercommunication or technical investigation by individuals who are
interested in radio technique solely with a personal aim and without
pecuniary interest.
• Authority to make "Standards for the Operation of Radio
Stations in the Amateur Radio Service" is derived from the
Radiocommunication Act.
1 Responsibility for Industry Canada now with Innovation, Science and EconomicDevelopment Canada (ISED).
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Slide 9 Canadian radio amateurs must also comply with the regulations of
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
What ITU Region is Canada In ?
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Slide 10 For Illustration Only, NOT on exam! https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/vwapj/2014_Canadian_Radio_Spectrum_Chart.pdf/$file/2014_Canadian_Radio_Spectrum_Chart.pdf
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Slide 11 Enforcement and Penalties…..
• Upon request by Radio Inspector, you must produce
authorization (certificate) with 48 hours.
• Out-of-amateur-band radio transmissions are prohibited -
penalties could be assessed to the control operator.
• False or deceptive signals, unlawful interference: on
summary conviction, subject to a fine not exceeding
$25,000, a prison term of one year, or both.
• The Minister may suspend or revoke a radio authorization
without notice where the holder has failed to comply with
regulations or failure to pay fees or interest due.
• Do not be afraid to get on-air and make honest mistakes.
We all have!
• Reality: Amateur Service largely depends on self-discipline.
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Slide 12 Voluntary Standards:
Radio Amateurs of Canada
International Amateur Radio Union
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Slide 13 Amateur Service Certificates…..Operations must follow regulations/policies:
• An Amateur Radio Operator Certificate and callsign are
valid for life. No Fee.
• No Annual Licence or fee.
• Can have as many physical stations as you want,
anywhere in Canada.
• The Amateur Radio Certificate should be retained at the
address supplied to Industry Canada. Also wallet size
version supplied, best to keep with you.
• Industry Canada must be advised of any change in
primary address.
• Reciprocal operating agreement with US. Other
countries vary (see IC Operating Standards document).
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Slide 14 Callsigns (e.g. VE7EPT) assigned by Industry Canada
with prefix by Province/Territory (VE0 for international
waters, CY0 Sable Island, VY9 Govt. of Canada).
• Three letter suffix, two
letter can be applied for
after 5 years.
• Apply for new callsign if
moving primary
residence to another
province.
• Call sign re-assigned 1
year after death notice (a
relative can request it), or
125 years.
• Special Event callsigns can
be applied for.
Canadian Prefixes
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Slide 15 Basic Certificate Privileges…..
Can Do:
• Access all amateur bands above 30 MHz.
• Use a maximum of 250 watts DC transmitter input*
power (560 watts PEP*, 190 watts carrier*).
• Build and operate all station equipment, except for
"home-made" transmitters.
• Re-programming of commercial radio equipment to
operate in the Amateur Bands, if done by a computer
program.
• Operate cross-band repeaters.
• Operate through a repeater established by an
amateur with advanced qualifications.
* explained later!
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Slide 16 Basic Certificate Privileges……
Can Not Do:
• No remote control of fixed stations permitted regardless of
medium used for control.
• No physical modifications to the circuitry of the radio.
Basic with Honours (exam score of 80% or above), or
Morse Code at 5 WPM, allows added access to all amateur
bands including below 30 MHz (High Frequency, HF)
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Slide 17 Advanced Certificate Privileges……
Along with all the Basic Certificate privileges,
Can Do:
• Access to all amateur bands.
• Use a maximum of 1000 watts DC transmitter input
power (2250 watts PEP, 750 watts carrier).
• Build and operate DIY transmitters.
• Modify radio apparatus by computer program or
physical modifications to the circuitry.
• Establishment of repeaters and club stations.
• Remote control of fixed stations, including radio links.
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Slide 18
General Rules………
• Strictly Non-Commercial communications.
• Not for broadcasting information to the general public, ie.
is for two-way communications, except…..
• A Beacon station may transmit one-way
communications*.
• May operate radio controlled models on all frequencies
above 30 MHz.
• An amateur station not allowed to transmit in a secret
code to obscure the meaning of the communication.
* Transmit only, usually for assessing radio conditions or alerts
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Slide 19 General Rules…..
• An amateur station may communicate with similarly
licensed stations (ie, other Amateurs).
• May not transmit superfluous signals (no music).
• May not transmit profane or obscene language or
messages.
• A radio amateur may not operate, or permit to be
operated, a radio apparatus which he knows is not
performing to the Radiocommunication Regulations.
• No person shall possess or operate any device, for the
purpose of amplifying the output power of a licence-
exempt radio apparatus.
• A person may operate or permit the operation of radio
apparatus only where the apparatus is maintained to the
Radiocommunication Regulations tolerances.
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Slide 20 General Rules…..
• Radio communications transmitted by stations, other than
a public broadcast station, may be divulged or used only if
it is transmitted by an amateur station.
• The operator of an amateur station shall not demand or
accept remuneration in any form, in respect of a
radiocommunication that the person transmits or
receives.
• Both the control operator and the station owner are
responsible for the proper operation of an amateur station.
• Any person may operate a station under the
supervision and presence of the holder of the Amateur
Operator Certificate.
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Slide 21 Third Party Traffic…..
• Content not originating from an Amateur Station: voice,
messages, email, telephone connect, a message sent to a
non-amateur via an amateur station.
