prime project ann… · of prime project and the activities planned under it. one aspect of it is,...

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SELECTED TOPICS OF

PASTORAL LIVELIHOODS AND RESILIENCE

PRIME PROJECT

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

Authors

Mulugeta Getu; Tesfahiwot Zerihun; Bewket Amdu; Fitsum Alemayehu; Getnet Fikadu;

Ashenafi Negash; Habtamu Haile-meskel; Workineh Kassa; Dessalegn Amlaku; Fekadu Gelaw;

Kassahun Mamo; Jemal Ahmed; Jabessa Teshome; Fasika Kenea; Wudassie Ayele.

JANUARY 2014

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ACRONYMS

AEMFI Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions

CAHSs Community-based animal health services

CAHWs Community-based animal health workers

CBA Cost-benefit analysis

CMT California mastitis test

DRM Disaster risk management

DRR Disaster risk reduction

Ed/s Editor/s

EWS Early Warning System

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

IGAD Intergovernmental

ILRI International Livestock Institute

IPMS Improving Productivity and Market Success

M&E Monitoring and Evaluation

MFI Microfinance Institutions

PASC Pastoralist Standing Committee

PFE Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia

PRIME Pastoralist area Resilience Improvement through Market Expansion

PV Photovoltaic

TOPs Transitioning out of Pastoralism

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INTRODUCTION

What it is and why? Annotated Bibliography is a short summary of researches or works done by different authors in a one book. The term is a combination of two words: annotation and bibliography. By ‘annotation’ it implies a short account or summary of specific work or research while the word ‘bibliography’ answer the questions who did what and when in relation to that specific work or research. Annotated bibliography is different from cited lists in that the latter is only bibliographic lists while the former is bibliography plus over view of the work’s main points.1 The summary could be from book, journal, thesis and other sources.2

The purpose of the annotations is to provide the reader with a summary (and an evaluation of the source, if necessary). Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a research project that help you learn about your topic. In addition, annotated bibliography provides a comprehensive overview of everything important that has been and is being said about that topic. In short, an annotated bibliography allows you to get acquainted with the material available on a particular topic. “Well-written annotations can help crystallize key information presented in each article or book, preserving it in a format that can be easily accessed and revisited at any stage of the writing process.”

Annotated bibliography is, therefore, a short account of a research or a work that tell us the process and the finding as briefly as possible within not more than a page.

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Selecting materials - In terms of scope, this annotated bibliography is limited by the objectives of PRIME project and the activities planned under it. One aspect of it is, then, pastoralists as the central theme of the collection. Yet researches done elsewhere (including abroad) in a non-

However, annotated bibliography may also serve different purposes depending on what you want to do.

The current annotated bibliography is done as part of the Pastoralist areas Resilience Improvement through Market Expansion (PRIME) project. The project notes that “[w]hile there is a wealth of learning material on pastoralism in Ethiopia and the region—as well as forums for sharing information—it is not consolidated or easily accessible.” (PRIME Project document (20012); p. 40). It is partly with the intent of filling this gap that the current annotated bibliography is produced. It also facilitates the sharing of evidences on the ground among PRIME partners, and provides invaluable information on research themes that have not been investigated so far. This annotation further facilitates the consolidation of those materials, and creation of repository of learning materials on ranges of subject matters. The annotated bibliography, therefore, is the beginning of all those forthcoming activities in terms of facilitating further research, and making it readily available for field staffs to consult them whenever necessary.

1 University of Washington Tacoma (undated) How to write an annotated bibliography: A guideline, University

of Washington Tacoma, teaching and learning center. 2 University of Manitoba (2009) Writing an Annotated Bibliography: A guideline, the University of Manitoba,

February 2009. 3 Annotated bibliography: A guideline, Capella University Writing Center, September 2008, p. 6.

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pastoralist context are considered for annotation if they inform in one way or another activities in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia. In addition, some subject that goes beyond the mandate of the project like conflict are not considered unless they appear together with other themes in the original manuscript. As this is the collection of selected materials, we favored researches done in Ethiopia and more importantly within pastoral context in mind. At times, for comparative experience and lesson, researches done outside of Ethiopia are included. There are, however, areas where researches are scarce and not dealt comprehensively in this annotation, e.g. entrepreneurship development, alternative livelihood activities like beekeeping and fisheries in pastoral areas, and insurance services peculiar to pastoral areas.

Material on the practical applicability of evidence, policies and approaches are favored over manuscripts on doctrinal analysis and arguments. Yet some manuscripts that inform us about the conceptual frameworks and theoretical backgrounds are included in the annotation to a certain amount. Examples are on issues of pastoral policies and attitudes, policy choice and Islamic finance.

During the collection of the materials, in addition to online sources, libraries and office documentations are visited here at Haramaya University and Addis Ababa (e.g. Forum on Environment, AEMFI, MoA, AAU etc). Attempt is made to include all sorts of materials including government reports, policies, books, articles, working papers, conference proceedings, research institutions report (e.g. ILRI & Tufts), development organizations reports (e.g. PFE and AEMFI), student research thesis (both masters and PhD) and briefs.

Format and organization - There are two types of annotation writing styles: Summative annotations and Evaluative annotations. Summative annotations provide the reader with a solid sense of the content of the article or book being annotated; whereas, evaluative annotations include both a description and a critical assessment of the article or book being annotated. The later examines the strengths and weaknesses of what is presented as well as describing the applicability of the author's conclusions to the subject/activity being considered. Consideration of methodology and how data were gathered are often a part of an evaluative annotation. The current document is designed to be an evaluative annotation and efforts are made to critically look at the importance of the materials and its limitations. The annotated bibliography, therefore, contains the following three points: Bibliography (citation), Annotation and Evaluation.

During the preparation of the material, we care less about the length of the annotation as it depends on the issues raised and how it relates with the current project activities and realities. As a result, authors have tried to provide as much information as possible within a maximum of one page. It is noted as well that the traditional or academic annotation should not exceed a paragraph or 200 words or half a page. The current project, however, is designed to serve professional and generalists, academicians and practitioners, policy makers and development workers. As already mentioned above, evaluative annotation has given us one additional element where authors will critically assess the article on account of methodology, source, analysis,

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conclusion, its relevancy to the current project etc. These combined does mean that we have provided additional information to readers with less technical terms in not more than a page.

One related thing about its writing style is that the collection avoided technical terms, acronyms and jargons even if they are used in the original article. We believe that this coupled with the lists of acronyms provided under the introduction part will make the annotation understandable to all.

The annotations are categorized in to groups/subject matters based on the central themes of the manuscript under consideration. Then, as with a normal reference list or bibliography, the annotated bibliography is arranged alphabetically according to the author’s last name except for Ethiopian names. Structurally, we tried to group similar materials together so that readers could understand resources available in that specific subject. We faced difficult task while grouping similar articles in to their natural theme/category in the absence of clear scope delimitation for many of the articles. For instance, climate change and natural resource and sometimes conflict issues are all mentioned in depth while discussing pastoralist livelihoods. Some manuscripts may rightly fall in to two or more categorizations. What we did is to find more appropriate place considering the central topics discussed and in line with its recommendations.

e.g. Stark, J., Terasawa, K. & Mersi Ejigu. (2011). Climate Change and Conflict in Pastoralist Regions of Ethiopia: Mounting Challenges, Emerging Responses. Foundation for Environmental Security, USAID, CMM Discussion Paper No. 4. The article starts by mentioning the underlying problems in pastoral communities including land degradation, drought and conflict. But the conclusion takes us to appreciate the prevailing importance of working with customary institutions in resolving local conflict which may aggravate hazards.