• Allowed, if appropriate (non-commercial, not profane,
etc.).
• Other countries can prohibit. Check if allowed (RAC).
• No payment of any kind is allowed for third-party
messages sent by an Amateur Station.
• Non Amateur can operate radio under supervision.
• CFARS (Canadian Forces Affiliate Radio System), NOT
considered Third Party traffic.
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Slide 22 Emergency Communications…..• During a disaster when normal communication systems
are overloaded, damaged or disrupted, an amateur station
may make transmissions necessary to meet essential
communication and assist relief operations.
• Messages from recognized public service agencies may be
handled by amateur radio stations during peace time and
civil emergencies and exercises.
• CFARS (Canadian Forces Affiliate Radio System), NOT considered Third Party traffic.
• There are no transmit power
limitations during an emergency.
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Slide 23 Emergency Communications…..
• Amateur radio stations may communicate with any
station involved in a real or simulated emergency.
• If you hear an unanswered distress signal on an amateur
band where you do not have privileges, you should offer
assistance anyway (legal).
• In the Amateur Radio Service, it is permissible to
broadcast radio communications required for the
immediate safety of life of individuals or the immediate
protection of property.
• An amateur radio station in distress may use any means
of radiocommunication within amateur bands. No
transmit power restrictions.
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Slide 24 Emergency Communications…..
• During a disaster most communications are handled by
´nets´ using predetermined frequencies in amateur
bands. Operators not directly involved with disaster
communications are requested to avoid making
unnecessary transmissions on or near frequencies
being used for disaster communications.
• It is permissible to interfere with the working of another
station if your station is directly involved with a distress
situation.
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Slide 25 Basic Electronics & Theory……
Concepts of Current, Voltage, Conductor, Insulator,
Resistance
Water flowing through a hose analogy:Water is like Electrons in a wire (flowingelectrons are called Current).
Pressure is the force pushing waterthrough the hose – Voltage is the forcepushing electrons through a wire.
Friction against the holes walls slowsthe flow of water – Resistance is animpediment that slows the flow ofElectrons.
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Slide 26 AC DC (not the Rock Band)…….
Direct Current
(DC)
Alternating Current
(AC)
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Slide 27
• Hertz: cycles per second
• Wavelength measured in meters
• Kilohertz (khz) = 1000 Hertz
• Megahertz (mhz) = 1,000,000 Hertz (1,000 khz)
• Gigahertz (ghz) = 1,000,000,000 (1,000 mhz)
• Wavelength (λ) in metres equals 300 divided by frequency in
Megahertz.
Wavelength (λ)
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Slide 28 Radio Waves are Type of AC……Electro-magnetic Spectrum
Radio Frequencies range from 20 kHz to the Extra High
Frequencies (EHF) 30 GHz in the Microwave band.
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Slide 29
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Slide 30 Basic Electronics & Theory……
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Slide 31 Ohms Law……
EI R
E = (Electromotive force) Voltage in VoltsI = (Intensity) Current in AmpsR = Resistance in Ohms
Cover unit you want to calculate….Volts = Amps x OhmsAmps = Volts / OhmsOhms = Volts / Amps
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Slide 32 Measurement……
• Multimeters will measure Voltage (voltmeter), Current (ammeter) and Resistance (ohmmeter).
• Be sure it is set properly to read what is being measured.
• If it is set to the ohms setting and voltage is measured the
meter could be damaged!
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Slide 33 Units of Measure…..
Metric prefixes you'll need to know ...
1 Giga (G) = 1 billion = 1,000,000,000
1 Mega (M) = 1 million = 1,000,000
1 kilo (k) = 1 thousand = 1,000
1 centi (c) = 1 one-hundredth = 0.01
1 milli (m) = 1 one-thousandth = 0.001
1 micro (u) = 1 one-millionth = 0.000001
1 pico (p) = 1 one-trillionth = 0.000000000001
2.5 kilo-ohms = 2500 Ohms
1.2 milli-amps = 0.0012 Amps
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Slide 34
You measure a flow of 12 volts and 2000 milli-amps.
What is the Resistance of the circuit ?
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Slide 35
Power…….
Power (energy) is measured in Watts
Watts = Voltage x Current, (E x I) 12 volts x 2 amps = 24w
60w Light Bulb
120 volts
0.5 amps
120 x 0.5 = 60 watts
1,000 watts = 1 kilowatt (1 kw), 1,000,000 = 1 megawatt
(NOT on exam: 1000 watts for an hour = 1 kilowatt-hour (kwh) on your Hydro bill)
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Slide 36 Resistors…..
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Slide 37 Resistors Cont. ……….
• Resistors have a power dissipation rating (1/4 , 1/2 …
Watt). Turn electrical energy into heat.
• Temperature coefficient: resistance value can change
with temperature.
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Slide 38 Series and Parallel Resistors…..
Note: If all same value, just divide value by number of resistors, e.g., 100 ohms / 3 = 33 ohms
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Slide 39 Short Circuit Open Circuit bad! Very low resistance,high current, high temp. Nothing happens
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Slide 40
Capacitors…….• A device that stores energy in an
electric field.
• Two conductive plates separated
by a non-conductive material.
• Electrons accumulate on one
plate forcing electrons away from
the other plate leaving a net
positive charge.
• Think of a capacitor as a very
small, temporary storage battery.
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Slide 41 Capacitor Ability to Hold a Charge……depends on:
• Conductive surface area of plates.
• Number of plates.
• Space between plates.
• Material between plates.
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Slide 42 The unit of capacitance is the farad
• A single farad is a huge amount of capacitance.
• Most electronic devices use capacitors that are a very tiny
fraction of a farad.
Capacitance ranges are:
Micro µ 10 -6 (1/100,000 of a farad)
Nano n 10 -9 1000x Micro-farads
Pico p 10 -12 1000x Nano-farads
Break-down Voltage: destroys the device.
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Slide 43 Capacitor Behaviour in DC
• When connected to a DC source, the capacitor charges and
holds the charge as long as the DC voltage is applied.
• The capacitor essentially blocks DC current.
Capacitor Behaviour in AC
• When AC voltage is applied, during one half of the cycle thecapacitor accepts a charge in one direction.
• During the next half of the cycle, the capacitor is discharged thenrecharged in the reverse direction.
• During the next half cycle the pattern reverses.• It acts as if AC current passes through a capacitor.
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Slide 44
Series
C = C1 x C2 x C3
C1 + C2 + C3
Parallel
C = C1 + C2 + C3
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Slide 45 Inductors……
• An inductor is a coil of wire through which electrons
move, and energy is stored in the resulting magnetic
field.
• The magnetic field is proportional to the current.
• When the current drops to zero the magnetic field also
goes to zero.
• AC and DC: An inductor
inhibits the passage of
AC but passes DC.
• When the source of
electrons is removed, the
magnetic field collapses
almost immediately.
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Slide 46 Transformers…….A Transformer is two or more inductors sharing a
common magnetic field. Transfers energy via
magnetic field fluctuations (AC only). Voltage on
secondary is ratio of secondary turns / primary turns
eg., 200v into 100 turns = 50v out-of 25 turns.
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Slide 47 Transformer Uses……
Power Supplies: Changing an AC Voltage
Audio Equipment: Audio Isolation
Antennas: Impedance matching
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Slide 48 Inductance is the intensity of the
magnetic field
It is measured in Henrys, symbol L
Component values range from several Henrys down
to Micro-Henrys
Micro-Henry µ 10 -6 (1/100,000 of a Henry)
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Slide 49 Amount of inductance is influenced
by a number of factors:
• Number of coil turns.
• Diameter of coil.
• Spacing between turns.
• Size of the wire used.
• Type of material inside the coil.
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Slide 50 Inductors in Series and ParallelInductors in Series.
• Inductors are not resistors, but calculated similarly.
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Slide 51 Reactance and Impedance……
• Capacitors and Inductors each store and release energy,
though in different ways. Capacitors store energy in an
electric field while Inductors store energy in a magnetic
field, and they react in opposite ways to frequency
changes. They do not dissipate energy like resistors.
• Capacitive Reactance (Symbol Xc) is the property of
capacitors which opposes AC and as the frequency
increases the capacitive reactance will decrease.
Capacitors have low reactance at high frequencies.
• Inductive Reactance (Symbol XL) is the property of
Inductors which opposes AC and as the frequency
increases the reactance will increase. Inductors have high
reactance at high frequencies.
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Slide 52 Reactance and Impedance (Cont.)
• Impedance is the total combination of inductive reactance,
capacitive reactance and resistance in a circuit. It is
measured in Ohms.
• LCR Circuits are circuits with Inductance, Capacitance
and Resistance.
• A coil wound on a ferrite core can mitigate the effects of an
offending radio signal by its high reactance to RF.
• A RF choke coil has little effect on signals meant to flow
through it as it has low reactance at low frequencies.
• A RF Bypass Capacitor on an audio circuit can divert an
offending radio signal by its low reactance to RF.
• A RF Bypass Capacitor will have little effect on an audio
circuit since it has high reactance at low frequencies.
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Slide 53 Resonance…….• Resonance occurs in an LCR circuit containing Inductance (L),
Capacitance (C) and Resistance (R). Components can be in series or parallel.
• Resonant Frequency depends on the values of the L and C components.
• When frequency increases, capacitive reactance decreases.• When frequency increases inductive reactance increases.• Both Series and Parallel LCR circuits will be resonant when
Capacitive Reactance Xc = XL Inductive Reactance.• There can be only one frequency of resonance for given
values of L and C.
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Slide 54 • A Series LCR Circuit has Minimum Impedance at
resonance. It can be used to pass a frequency.
• A Parallel LCR Circuit has Maximum Impedance at
Resonance. It can be used to block a frequency.
• Tuned Circuits are Resonant Circuits which are used
in many applications; Selecting Signal Frequencies,
Oscillators, Antenna Traps, Filters, etc.
• Resistance is always present in circuits but changes
in resistance will not change the resonant frequency.
The selectivity ( Q ) of an LCR circuit depends on
the amount of resistance in it, but changing the
resistance does not change the resonant
frequency.
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Slide 55 Parallel LCR
blocks at resonant frequency
Series LCR
passes at resonant frequency
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Slide 56 Vacuum Tubes….