Citation – Though there are many ways of standardized citation rules, for uniformity we adopt the APA format. We tried to be consistent throughout of the material and adopt a simply but scientific citation style. Comparably, we found the APA citation being simply, detailed and understandable by all including non academicians. Information appears in the order of:

Last name, First name of author (publication year). The book/material Title. Place of publication: Publisher's name.

Last name, First name of author (publication year). The Article Title. Title of Periodical, volume#, issue#, pp#.

But for Ethiopian names, we preferred the first/given name of the author to appear first followed by his second/father’s name without any coma in between. There is not uniform ways of citing Ethiopian names: some take second/father’s name in front as last name followed by, with or without coma, their given/first name. Some scholars, however, argue that calling Ethiopians by their father’s name does not make sense as Ethiopians do not have family names and called by it anywhere in other walks of life. The latter group proposes the application of Ethiopian names in the natural order: first name followed by father’s name without any coma mark in between. The

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current document follows this later proposition. Unlike others, names of Ethiopian contributors are depicted in its natural order than the APA style which does not fit in to it.

There were, however, moments where all the information required by APA citations did not appear anywhere in the material. We tried to look for additional sources elsewhere for the missing data, specifically full names of the authors, and we succeeded in most circumstances. But when we come to Ethiopian names, if all information is not provided in the manuscript itself and could not be found elsewhere, we kept the citation used in the original manuscript even if it did not follow our citation rules. For example, for the article appearing with:

G. Abraham, A. Sintayehu, G. Libeau, E. Albina, F. Roger, Y. Laekemariam, D. Abayneh, K.M. Awoke. (2004). Antibody Seroprevalences against Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Virus in Camels, Cattle, Goats and Sheep in Ethiopia. National Animal Health and Disease Investigation center. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

We have modified the citation to fit in to our APA citation and designating Ethiopian authors by their real first/given name: Abraham G., Sintayehu A., Libeau G., Albina, E., Roger, F., Laekemariam Y., Abayneh D., Awoke, K.M.

Authors – a total of fifteen experts took part in the process of producing the annotated bibliography. They all came from different disciplines with commendable research experience in their area including environmental science, economics, management, marketing, veterinary and law. Initially, annotated bibliography guideline was produced to harmonize approaches and styles, and delineate scope of the work. Then, the authors wrote the annotation in their respective area of expertise and that has merited the document good quality and collection. We cannot claim, however, that important documents are not missed. If that has happened, it is only because of accessibility of the same.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SELECTED TOPICS OF PASTORAL LIVELIHOODS AND RESILIENCE

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Table of Contents

I. PASTORALISM: WAY OF LIFE, CHALLENGE, PROSPECT AND POLICY ISSUES ....................... 19

Fratkin, E. & Mearns, R. (2003). Sustainability and Pastoral Livelihoods: Lessons from East African Maasai and Mongolia. Human Organization, 6(2): 112-122. .................................... 19

Little, D., Behnke, R., McPeak, J. & Getachew Gebru. (2010). Policy Options for Pastoral Development in Ethiopia. Pastoral Economic Growth and Development Policy Assessment, Report Number 3. .................................................................................................................. 19

Little, P.D., Behnke, R., McPeak, J. & Getachew Gebru. (2010). Future Scenarios for Pastoral Development in Ethiopia – 2010-2015, Pastoral Economic Growths and Development Policy Assessment, Ethiopia, Report No. 2. ..................................................... 20

Melakou Tegegn (2004). Pastoralism and International Instruments. In Yonas Admasu (Eds.) Pastoral Development in Ethiopia, pp. 135-148. Addis Ababa: PFE. ..................................... 21

Mohamed Abdulahi (2004). Pastoral Development Strategies/policies in Ethiopia: Critical Analysis and Evaluation. In Yonas Admasu (Eds.) Pastoral development in Ethiopia, pp.37-63, Addis Ababa: PFE. .......................................................................................................... 21

Mohammed Mussa (2004). A Comparative Study of Pastoralist Parliamentary Groups: Case Study on the Pastoral Affairs Standing Committee of Ethiopia. www.nri.org/projects/pastoralism/ethiopiafinal.pdf ............................................................... 22

Pantuliano, S. & Wekesa, M. (2008). Improving Drought Response in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia: Somali and Afar Regions and Borena Zone of Oromiya Region. Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute, London. .................................................. 23

Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia (2002), Proposed Pastoral Development Policy Recommendations. Submitted to the Ministry of Federal Affairs. Retrieved from www.pfe-ethiopia.org/pub_files/ppdpr.pdf ............................................................................................ 24

Rettberg, S. (2010). Contested Narratives of Pastoral Vulnerability and Risk in Ethiopia’s Afar Region, Free University of Berlin, German. www.practicalactionpublishing.org ............ 25

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopian Ministry of the Federal Affairs (February, 2008). Draft Policy Statement for Sustainable Development of Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Area of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: FDRE foreign affairs. .......................................................... 25

The UN OCHA Pastoralists Communication Initiatives (2007). The Future of Pastoralism in Ethiopia. Retrieved from http://www.pastoralists.org/policy-and-government/ ...................... 26

Yacob Arsano, Taffesse Mesfin, Ayele Gebre-Mariam, Getachew Kassa & Melakou Tegegn (2000). Proceedings of National Conference on Pastoral Development in Ethiopia organized by Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia, PFE, Addis Ababa. ............................................................... 26

II. PASTORAL LIVELIHOOD DEVELOPMENT: LIVESTOCK AND MEAT MARKETING ................ 27

Agricultural Growth Project (AGP)-Livestock Market Development (2013). Value Chain Analysis for Ethiopia: Meat and Live Animals, Hides, Skins and Leather and Dairy, Retrieved

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY – PRIME PROJECT

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from http://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/AGP-LMD%20Value%20Chain%20Analysis.pdf .......................................................................... 27

Asfaw Negassa, Costagli, R., Matete, G., Mohammad Jabbar, Samuel Okuthe Oyieke, S.O., Abdulle, M.H. et al. (2008). Towards Improving Livestock Export Marketing Support Services in the Somali Context: Survey Findings and Implications. Improvement and Diversification of Somali Livestock Trade and Marketing Project, Discussion Paper No. 13, Improving Market Opportunities, Nairobi, Kenya. ................................................................. 28

Barrett, C.B., Bellemare, M.F. & Osterloh, S.M. (2006). Household-Level Livestock Marketing Behavior among Northern Kenyan and Southern Ethiopian Pastoralists. In McPeak, J.G. & Little, P.D. (Eds), Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Research and Policy Challenges, Warwickshire, UK, ITDG Publishing. ..................................................... 29