Grid
Diode (rectifier) Triode (amplifier)
AnodeAnode
Cathode Cathode
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Slide 57 Semiconductors……
Diodes have two electrodes, the Cathode and the
Anode. Electrons will only flow from the cathode to
the anode (Forward Bias). If an alternating current is
applied to the anode you would expect to see pulsating
direct current at the cathode.
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Slide 58 Diode Uses…..
• Protection: shunting DC reverse voltage
to ground.
• Rectification is the action of changing
alternating current to direct current.
• Demodulation is the term for recovering
information from transmitted signals. This
is an important use for diodes.
• Zener Diodes are used for voltage
regulation and may be found in power
supplies.
• LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are semi-
conductor devices that glow different
colours depending on the chemical comp.
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Slide 59 Bi-Polar Transistors…..
B = Base
C = Collector
E = Emitter
Negative-Positive-Negative Positive-Negative-Positive
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Slide 60 Bipolar Transistor Uses….
Switches
Logic
Amplifiers
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Slide 61 Amplification…..Decibels (dB)
Expresses Power Gain or Loss
• Decibels (dB) are used to measure the ratio between
levels of electrical power in radio and telecommunications.
• The decibel scale is a logarithmic one used to account for
the gains and losses of a signal.
• A two-time increase in power results in a 3dB gain, or half
the power is -3dB loss.
3dB = 2x
6dB = 4x
9dB = 6x
10dB = 10x
20dB = 100x
30dB = 1000x
RatiodB = 10 x log10(P1 / P0)
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Slide 62 Field Effect Transistor (FET)……
• A field effect transistor has only two layers of semiconductor
material, one on top of the other.
• Electricity flows through one of the layers, called the channel.
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Slide 63 FET cont…..
• A voltage connected to the other layer, called the gate,
interferes with the current flowing in the channel. Thus,
the voltage connected to the gate controls the strength of
the current in the channel.
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Slide 64 Triode Tube and Transistor similarity
Device: In Control Exit
Triode Vacuum Tube: Cathode Grid Plate (Anode)Bi-polar Transistor: Emitter Base CollectorField Effect Transistor: Source Gate Drain
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Slide 65 Power Supplies……….Convert house-hold AC power to DC used by radio gear
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Slide 66 Batteries (aka storage cells)…..
Rechargeable:
• Lead-acid (cheaper, heavy, contains dangerous acid),
Lithium-ion (lighter, more expensive, more unstable) now
common in portable devices.
• Car-battery is a ~12v Lead-Acid.
Non-rechargeable:
• Alkaline or carbon-zinc conventional flashlight
battery .
• Never short-circuit!! Especially lithium-ion batteries
(explosion and fire risk). Low voltage but high
current.
• Liquid Lead-Acid batteries need ventilation when
charging (potential hydrogen gas is explosive).
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Slide 67 Batteries in Series and Parallel……
Use Master Fuse near battery terminals to prevent
fire/explosion risk.
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Slide 68 Modulation: Putting Information on a
Radio Signal……
CW (Continuous Wave)
AM (Amplitude Modulation)
FM (Frequency Modulation)
SSB (Single Side Band)
Digital (info represented by 0s and 1s)
De-Modulation at receiver end
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Slide 69
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Slide 70 Single Side Band (SSB)…..
• SSB eliminates
wasted energy in
carrier and
second side
band of AM
signal.
• These are re-
inserted at the
receiver end.
Much narrower
band width and
power efficiency.
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Slide 71 Signal width is +/- 26dB of peak…..
• Schedule 2 of RBR-4 Standards of Operation sets
out allowed bandwidth by frequency band.
• Watch out for Band Edge!
• SSB Tx has Automatic Limiting Control (ALC) to
control width of signal.
RTTY Digital: 250 Hz
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Slide 72
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Slide 73 Transmit Power Regulations….Basic 250w DC Input, 560w PEP
Advanced 1000w DC Input, 2240w PEP
• With CW or FM transmissions, the power output is
constant (with FM the band-width varies). Apply the DC
input power limits (volts x amps going into transmitter
amplifier section).
• With AM and SSB, band-width is constant but power
output varies. With SSB there is No output with no voice.
The power output (and DC input) is proportional to voice
volume. The output on voice peaks is the Peak
Envelope Power (PEP) used in power regulations
(power coming out of transmitter).
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Slide 74 Signal Mixer…..
Local Oscillator Signal
Input Signal Output Frequencies
Outputs: Both input signals, and the difference (useful !)
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Slide 75 Oscillators……
• A local oscillator is a device used to generate a signal which
is beat against the signal of interest to mix it creating a
different frequency.
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Slide 76 CW Tx FM Tx SSB Tx
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Slide 77
CW and SSB Rx
FM Rx
Rx Specifications:
• Sensitivity (RF volts for
given signal/noise ratio
• Selectivity in Hz (filters)
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Slide 78 Station components…..
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Slide 79
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Slide 80 Digital (data) Station Components…..
Modem: Modulator/Demodulator
Translates between computer language and radio audio
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Slide 81 Digital Data Modes (non-voice)…..• RTTY Radio Teletype 250 to 500 Hz band-width.
list of emission modes from the narrowest to the widest
bandwidth is : CW or RTTY; SSB Voice; FM Voice.
• AX.25 packet radio protocol (any type of data).
• APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System) uses
AX.25. It uses a computer, a radio and usually a GPS,
position tracking and short messages.
• Phase Modulation is used in some other digital modes
and is produced by a Reactance Modulator
• A Digipeater is a repeater which retransmits only data
that is marked to be retransmitted.
• Monitoring means displaying all messages, including
ones that may not be sent to it (no reply).
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Slide 82 Digital (Data) Continued…..
• “Connected” in an AX.25 link means a station is sending
data to only one other station; data is being received
correctly.
• Baudot was an early telegraph code which does not
apply to packet radio.
• Mark and Space are the names of signals used to
transmit the states 1 and 0 in older digital radio.
• AMTOR is a digital protocol, it uses Mode A for
communications after contact is established.
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Slide 83 NOT on Exam, Digital Data and
Voice….
• Exam is dated in this topic area. Rapid change.
• Digital modes often get through when voice can’t.
• Newer data modes PACTOR, Winmor, ARDOP, PSK, etc.
• WinLink email network.
• APRS to SMS texting, etc.
• Digital Voice modes: D-Star, Fusion (C4FM), DMR.
• BVARS moving to Fusion C4FM digital repeaters (and FM).
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Slide 84 Antennas……
Transform TX energy into EM Field
TX and RX antennas act like two (far apart!) sides of a
transformer.
Antenna Polarization (horizontal or vertical) refers to the
Electric Field.
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Slide 85 Radio Wave Propagation……• Line-of-Sight (LOS), Ground Wave (GW), Sky Wave (SW)
> 30Mhz mostly LOS
< 30 Mhz mostly GW or
SW
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Slide 86
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Slide 87 Skip Distance and Skip Zone…..
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Slide 88
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Slide 89 Ionosphere…..
Layers of charged particles
(Ions) that reflect, refract
(bend) or absorb radio
signals
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Slide 90 • The F2 region gives longest distance propagation
because it is the highest. F2 Longest single hop
distance is normally 4000 km.
• F Region splits into F1 and F2 in daytime and merges at
night.
• E region is below the F layer and above the D layer.
• E region longest single hop distance is normally 2000
km.
• D Region is closest to earth and is least useful for long
distance.
• D Region absorption can cause the 160m, 80m and 40m
bands to be good only for short distances in daylight.
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) (also called the Critical Frequency) is the highest frequency
signal that will reach its intended destination.
Frequencies below the MUF are bent back to earth by the
ionosphere, Frequencies above the MUF pass through the
ionosphere out to space. Optimal frequency is lower.
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Slide 91 Propagation Predictions (MUF, Skip
distances, etc…..)• Best is to listen On-Air (exam).
• Solar Activity Indices (Web sites) and
prediction Software.
http://hfpropagation.com/
http://www.voacap.com/p2p/index.html
• Beacon Networks.
http://wsprnet.org/drupal/wsprnet/map
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Slide 92 Scatter Modes….
• Ionospheric
• Tropospheric
• Meteor (30 – 100 Mhz)
• Auroral
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Slide 93 Tropospheric Ducting…..
A Temperature Inversion can cause tropospheric ducting of
VHF and UHF signals. These frequencies are normally line-of-
sight, but tropospheric ducting can bend VHF signals close to
the earth so they can reach over 800km.
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Slide 94
• Energy scattered into the skip zone through several
radio-wave paths makes HF scatter Signals often sound
distorted or wavering.
• HF scatter signals are usually weak because only a small
part of the signal energy is scattered into the skip zone.
• Scatter propagation allows a signal to be detected at a
distance to far for ground-wave propagation but to near for
normal sky-wave propagation.
• On HF bands, most often occurs when communicating on
frequencies above the maximum usable frequency
(MUF).
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Slide 95 Multi-path Signal Fading……
• When signal arrives via multiple paths, may be out of
phase causing signal reduction (peaks and valleys cancel
each other).
• Greater potential for fading effects with wider bandwidth
signals.
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Slide 96 Antenna Types…… Many!
Basic Dipole
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Slide 97
The higher the frequency the shorter
the antenna. The lower the frequency the longer the
antenna
Above 30 MHz, λ = 300/fmhz meters, 1/2 λ = 150/fmhz meters.
Below 30 MHz, λ = 286/fmhz meters (velocity factor 0f 0.953),
1/2 λ = 143/fmhz meters.
Examples: The length of a half wave dipole for 3.65 MHz
Length = 143/f = 143/3.65 = 39.18 meters (128ft 6 in).
Examples: The length of a quarter wave vertical for 146.00
Mhz Length = (150/2)/f = 75/146 = 0.51 meters (20 in).
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Slide 98 ¼ λ Vertical Antenna
Earth Ground or Radials
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Slide 99 Loading Coil (Inductor):
Increases electrical Length
allowing phyisically smaller
antenna.
Multi-Band `Traps`: Tuned Circuit that acts to cut-off part of
the antenna for particular band.
Trap
Loading Coil
Trap
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Slide
100 Antenna Gain (dB) and Directivity…..
Dipole in free space has a theoretical
broadside Gain of 2.15 dBi
i means relative to an isotropic
dBd means relative to a dipole.