Bellemare, M.F. & Barrett, C.B. (2006). An Ordered Tobit Model of Market Participation: Evidence from Kenya and Ethiopia, American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 88 (2): 324–337. ............................................................................................................................... 30

Daniel Tewodros (2008). Beef Cattle Production System and Opportunities for Market Orientation in Borena Zone, Southern Ethiopia, MSc Thesis, Haramaya University. ............. 30

Dugasa Dirbaba & Belachew Hurrissa (2006). Live Animal Transport Services in Ethiopia: Current Practices and Future Options. Unpublished Report, SPS-LMM Program. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. .................................................................................................................... 31

Filip, C. (2006). Ethiopian Borena and Southern Somali Areas Livestock Value Chain Analysis Report, Pastoralist Livelihood Initiative-Livestock Marketing Project, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ................................................................................................................................ 32

Getachew Gebru, Solomon Desta, Coppock, D.L., Seyoum Tezera & Zewdu Edea (2009). Can pastoral linkages to livestock markets be sustained in southern Ethiopia? Research Brief 09-01-PARIMA. Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program (GL-CRSP), University of California, Davis. 4 pp. .................................................................................... 32

Getachew Legese, Hailemariam Teklewold, Dawit Alemu & Asfaw Negassa (2008). Live Animal and Meat Export Value Chains for Selected Areas in Ethiopia: Constraints and Opportunities for Enhancing Meat Exports, Improving Market Opportunities. Discussion Paper No. 12. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 56 pp. http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/25202 ................................................................... 33

Helina Tilahun & Schmidt, E. (2012). Spatial Analysis of Livestock Production Patterns in Ethiopia, Development Strategy and Governance Division. International Food Policy Research Institute – Ethiopia Strategy Support Program (ESSP) II, Ethiopia, Working Paper 44. ......... 34

Jiwa, F. & Wanjau, K. (2008). Alternative Livelihoods Development Framework: Guideline for the Identification, Selection and Development of Alternative Enterprise Opportunities. A Document of Care Kenya’s Livelihoods Diversification and Marketing Technical Working Group. ................................................................................................................................... 34

Kejela Gemtessa, Bezabih Eman & Waktole Tiki. (2006). Livelihood Diversification in Borana Pastoral Communities Ethiopia- Prospects and Challenge. WEBKBON consultant. Retrieved from http://www.ilri.org/Link/Publications/Publications/Theme1/Pastoral conference/Briefs .................................................................................................................. 35


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Mahmoud, H.A. (2012). Pastoralists’ Innovative Responses to New Camel Export Market Opportunities on the Kenya/Ethiopia Boarder Lands, In Catley, A., Lind, J. & Scoones, I. (Eds.), Pastoralism and Development in Africa; Dynamic Change at the Margins, New York, Routledge. ............................................................................................................................. 36

Malede Birhan (2013). Livestock Resource Potential and Constraints in Somali Regional State, Global Veterinaria, 10 (4): 432-438. ............................................................................ 37

Melaku Geboye (2007). The Regulatory Framework for Trade in IGAD Livestock Products, IGAD LPI Working Paper No.7-8, Retrieved from http://www.igad-lpi.org/publication/docs/IGADLPI_WP07_08.pdf ................................................................. 37

Pavanello, S. (2010). Livestock Marketing in Kenya-Ethiopia Border Areas: A Baseline Study, HPG Working Paper , Overseas Development Institute . www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/6054.pdf ‎ ............................................................................. 39

Rich, K.M., Perry, B.D., Kaitibie, S., Mitku Gobena & Nega Tewolde (2008). Enabling Livestock Product Export from Ethiopia: Understanding the Costs, Sustainability and Poverty Reduction Implications of SPS Compliance, ILRI. ................................................................ 39

Solomon Desta, Getachew Gebru, Seyoum Tezera & Coppock, D. L. (2006). Linking Pastoralists and Exporters in a Livestock Marketing Chain: Recent Experience from Ethiopia, In J. McPeak and P.D. Little (Eds.), Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Research and Policy Challenges, pp.109-127, Intermediate Technology Publications. .......................... 40

United Nations Economic and Social Council: Economic Commission for Africa. (2012, November). Report on Livestock Value Chains in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Regional Perspective, Eighth Session of the Committee on Food Security and Sustainable Development and Regional Implementation Meeting for the Twentieth Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. www.uneca.org/.../4._cfssd-8-0030-ore-report_on_livestock_value_chai ............................................................................................ 41

Wassie Berhanu, Colman, D. & Bichaka Fayissa. (2005). Diversification and Livelihood Sustainability in a Semi-Arid Environment: A Case Study from Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Development Studies, 43 (5), 871–889. .................................................................................. 41

Workeneh Kassa, Ingenbleek, P.T.M., & Van Trijp, H.C.M. (2012). Is the market orientation–performance relationship generalizable to informal economies in emerging markets? An empirical test in the pastoralist economy of Ethiopia. In Workneh Kassa (2012). Marketing’s contribution to the sustainability of pastoralism: Evidence from Ethiopia. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, the Netherlands. .............................................................................. 42

Yacob Aklilu (2008). Livestock Marketing in Kenya and Ethiopia: A Review of Policies and Practice, Feinstein International Center, Addis Ababa. .......................................................... 43

Yacob Aklilu (2004) Pastoral Livestock Marketing Groups in Southern Ethiopia: Some Preliminary Findings, Access to Markets Workshop, November 2-3, 2004, Nazreth, Ethiopia. .............................................................................................................................................. 43

Yacob Aklilu & Catley, A. (2010). Livestock Exports from Pastoralist Areas: An Analysis of Benefits by Wealth Group and Policy Implications, IGAD LPI Working Paper No. 01-10. .... 44

III. LIVELIHOOD DEVELOPMENT: DAIRY MARKETING AND BEEKEEPING ................................ 45


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Ahmed, M.M., Ehui, S. & Yemserach Assefa (2003). Dairy Development in Ethiopia, In Benin, S.E., Berhanu Gebremedhin and Staal, S. J. (Eds.). Socio-economics and Policy Research. ILRI, Working Paper 58, Nairobi, Kenya, 47 pp. ................................................... 45

Anderson, D. M., Elliott, H., Kochore, H. & Lochery, E. (2012). Camel herders, middle women, and urban milk bars: the co modification of camel milk in Kenya. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 6 (3): 383-404. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com. ....................... 45

Anteneh Girma, Tesfaye Lemma & Ranjitan, P. (2008). Towards Pluralistic Livestock Service Delivery System for the Commercialization of Smallholder Livestock Agriculture in Ethiopia: Evidence from Smallholder Dairying in Debrezeit Milk Shed, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/29025/ESAP_Proceedings16.pdf?sequence=1 .............................................................................................................................................. 46

Asfaw Negassa (2009). Improving Smallholder Farmers’ Marketed Supply and Market Access for Dairy Products in Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Research Report 21, 107 pp. .................................................................................................. 47