Isotopic antenna
(theoretical)Dipole in free space
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Slide
101 Antenna Gain (dB) and Directivity…..
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Slide
102
Front to Back Ratio: +5 – (-7.5) = 12.5dB (>16x)
Yagi (3 element example)….Parasitic elements
Director
5% shorterDriven Reflector
5% longer
0.2 λ0.2 λ
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Slide
103 • Thicker diameter elements = wider band-width
• Wider element spacing = wider band-width,
less critical tuning, good gain
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Slide
104 Loop, Quad, Delta Loop
Antennas…..
• Shape/orientation is
flexible.
• If fed on side, Vertical
polarization.
• Triangle = Delta Loop.
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Slide
105 Cubical Quad Antenna…..
2-element has same gain as 3-element yagi
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Slide
106 Antenna `Stacking`……
• 2+ antennas (fed in phase) for
additional gain and/or directivity.
• 2 stacked 6-element 10dBi Yagi
antennas gives approx 13dBi
gain (3dB or double).
• (radiation angle is bigger effect).
• (affected by spacing, height above
ground etc.)
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Slide
107
Dummy Load Antenna…… • Takes place of antenna (minimum radiation), gives perfect
impedance match (50 ohms), resistors convert TX power
to heat. Use for testing.
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Slide
108
Towers, Antennas and Land-Use
Regulations…..• Amateur installations are subject to Industry Canada's
Default Public Consultation Process unless local land
use authority excludes the type of proposal from
consultation or it is excluded by Industry Canada's
process (CPC-2-0-03).
• IC process does not require public meetings.
• Follow Local Authority consultation requirements,
Industry Canada (Minister of Industry) has ultimate
authority.
• Exclusions: <15m height (50ft) above ground, temp
installs (<3 months), modification of existing structure, etc.
• Reality: Rarely an issue in our area. Be a good neighbour!
• Nav Canada has rules near airports.
IC CPC-2-0-03 http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf08777.html
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Slide
109 Feed Lines……• Feedlines connect a radio to an antenna.
• They must be matched to the radio system - they should
have similar impedance as the transmitter output.
• Radios usually have a 50 ohm impedance output.
• Antenna feed points can vary greatly in impedance.
• Velocity factor 0.66 - 0.95 speed of light.
• Have loss that increases with length and frequency (dB).
Coaxial: Unbalanced Ribbon or Ladder: Balanced
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Slide
110 Balanced transmission line is made up of two parallel wires.
• Good: Very Low loss, can be customized for impedance,
Resilient to SWR, DIY
• Bad: Inconvenient: no sharp bends, no use near metal
or ground (can not be buried), needs tuner/Balun at TX
• TV Twin-Lead 300 ohms, Ladder line 400-600 ohms
Unbalanced transmission line: Coaxial Cable.
• Good: Weather-proof, impedance matches most amateur
antennas/radios, can be used near metal objects or
buried.
• Bad: Expensive, more loss, needs Balun at some
antennas.
• Most common are 50 ohm and 72 ohm.
• RG-213 coaxial cable has the least loss of the common
RG types of coax, RG-8,RG-58, RG-174, RG-59.
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Slide
111 Balun (Balanced to unbalanced)…..• A Balun is used to feed a balanced antenna with an
unbalanced transmission line (coax).
• To feed a dipole antenna with coaxial cable you would
install a Balun between the coax and the antenna.
• A 4:1 Impedance Transformer could be used to
match a 75-ohm line to the 300-ohm feed point of an
antenna.
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Slide
112
Connectors……PL-259 BNC N SMA
• An SMA Connector frequently joins a handheld transceiver
to its antenna.
• Type-N connectors have the lowest loss at UHF.
• PL-259 most used below 50mhz, also on most mobile
radios > 50mhz.
• Antenna connectors should be regularly cleaned and
tightened to keep their contact resistance to a minimum.
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Slide
113 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)….vSWR = Vmax / Vmin of standing wave ( / means "divided by")
S
Forward
Reflected
vSWR = 1.5 / 0.5 = 3 : 1
For power readings,
1+ / 1-
1.5 v
0.5 v
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114 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)….vSWR (voltage SWR) = Vmax/Vmin of the combined wave
• Indicates if impedance mismatch, 1:1 is perfect (no
reflected power).
• Result of standing waves is reduced power transfer to
antenna.
• 1.5 : 1 is ok.
• > 2 : 1 worrisome.
• Jumpy reading means poor electrical connection.
• Infinite means open circuit.
• Does not tell you how well antenna radiates!
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Slide
115 Station Measurement Requirements...• The frequency stability must be comparable to crystal
control when operating on frequencies below 148 Mhz.
• An over-modulation indicating device must be installed
in amateur stations using radio telephony (voice) The
maximum percentage of radio modulation permitted in an
amateur station is 100 percent.
• Frequency meter: All amateur stations, regardless of the
mode of transmission used, must be equipped with a
reliable means of determining the operating radio
frequency.
• Don t panic, modern equipment has the above features
built in!
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Slide
116 Operating Procedures…..
Frequencies and Modes
• Must: Schedule 2 of RBR-4 Standards for the
Operation of Radio Stations in the Amateur Radio
Servicehttps://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf01226.html
• Should: Radio Amateurs of Canada Band Planshttp://wp.rac.ca/wp-
content/uploads/files/pdf/RAC%20Bandplan%20December%201%202015.pdf
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Slide
117
Operating Procedures: "Standards for
the Operation of Radio Stations in the
Amateur Radio Service“
• Listen first, make sure frequency is clear.