Aynalem Haile, Workneh Ayalew, Noah Kebede, Tadelle Dessie & Azage Tegegne. (2011). Breeding strategy to improve Ethiopian Boran cattle for meat and milk production. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 26. Nairobi, Kenya, ILRI. http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/3141/WP_26.pdf?sequence=1 ..................... 48

Azage Tegegne, Berhanu Gebremedhin, Hoekstra, D., Berhanu Belay & Yoseph Mekasha (2013). Smallholder dairy production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: IPMS experiences and opportunities for market-oriented development. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 31. Nairobi: ILRI. ................. 48

Care Ethiopia (2009). Women’s Milk and Small Ruminant Marketing in Mandera Triangles: Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. Wabekbon Development Consultants. http://edu.care.org/Documents/Womens%20Milk%20and%20Small%20Ruminant%20Marketing%20in%20Mandera%20Triangles.pdf ............................................................................... 49

CARE. (2010). Value Chain Analysis of Milk and Milk Products in Borana Pastoralist Area. Care-Ethiopia Regional Resilience Enhancement against Drought Project. Yonad Business Promotion and Consultancy Service PLC. Retrieved from: http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/FINAL_Milk_VCA_Study.pdf ............................................................................................................................. 50

Debissa Lemessa (2007). Beekeeping: A Livelihood Strategy in Pastoral and Agro–Pastoral Dry Land Areas of Southern Oromia (Liban District) and Somali Regional States (Filtu and Dollo Ado Districts). Can be accessed from: www.beesfordevelopment.org/uploads. ............ 50

Getachew Felleke, Medhin Woldearegay & Getnet Haile (2010). Inventory of Dairy Policy-Ethiopia. SNV Ethiopia. http://eadd.wikispaces.com/file/view/DVC-Dairy+Policy+Inventory-Getachew++++++Felleke-ET-Undated.pdf............................................................................ 51

Getnet Haile (2009, December). The impact of Global Economic & Financial Crises on the Ethiopian Dairy Industry. Least developed Countries Ministerial Conference, Vienna International Centre, Austria.................................................................................................. 52


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Holden, S. J. & Coppock, D. L. (1992). Effects of Distance to Markets, Season, and Family Wealth on Pastoral Diary Marketing in Ethiopia. Journal of Arid Environments, 23(3): 321-334. Can be accessed at http://hdl.handle.net/10568/28881. ................................................... 53

Holden, S. J., Coppock, D. L. & Mulugeta Assefa. (1991). Pastoral diary marketing and household wealth interaction and their implication for calves and humans in Ethiopia. Human Ecology, 19(1): 35-59. Can be accessed at http://www.jstor.org/stable/4602998 .................... 53

Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) (undated). Dairy: A Synthesis of IPMS Value -chain Development Experiences of Ethiopian Farmers Ethiopia.www.ipms-ethiopia.org ........................................................................................................................... 54

Kedija Hussen, Azage Tegegne, Mohammed Yousuf & Berhanu Gebremedhin (2008). Cow and camel milk production and marketing in agro-pastoral and mixed crop-livestock systems: The case of Mieso District, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia. International Livestock Institute (ILRI) Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper, 13, 56. .......................................................................................................... 54

Kedija Hussen, Azage Tegegn, Mohammed Yousuf & Berhanu Gebremedhin (2007). Cow and Camel Milk Production and Marketing in Agro-pastoral and Mixed Crop- Livestock Systems in Ethiopia, 18 pp.www.ipms-ethiopia.org. .............................................................. 55

Land O'Lakes, Inc. (2010). The Next Stage in Dairy Development for Ethiopia: Dairy Value Chains, End Markets and Food Security. Dairy Industry Development Assessment Report, Land O’Lakes, Inc. ................................................................................................................ 56

Lumadede, A.K, Owuor, G., Laqua, H., & Gluecks, I.V. (2010). Pastoral Milk Production and Market Chain Analysis in Dollo Ado and Dollo Bay, Somali Region of Ethiopia for Save the Children/US – Version 1, Save the Children/US. ................................................................... 57

Sadler, K., Mitchard, E., Abdulahi Abdi, Yoseph Shiferaw, Gezu Bekele, and Catley, A. (2012). MILK MATTERS: The Impact of Dry Season Livestock Support on Milk Supply and Child Nutrition in Somali Region, Ethiopia. Feinstein International Center, Tufts University and Save the Children, Addis Ababa. www.fic.tufts.edu ........................................................ 57

Smallholder Dairy Project (2013). An Annotated Bibliography on the Smallholder Dairy Project. Consulted for the Pro‐Poor Livestock Policy Research project. www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/4519.pdf‎/ ............................................................................. 58

Staal, S.J., Pratt, A.N. & Jabbar, M. (2008). Dairy Development for the Resource Poor Part 2: Kenya and Ethiopia Dairy Development Case Studies. PPLPI Working Paper No. 44-2, ILRI. http://www.fao.org/ag/pplpi.html .......................................................................................... 58

TAM Consult, (2008). Dairy Investment Opportunities in Ethiopia. SNV Netherlands Development Organization. ................................................................................................... 59

Tesfaheywet Zeryehun, Tsegaye Ayalew & Regassa Bayecha (2013). Study on Prevalence, Bacterial Pathogens and Associated Risk Factors of Bovine Mastitis in Small Holder Dairy Farms in and around Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 23(1): 50-55. .................................................................................................................................... 60


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Tesfaye Lemma, Puskur R., Hoekstra, D. & Azage Tegegn (2008). Exploring Innovation Capacity in Ethiopian Dairy Systems. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers, ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. www.ipms-ethiopia.org/ ........................... 61

IV. ANIMAL FEED .................................................................................................................... 61

Alemeayehu Mengistu (2008). Policy Considerations on Feed Supplementation in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. In: Commercialization of Livestock Agriculture in Ethiopia, Tamrat Degefa & Fekede Feyissa (Eds.), Proceedings of the 16th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, October 8 to 10, 2008, Part II Technical Session, ESAP, Addis Ababa, pp: 3-8. .................................................................. 62

Amha Kassahun (2006). Characterization of Rangeland Resources and Dynamics of the Pastoral Production Systems in the Somali Region of Eastern Ethiopia, PhD thesis, University of the Free State, BLOEMFONTEIN. www.suanet.ac.tz/ccaa/downloads/crEthiopia.doc ...... 62

Anderson, F.M. (undated). Farmer Circumstances in Ethiopia and the Improvement of Animal Feed Resources, FAO, Italy, ROME, http://www.fao.orgwairdocsilrix5548ex5548e0k.htm#TopOfPage.pdf ................................... 63

Azage Tegegn, Zewdu Ayele & Hoekstra, D. (2011).Farmer Innovations in Livestock Feeding and Management in Semi-arid Areas of Ethiopia, Tropentag, October 5-7, 2011, Bonn, “Development on the margin”. .............................................................................................. 63

Berhanu Gebremedhin, Adane Hirpa & Kahsay Berhe (2009). Feed Marketing in Ethiopia: Results of Rapid Market Appraisal. Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers Project, Working Paper 15, ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.www.ipms-ethiopia.org ................................................................. 64