• Use the phonetic alphabet if there is any difficulty in
understanding.
• All initial and ending transmissions must be identified
(English or French). At least every 30 minutes during
conversation.
• To join in a contact in progress say your callsign once at
a break in transmission.
• Use minimum power necessary.
• An unmodulated carrier may be transmitted only for brief
tests on frequencies below 30 MHz.
• Log book no longer required, but a good practice.
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Slide
118 Phonetic Alphabet used for clarity….Using made-up phonetics is confusing!
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119 QRL “Is this frequency in use?” (or are you busy?)
QSB Signal is fading
QRM “I’m being interfered with” man made
QRS “Send more slowly”
QRN “I am troubled by static” usually of natural origin
QRX “I will call you again”
QRZ “Who is calling me?”
QTH “My location is” My QTH is Smithers.
QSO “A contact is in progress” thanks for the QSO).
QSY “Change frequency” (QSY to 14.210)
QRP Using low power < 5W
QSL “I acknowledge”, I understand
QRT “Stop sending” , closing down for the day (finished, done)
QRO Increase power, or Should I increase power?
QRU I have nothing for you, Have you nothing for me ?
QRV I am ready Are you ready?
Q-Code abbreviations (international from ITU)
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120
RST Reports: Readability, Strength, and Tone
• Readability scale is 1 to 51 - Unreadable 2 -Occasional words, barely readable 3 -Readable with
much difficulty
4 - Readable with little difficulty 5 Perfectly readable
• Signal Strength scale is 1 to 91 - Barely perceptible 2 - Very weak 3- Weak 4 - Fair 5 - Fairly good
6 - Good 7 - Moderately strong 8 - Strong 9 - Very strong signals
• Tone scale is 1 to 9 (Morse code and digital only)1 - Extremely rough & broad tone 2 - Very rough, harsh 3 -Rough, rectified but not filtered
4 - Rough, some filtering 5 - Filtered, rectified, strong ripple-modulation 6 - Filtered,
some ripple 7 - Near pure tone, slight trace of ripple-modulation 8 - Near perfect
9 - Perfect tone
• For voice 5-9 is the best signal, for CW 5-9-9 is the best
signal.
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Slide
121
VHF/UHF Simplex Vs. Repeater
Operations……Simplex is direct station to station. The main purpose of
repeaters is to increase the range of mobile and portable
stations.
Link to next siteLink to next site
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122 Repeaters cont…..Two frequencies are involved: you receive on one frequency
and transmit out on a second frequency (have to be
programmed into the radios).
Offset: (the difference between the transmit and receive
frequencies) is normally 600kHz on the 2 meter band.
Frequency Coordination is used to assign frequencies to
minimize interference with other repeaters.
CTCSS "Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System" is a sub-
audible tone added to a carrier which causes a repeater (or
mobile receiver) to accept a signal.
Repeater Time Out limits continuous transmissions to allow
other users to share (or to control interference).
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123
Repeaters cont…..• Calling via repeater - say the call sign of the desired station
once and then your own, e.g. VE7BGP this is VE7LSE .
• Use phonetic alphabet if there is any prob. understanding.
• Plain Language is best (Q codes also used), just say
"Where are you?" or "What is your location?“ ( What is your
QTH? ).
• Do not say "Break" or "Break, Break" unless a distress
call.
• To break into a conversation (non-emergency) on a
repeater, wait for a pause and say your callsign.
• Pause a few seconds before PTT to allow break-ins.
• Press PTT, then pause 1 second before speaking.
• Your callsign and "Clear" means you have finished and
the frequency is free for others.
• Do not use CQ. "Monitoring" means you are available to
chat.
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Slide
124
Electrical Safety……
• 30 Volts is the minimum voltage that can be dangerous to
humans. As little as 20 milliamperes is enough affect the
heart.
• High Voltage Power Supplies should have a switch
which turns off the power when the cabinet is opened.
Electrocution: Secure your own safety first, Turn off
the power, Call for emergency help, Provide first-aid if
needed but only if safe to approach.
• Before servicing equipment, turn off the power and
remove the power plug.
• Unauthorized Person safety. It is advisable to put a key-
operated On /Off switch in a high voltage power supply to
prevent unauthorized persons from using your station.
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125 Grounding……
• Shock Protection: equipment should be connected to a
good ground. On mains operated equipment you should
use a 3-wire power cord and plug. The green wire on the
plug grounds the chassis to the wall socket and prevents it
from becoming live (will trip circuit breaker).
• Ground Rod: For a good earth ground, a copper-clad steel
rod may be driven into the ground. The grounding system
including the length of the rod must conform to electrical
code requirements.
• Alternative Ground: If a separate ground system is not
possible an alternative ground could be a metallic cold
water pipe continuous to ground (no plastic pipe).
• Ground wires should be as short as possible.
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126
Electromagnetic Field Limits….. [you are] responsible for complying with Client Procedures
Circular CPC-2-0-03, Radiocommunication and Broadcasting
Antenna Systems
Health Canada has published safety guidelines for the
maximum limits of RF energy near the human body in
Safety Code 6.
• It does not limit the power levels fed into antennas.