Desalew Tesfaye, Azage Tegegn, Lisanework Nigatu & Worku Teka (2010). Rangeland Condition and Feed Resources in Metema District, North Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Working Paper 59. www.eap.gov.et. ...................................................................... 65

Kabaija, E. (1989). Non-conventional Indigenous Mineral Supplements Used for Cattle Feeding in the Pastoral Rangelands of Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 21(4):256-62. ........................................................................................................................ 66

Malede Birhan (2013). Livestock Resource Potential and Constraints in Somali Regional State, Ethiopia, Global Veterinaria, 10(4): 432-438. www.idoi.org/ ...................................... 66

Skinner, D. (2010). Rangeland Management for Improved Pastoralist Livelihoods: the Borana of Southern Ethiopia, MA thesis, Oxford Brookes University. ............................................... 67

Terefe Admasu, Ebro Abule & Zewdu Tessema (2010). Livestock-Rangeland Management Practices and Community Perceptions towards Rangeland Degradation in South Omo Zone of Southern Ethiopia, Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22 (1). ................................. 67

Teshome Abate, Abule Ebro & Lissanework Nigatu (2010). Traditional Rangeland Resource Utilization Practices and Pastoralists’ Perceptions on Land Degradation in South-east Ethiopia. Tropical Grasslands, 44: 202–212. ......................................................................... 68

Thairu, D.M. and Tessema, S. (2013). Research on Animal Feed Resources: Medium Potential Area of Kenya. National Dry Land Farming Research Station, Katumani, Machakos, Kenya. http://www.fao.org/wair docs/ilri/ .......................................................................................... 69


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V. ANIMAL HEALTH, SERVICES AND PROBLEMS..................................................................... 69

Abraham G., Sintayehu A., Libeau G., Albina, E., Roger, F., Laekemariam Y. et al. (2004). Antibody Seroprevalences against Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Virus in Camels, Cattle, Goats and Sheep in Ethiopia. National Animal Health and Disease Investigation center. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. .................................................................................................................... 69

African Union/Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (2003). Private Veterinary Practice in Pastoralist Areas of Eastern Africa: Report of a Regional Workshop Held in Nakuru, Kenya. African Union/Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources: Nairobi, Kenya. .. 70

Ahuja, V. & Redmond, E. (2001). Economic and Policy Issues in Livestock Service Delivery to the Poor. Background Paper for the FAO Project Memorandum “Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative: Fostering the Policy Dialogue in Support of Equitable, Safe and Clean Livestock Farming”. .............................................................................................................................. 70

Allport, R., Mosha R., Bahari, M., Swai, E. & Catley, A. (2005). The use of community-based animal health workers to strengthen disease surveillance systems in Tanzania. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 24 (3), 921-932. ...................................................................................... 71

Armbruster, W.J. (2005). Economic Impacts of Animal Disease management and Policy. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review. 8(1): 20-22. http://www.ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/8174/1/0801ar01.pdf ....................................... 72

Awale, M.M., Dudhatra, G.B., Kumar, A., Chauhan, B.N., Kamani, D.R. et al. (2012), Bovine Mastitis: A Threat to Economy. doi:10.4172/scientificreports.295. ........................................ 72

Bedada B.A. & Hiko Adem. (2011). Mastitis and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test at Asella, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 3(9): 228-232. .............................................................................................................................................. 73

Bekele Megersa (2010). An Epidemiological Study of Major Camel Diseases in the Borana Lowland, Southern Ethiopia. DCG Report No. 58. ................................................................ 73

Bekele Megersa, Demelash Biffa, Fufa Abunna, Alemayehu Regassa, Godfroid, J. & Skjerve, E. (2010). Tropical Animal Health and Production. DOI 10.1007/s11250-010-9748-2. ......... 74

Byarugaba, D.K, Nakavuma, J.L., Vaarst, M. & Laker, C. (2008). Mastitis Occurrence and Constraints to Mastitis Control in Smallholder Dairy Farming Systems in Uganda. Livestock Research for Rural Development 20 (1). ................................................................................ 75

Dego, O.K. & Tareke F. (2003). Bovine mastitis in selected areas of southern Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health Production, 35(3):197-205............................................................... 75

Department of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University (2001, Septemeber). Animal Health Service Delivery in Pastoralist Areas. www.eldis.org/fulltext/cape_new/Makerere_University_Workshop.pdf ................................ 76

Desalegn GebreMedhin, Merga Bekana, Azage Tegegne & Kelay Belihu (2009) Status of Artificial Insemination Service in Ethiopia. In Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) (2009). Climate change, livestock and people: Challenges, opportunities, and the way forward. Zelalem Yilma and Aynalem Haile (Eds). Proceedings of the 17th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, September 24 to 26, 2009. ESAP, Addis Ababa, pp. 87–104. ................................................ 76


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Food and Agriculture Organization/FAO (2011). A Value Chain Approach to Animal Diseases Risk Management - Technical Foundations and Practical Framework for Field Application. Animal Production and Health Guidelines, No. 4, Rome, Italy. ............................................. 77

Fufa Dawo (2010). Mysterious Mortality in Camels (Camelusdromedarius) in Borana, Ethiopia: Evidence of its Association with Reproductive Age Groups. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 29 (3), 621-628. ........................................................................................................... 78

Holden, S., Ashley, S. & Bazeley, P. (1996). Livestock in Development: Improving the Delivery of Animal Health Services in Developing Countries: a Literature Review. A Report to the Overseas Development Administration of the United Kingdom. ...................................... 78

Holden, S., Bazeley, K., Ashley, S. & Bazeley, P. (1995). An Approach to Designing and Implementing Herd Health and Production Programmes in Developing Countries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Animal Production and Health Division, Rome. www.fao.org/docrep/x0256e/x0256e04.htm/ .............................................................. 79

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) (2011). Animal Health Component: Background Proposals for the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish. http://cgspace.cgiar.org.......................................................................................................... 80

Leyland, T. & Akabwai, D.M.O. (1999). Delivery of Private Veterinarian Supervised Community based Animal Health Services to Pastoralist Areas of the Greater Horn of Africa. http://www.vetwork.org.uk/tl‐horn.htm. ................................................................................ 80

Leyland, T. & Catley, A. (2002).OAU/IBAR PACE Programme. .......................................... 81

Leyland, T., Akabwai, D. & Mutungi, P. (1998). Delivery of Private Vererinarian Supervised Community Based Animal Health Services to Arid and Semi-arid Pastoralist Areas – Are they a Viable and Sustainable Option? Vet-aid Conference, Tanzania 1998. http://www.vetaid.org/publications/arusha98/index.htm ........................................................ 81

Marsh, T., Wahl, T. & Suyambulingam, T. (2005). Animal Disease Outbreaks and Trade Bans, World Trade Organization Impacts on U.S. Farm Policy. Southern Regional Trade Research Committee, World Trade Center New Orleans, pp. 1-33. ........................................ 82

Martina, M., Mathias, E. & McCorkle, C. (2001). Ethno-veterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography of Community Animal Healthcare. ITDG Publishing ........................................ 82

McLeod, A. & Wilsmore, A. (2002). The delivery of animal health services to the poor: a review. In: investing in animal health research to alleviate poverty. http://ilri.org/infoserv/Webpub/fulldocs/InvestAnim/Book1/media/PDF_Appendix/Appendix11.pdf. ..................................................................................................................................... 83

Otte, M.J., Nugent, R. & McLeod, A. (2004). Transboundary Animal Diseases: Assessment of socio-economic impacts and institutional responses. Food and Agricultural Organization, Livestock Information and Policy Branch. AGAL. Livestock policy discussion paper No.9. . 83

Paarlberg, P.L., Seitzinger, A.H, Lee, J.H. & Mathews, K.H. (2008). Economic Impacts of Foreign Animal Disease. Economic Research Report No. 57. Retrieved from: www.ers.usda.gov ................................................................................................................. 84

Perry, B.D, Randolph, T.F., McDermott, J.J., Sones, K.R. & Thornton, P.K. (2002). Animal Diseases and Their Impact on The Poor, In: Investing in Animal Health Research to Alleviate


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Poverty. http://ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/InvestAnim/Book1/media/PDF_chapters/Book1_Contents.pdf ................................................................................................................................ 85

Perry, B.D., Randolph, T.F., McDermott, J.J., Sones, K.R. & Thornton, P.K. (2003). Animal Health Research Priorities to Target Poverty Reduction in the Developing World. Paper presented at the 10th International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, Nairobi, Kenya. www.sciquest.org.nz/ ................................................................................... 86

Rich, K.M., Baker, D. & Perry, D.B. (2010, Decmber) Value Chain Analysis and Animal Health Economics: Opportunities and Caveats, Workshop on Animal Health Economics, London. www.rvc.ac.uk/Meetings/AHE/documents/833_Baker_Rich.pdf ............................. 86

Sojal, L. (2010). Bovine Mastitis Caused by Escherichia coli – Clinical, Bacteriological and Therapeutic Aspects. PhD Dissertation, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki. ................................................................................................................................ 87

Sumner, D.A., Bervejillo, J.E. & Jarvis, L.S. (2005). Public Policy, Invasive Species and Animal Disease Management. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 8(1): 78-97. http://www.ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/8181/1/0801su01.pdf .................... 87

Thomson, G.R. (2009). Currently Important Animal Disease Management Issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 76:129–134 ........................ 88

Viguier, C., Arora, S., Gilmartin, N., Welbeck, K. & O’Kennedy, R. (2009). Mastitis detection: current trends and future perspectives. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2009.05.004, 486-493. .............................................................................................................................................. 88

Ward, D., Otte, J. & Cheneau, Y. (2000) International Experiences with Commercialization/Privatization of Veterinary, Artificial Insemination and Other Livestock Services. www.hubrural.org/IMG/pdf/agridoc-fao_anglais.pdf, ............................................. 89

Wolf, C. (2005). Producer Livestock Disease Management Incentives and Decisions, International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 8(1): 46-61. http://www.ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/8179/1/0801wo01.pdf ...................................... 89

VI. ENERGY SECTOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE PASTORALIST AREAS ........................................ 89

Aklilu Dalelo. (2002?) Rural electrification in Ethiopia: Opportunities and bottlenecks. Working Paper Series. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. Available at http://www.science.gov/topicpages/e/energy-based+rural+electrification.html ...................... 90

Bizuayehu Tesfaye. (2011). Improved sustainable power supply for Dagahabur and Kebridahar town of Somalia region in Ethiopia. Master thesis, Reyjavik University, Iceland. .............................................................................................................................................. 90

Breyer, C., Gerlach, A., Hlusiak, M., Peters, C., Adelmann, P., Winiecki, J. & Gashie, W. (2009). Electrifying the poor: Highly economic off-grid PV systems in Ethiopia – A basis for sustainable rural development. Paper presented at the 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference (pp.3852-3860). Hamburg, Germany. ..................................................... 91

Getachew Bekele. (2011). Feasibility Study of Solar-Wind Based Standalone Hybrid System for Application in Ethiopia. World Renewable Energy Congress: Energy End Use Efficiency Issue (EEE) (pp. 826-833). Stockholm, Sweden. (Unpublished) ............................................ 92


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Köhlin, G., Sills, E. O., Pattanayak, S. K. & Wilfong, C. (2011). Energy, gender and development: What are the linkages? Where is the evidence? The World Development Report 2012 on Gender Equality and Development working paper 125/11. The World Bank, Washington D.C. ................................................................................................................... 92

Power, M., Melessaw Shanko, Hankins, M., Saini, A., & Kirai, P. (Eds.). (2009). Target Market Analysis: Ethiopia’s Solar Energy Market. Project Development Programme East Africa. Gtz, Germany. Retrieved from www.renewables-made-in-germany.com. .................. 93

UNIDO. (2010). Study on Local Manufacturing of Renewable Energy Technology Components in East Africa. Working Paper, Vienna, Australia.............................................. 94

VII. FINANCIAL SERVICES FOR PASTORALIST AREAS: RURAL FINANCING AND MICRO-FINANCIAL SERVICES ................................................................................................................ 95

Abdi Ahmed (2004). Micro-finance and Pastoralism, Paper presented at the Third National Conference on Pastoral Development in Ethiopia in Yonas Admasu (edn), Pastoral Development in Ethiopia, Pastoral Forum Ethiopia. Retrieved from: http://www.pfe-ethiopia.org/pub_files/third.pdf/ ............................................................................................ 95

Abdul-Rahman, Y. (2010). The Art of Islamic Banking and Finance: Tools and Techniques for Community-Based Banking. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. ......................................... 96

Asutay, M. (2007). Conceptualization of the Second Best Solution in Overcoming the Social Failure of Islamic Banking and Finance: Examining the Overpowering of Homoislamicus. Journal of Economics and Management 15(2), 167-195. ....................................................... 97

Barr, M. S (2005). Microfinance and Financial Development. University of Michigan Law School Program in Law and Economics Working Paper Archive: 2003-2009, Paper 46......... 97

Bienen, D., Gebrehiwot Ageba, Haftu Berihun & Million Habte (2009, October). Ethiopian Microfinance Ownership and Governance. AEMFI Occasional Paper No. 27, Ethiopia. ....... 98

Ebisa Deribie, Getachew Nigussie & Fikadu Mitiku (2013). Filling the breach: Microfinance. Journal of Business and Economic Management 1(1): 10-17. ................................................ 98

El-Gamal, M. A. (2008). Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ................................................................................................. 99

El-Zoghbi, M. & Tarazi, M. (2013, March). Trends in Sharia-Complaint Financial Inclusion, CGPA Focus Note, No. 84, Washington, D.C.: CGAP. ........................................................ 100

Gebrehiwot Ageba, Assefa Admassie & Habteselassie Hagos (2011, March). Assessment of the Financial Products of Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) & Multipurpose Cooperatives in Ethiopia. AEMFI, Occasional Paper No.29, Ethiopia. ................................ 100

Hoff, K. & Joseph E. Stieglitz (1990). Introduction: Imperfect Information and Rural Credit Markets-Puzzles and Policy Perspectives. The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 4(3), 235-250. ..................................................................................................................................... 101