Gives field strength exposure limits.
• Frequencies from 30 to 300 MHz pose the greatest
risk from RF energy since the human body absorbs
RF energy most in this range. Permissible exposure
increases above and below these frequencies.
• The maximum safe power output is not specified for
handheld transmitters but they are NOT excluded from
Safety Code 6 requirements.
• Most Amateur installations/uses well within limits.
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Slide
127 For Info….NOT on exam! From Safety Code 6.
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128 Antenna Safety…… • RF Burns. Antennas carry high voltage energy and a
person may suffer RF burns by contacting an antenna while
it is transmitting.
• Wire antennas and open wire feed lines should be mounted
high enough so no-one can touch them when you are
transmitting. DO NOT place antennas, guy wires where
people or animals are likely to run into or encounter (flag if
needed, tripping hazard).
• Lightning may damage radio station equipment (or
operator!). When not in use it is advisable to Ground all
antenna and rotator cables and Disconnect all equipment
from the power lines and antenna cables.
• Lightning Arrestors should be installed on the antenna
feed line, outside, as close to earth grounding as possible.
Many VHF antennas have built-in DC ground for protection.
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129
• Antenna Towers (and ladders): Persons working on
towers should wear approved fall protection equipment
(harness/belt). Helpers on the ground should wear hard
hats to protect against anything dropped from the tower.
• Use ladders correctly!
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Slide
130 Antenna Safety – Look Up and Live!
• Assume all overhead power lines are energized and
dangerous. This includes the line from the power pole toyour home. Beware lines hidden by trees and buildings.
• Plan the work and work the plan. Ask yourself… “at any
time can arms, legs, head, the antenna, wires or tools comein contact with power lines?”
• Use a safety spotter. A safety spotter’s only job is to keeppeople and equipment safely away from power lines.
• Remember the 10-foot rule. Keep all equipment, tools,
your antenna, guy
• Wire and tower at least 10 feet away from power lines.
• Antenna locations should avoid where they can contact
power lines if they fall (not always possible).
• Turn Off transmitters and disconnect the transmission line
before beginning work on antenna.
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131
Interference….• Receiver Overload (or Front-end Overload): interference
caused by very strong signals from a nearby transmitter. It is
diagnosed by sounding about the same no matter what
transmitting band is selected and harmonics from it can
cause TV interference whenever you transmit.
• Receiver Desensitization: Two stations physically close to
each other on close frequencies. The strong signal of one is
de-sensitizing the receiver of the other.
• Inter-Modulation Interference: Two or more strong out-of-
band signals mixing in your receiver, heard in the
background of the desired signal.
• Filters should be installed at the receiver as a first step to
cure RF harmonics or overload interference (eg. High Pass
Filter for TV). Low Pass on transmitter output.
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132
Filters are your Friend!
Block unwanted signals
e.g., put on TX to block TV harmonics e.g., put on TV to block ham HF signal
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133
Interference….• Audio Rectification is the picking up and rectification of RF
signals by a variety of audio equipment. The RF signals may
be picked up by public address systems, speaker wires,
home entertainment systems. In particular, long leads can act
as receiving antennas.
• It will present itself as distorted speech on a public address
system from a nearby SSB transmission. On-and-off
humming and clicking on a public address system from
nearby CW transmission. Transmission from a ham
transmitter being heard across the entire dial of a broadcast
receiver. SSB signals being heard, muffled, on the living
room sound system regardless of volume setting.
• Speaker and Audio Wires RF pickup can be minimized by:
Wrapping each of the speaker leads through a ferrite core.
Coils on ferrite cores.
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Slide
134 Speaker and Audio Wires RF pickup can be minimized by: Wrapping each of the speaker leads through a ferrite core. Coils on ferrite cores.
Can also use Bypass Capacitors to shunt signals to ground
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135 In the Regulations……
• In the event of interference to a neighbor's FM receiver and
stereo system, if the field strength of the amateur station
signal is below Industry Canada criteria at the residence
(1.83 volts per meter), it will be deemed that the affected
equipment's lack of immunity is the cause (ie., NOT your transmitter problem…should help anyway).
• Radio-sensitive equipment is "any device, machinery or
equipment, other than radio apparatus, the use or
functioning of which is, or can be, adversely affected by radio communication emissions“.
• Broadcast transmitters NOT included in the list of field
strength criteria for resolution of immunity complaints.
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46
Slide
136 Harmonics and Transmitter
adjustments
• Harmonic radiation is unwanted signals at frequencies
that are multiples of the chosen frequency. It can cause
interference to other stations and may result in out-of-band
signals.
• Splatter Interference (SSB voice) is caused by
overmodulating a transmitter by too much microphone
gain or too much speech processing. Considered out-of-
band or spurious emissions (not good!).
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Slide
137 • Key-Clicks in CW transmission is interference from the
making and breaking of the circuit at the Morse key.
Prevented by Key-Click filter.
• CW “Chirp”, frequency shift due to inadequate power
supply voltage.
• A Transmitter operated without the cover or other
shielding in place may radiate spurious emissions.
• Parasitic Oscillation is an unwanted signal developed in a
transmitter, often in the RF power amplifier, at high or low
frequencies and can be above or below the transmitter
frequency.
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Slide
138 Time for the Exam!
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