Kejela Gemtessa, Mengistu Nigussie, Melaku Jirata & Fekadu Gudeta (2008, January). Financial Services Delivery and Demand for Microfinance Services in Pastoral communities in Afar and Somalia Regions of Ethiopia. AEMFI, Occasional Paper No.22, Ethiopia. ........ 102


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Khawari, A. (2004). Microfinance: Does it hold its promises? A survey of recent literature. Hamburg Institute of International Economics, Discussion Paper 276. ................................ 103

Khandker, S. R. (1996). Grameen Bank: Impact, Costs, and Program Sustainability. Asian Development Review, 14 (1), 65-85. .................................................................................... 103

Kloeppinger, R. T. & Sharma, M. (2010). Innovations in Rural and Agriculture Finance: Overview. 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment, Focus 18 Brief 1. ....... 104

Pearce, D., Davis, J., Onumah, G. & Butterworth, R. (2004). Making Rural Finance Count for the Poor. Department for International Development (DFID) and the Natural Resources Institute. .............................................................................................................................. 105

Solomon Abay (2011). Financial Market Development, Policy and Regulation: The International Experience and Ethiopia’s Need for Further Reform. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Faculty of Law, 2007. ................................................................ 105

Wolday Amha (2005, October). Prudential Regulation of the Microfinance Industry: Lessons from Ethiopia. Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions (AEMFI) Occasional Paper, No. 15, Ethiopia. ................................................................................................................. 106

Wolday Amha (2007, January). Managing Growth of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs): Balancing Sustainability and Reaching Large Number of Clients in Ethiopia. AEMFI, Occasional Paper No.18, Ethiopia. ...................................................................................... 107

Wolday Amha (2008, September). Corporate Governance of the Deposit Taking Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Ethiopia, AEMFI Occasional Paper, No.23, Ethiopia. ....................... 108

Wolday Amha (2012, April). The Development of Deposit-taking Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Ethiopia: Performance, Growth Challenges and the Way Forward. AEMFI Occasional Paper, No. 32, Ethiopia...................................................................................... 108

Yaron, J., Benjamin, M. & Piprek, G. (1997). Rural Finance: Issues Design and Best Practices. World Bank, Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Studies and Monographs Series 14. ........................................................................................................ 109

Zeller, M. & Sharma. M. (2000). The Demand for Financial Services by the Rural Poor: Rural Financial Policies for Food Security of the Poor. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Policy Brief No. 1. ................................................................................................. 110

VIII. CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN PASTORAL AREAS OF ETHIOPIA ....................... 110

Abdurahman Mohammed, Alebachew Adem, Assefa Biru, Belayhun Hailu, Berhanu Terefe, Biru Eshete et al. (2010). Afar National Regional State Program of Plan on Adaptation to Climate Change. Environmental Protection of Authority of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Semera. ............................................................................................................ 110

Abebech Belayneh, Stevens, E., Etsehiwot Wondimu, & Kebadu Simachew. (2009). Camel Distribution in Response to Climate Change: Case Studies from Moyale District, Dhas, and Arero Districts. Retrieved from http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/techBrief_camel restocking.pdf...................................................................................................................... 111


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Abera Bekele & Aklilu Amsalu. (2012). Effects of Drought on Pastoral Household in Fentale Woreda of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing World, Vol 4, No.3. ............................................................................................ 112

Aklilu Amsalu, Desalegn Wana, Mesfin Kassa & Negash Teklu. (2013). Climate Change Impacts on Pastoral Women in Ethiopia: Some Evidences From the Southern Lowlands. PHE Ethiopia Consortium, PHILMON PRESS. ........................................................................... 113

Beruk Yemane. (2008). Natural Resource and Environmental Management Considerations and Climate Healing Steps in Ethiopia. In Proceeding of the Fourth National Conference on Pastoral Development of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia. ...... 113

CARE International & Save the Children UK. (2009). Policy Brief to Climate Related Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity in Ethiopia’s Somalia and Borana Communities. Retrieved from http://www.careclimatechange.org/files/reports/Ethiopia_Pastoralists_Policy_Brief.pdf ...... 114

Erettber, S . (2010). Contested Narratives of Pastoral Vulnerability and Risk in Ethiopia’s Afar Region. Pastoralism Vol.1, No. 2. ............................................................................... 115

Marin, A., & Eriksen, S. (2011). Pastoral Pathways: Climate Adaptation Lessons from Ethiopia. Development Fund. Retrieved from http://www.utviklingsfondet.no/files/uf/documents/Rapporter/Pathways_report_web.pdf .... 116

Mebratu Kifle & Yohannes Gebre-Michael. (2009). Local Innovation in Climate-Change Adaptation by Ethiopian Pastoralists. PROLINNOVA- Ethiopia and Pastoral Forum for Environment. .................................................................................................. 116

Oxfam International (2010). The rain doesn’t come on time anymore: Poverty, vulnerability, and climate variability in Ethiopia. Eclipse, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Retrieved fromhttp://www.oxfamblogs.org/eastafrica/wpcontent/uploads/2010/09/rr_climate_change_ethiopia_en_2504101.pdf/ ........................................................................................................ 117

Shitarek, T. (2012). Ethiopia Country Report. DFID. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/197474/Econ-Res-Ethiopia-Country-Report.pdf ........................................................................................ 118

Tezera Getahun. (2006). Climate Change Posing Danger to Pastoralist: How to Manage Excess of Its Diversities, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, ESAP Newsletter, Issue No. 13. ....................................................................................................................................... 118

Tibebu Solomon (2013). The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. African Technology Policy Study Network. http://www.atpsnet.org/publications/research_papers/index.php ......................................... 119

Virtanen, P., Palmujoki, P. & Dereje Terefe. (2011). Global Climate Policies, Local Institutions and Food Security in a Pastoral Society in Ethiopia. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development. Vol. 5, ISS.1. pp. 96-118. ........................................................... 120

Yohannes Gebre-Michael & Bayer, A. (2011). More than Climate Change: Pressures Leading to Innovation by Pastoralists in Ethiopia and Niger, PROLINNOVA International Secretariat, ETC Agriculture, Netherlands. Retrieved from


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http://www.oxfamblogs.org/eastafrica/wpcontent/uploads/2010/09/rr_climate_change_ethiopia_en_2504101.pdf ............................................................................................................... 120

Yohannes Gebre-Michael, Bayer, A. & Waters-Bayer, A. (2010). Emerging responses to climate change in pastoral system, Rural Development News. Retrieved from http://www.agrideainternational.ch/fileadmin/10_International/PDF/RDN/RDN_2010/7_Emerging_responses_in_pastoralism.pdf ..................................................................................... 121

IX. EARLY WARNING SYSTEM, EMERGENCY RESPONSES AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 122

Abdirahman Ali and Matthew, H. (2009). Social Protection in Pastoral Areas, Humanitarian Policy Group, the Regional Livelihoods Advocacy Project (REGLAP) Report 5. www.odi.org.uk/hpg ............................................................................................................ 122

Abdurrahman Ali Issack & Ahmed Yusuf. (2010). Save the Children UK experiences on piloting Community Based Early Warning Systems in 3 districts of Somali and Afar Regions of Ethiopia: What worked and what didn’t, European Commission. ........................................ 123

Betru Nedessa & Wickrema, S. (2010). Disaster Risk Reduction: Experience from MARET Project. In Omamo, S.W., Ugo Gentilini, U. & Susanna Sandström, S. (Eds), Revolution: From Food Aid to Food Assistance – Innovations in Overcoming Hunger (pp.139-157). WFP, Italy, Rome. ........................................................................................................................ 124

Cabot, C.V., Fitzgibbon, C., Shiterak, T., Coulter, L. & Dooley, O. (2012). The Economics of Early Response and Disaster Resilience: Lessons from Kenya and Ethiopia. London: DFID. ............................................................................................................................................ 125

Donovan, C., McGlinchy, M., Staatz, J. & Tschirley, D. (2005). Emergency Needs Assessments and the Impact of Food Aid on Local Markets, Strengthening Emergency Needs Assessment Capacity (SENAC), UN-WFP. http://fsg.afre.msu.edu/papers/idwp87.pdf. ....... 126

Ethiopian Pastoral Research and Development Association (EPaRDA). (2008). Pastoral Early Warning System Field Operation Manual, Pastoral Community Development Project (PCDP). ............................................................................................................................................ 127

Fassil Kebebew, Diress Tsegaye & Synnevåg, G. (2001). Traditional Coping Strategies of the Afar and Borana Pastoralists in Response to Drought, DCG Report No. 17, Drylands Coordination Group. ............................................................................................................ 127

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2009), National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management. http://www.elmt-relpa.org/aesito/hoapn?id_cms_doc=58&download_file=on&get_file=1036. ...................... 128

Fitzgibbon, C. & Crosskey, A. (2013). Disaster risk reduction management in the drylands in the Horn of Africa. Brief prepared by a Technical Consortium hosted by CGIAR in partnership with the FAO Investment Centre. Technical Consortium Brief 4. Nairobi: International Livestock Research Institute. .......................................................................... 128

Gezu Bekele & Tsehay Abera. (2008). Livelihoods-based Drought Response in Ethiopia: Impact Assessment of Livestock Feed Supplementation, Pastoral Livelihood Initiatives (PLI). http://www.livestock-emergency.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Bekele-and-Tsehay-PIA-Aug-082.pdf. ....................................................................................................................... 129


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Gezu Bekele, Mohamed Abdinoor & Wosen Asfaw. (2008). Analysis of Traditional Drought Indicator and Triggers in the Southern Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. Available at http://www.elmt-relpa.org/aesito/hoapn?id_cms_doc=58&download_file=on&get_file=36. 129

Harvey, P. (2005). Cash and Vouchers in Emergencies. HPG discussion group, 60 pp. www.odi.org.uk/hpg ............................................................................................................ 130

Harvey, P. (2007). Cash-based responses in emergencies. Humanitarian policy group (HPG), briefing paper, 25. ............................................................................................................... 130

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2013). How Law and Regulation Supports Disaster Risk Reduction, Ethiopia: Country Case Study Report. http://www.ifrc.org/dl. ......................................................................................................... 131

Jackson, E. (2010). The key steps in establishing Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction in South Omo pastoralist areas. FARM-Africa’s field manual to guide practitioners in Ethiopia. FARM-Africa Ethiopia. .................................................................................... 132

Lautze, S., Yacob Aklilu, Raven-Roberts, A., Young, H., Girma Kebede & Leaning, J. (2003). Risk and Vulnerability in Ethiopia: Learning from the Past, Responding to the Present, Preparing for the Future. A Report for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). www.eldis.org/go/home&id=13559&type=Document ......................................... 132

Lindell, M.K. & Perry, R.W. (2004). Communicating Environmental Risk in Multiethnic Communities. USA: Sage Publication, USA. ....................................................................... 133

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (2008). Draft National Guidelines for Livestock Relief Interventions in Pastoralist Areas of Ethiopia (1st edn), National Livestock Policy Forum. http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/National%20Guidelines%20for%20Livestock%20-%20Ethiopia.pdf. ................................................................. 134

Mulugeta Abebe. (2009). Emerging Trends in Disaster Management and the Ethiopian Experience: Genesis, Reform and Transformation. Journal of Business and Administration Studies, 1(2): 60-89.http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jbas.v1i2.57352 ............................................ 134

Nkamuhebwa, W., Mubarack, B. & Okiro, S. (2012). Participatory Disaster Risk Assessment Training Pack and Assessment Tools. Emergency Capacity Building (ECB) Project. Available at http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/ ............................................................................... 135

Ogato, G. S. (2013). The Human Ecology of Disasters in Ethiopia: The Quest for Participatory Disaster Management and Sustainable Livelihood Improvement of Pastoral Communities. American Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 21-27. .......................................... 136

Pantuliano, S. & Wekesa, M. (2008). Improving Drought Response in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia Somali and Afar Regions and Borena Zone of Oromiya Region, Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute, London. www.odi.org.uk ....................................... 136

Philpott, J., Asnake Abera & Kassaye Hadgu. (2005). Livelihoods/Emergency Assessment in Afar Region, Oxfam International. http://internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments%20)/D6273FE66774116B802570B7005903D2/$file/Afar+LH-Emer.pdf. ................................................................................... 137


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Ranjan, R. (2011). Drought Resilient Strategies, Selected Works, in Press. http://works.bepress.com/ram_ranjan/20 ............................................................................. 138

Regional Drought Decision (RDD) (2011?). Putting the Disaster Risk Reduction Elements Together: Lessons Learned from ECHO- Financed Regional Drought Decision (RDD) Projects in Ethiopia. http://www.disasterriskreduction.net................................................... 138

Rettberg, S. (2010) Contested narratives of pastoral vulnerability and risk in Ethiopia’s Afar region, Pastoralism Vol. 1 No.2. pp. 248-273. Practical Action Publishing, doi: 10.3362/2041-7136.2010.014. .................................................................................................................... 139

Tenna, S. (2011). Economics of Resilience. Ethiopia Country Report. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ethiopia-country-report-2012 ........................ 139

The SEEP Network (2007). Market Development in Crisis-Affected Environments: Emerging Lessons for Achieving Pro-Poor Economic Reconstruction. www.seepnetwork.org ............. 140

USAID. (2001). Proceedings from the Workshop on Pastoral Early Warning and Early Response Systems in the Greater Horn of Africa. 13th -15th November, 2001, Mombasa, Kenya. ................................................................................................................................. 141

Venton, C.C., Shitarek, S., Coulter, L. & Dooley, O. (2013). The Economics of Early Response and Resilience: Lessons from Ethiopia, TEERR: Ethiopia. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67330/Econ-Ear-Rec-Res-Full-Report_20.pdf ......................................................................................... 141

Watson, C. & Catley, A. (2008). Livelihoods, Livestock and Humanitarian Response: The Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards. Commissioned and Published by the Humanitarian Practice Network at Overseas Development Institute, Humanitarian Practice Network. http://www.odihpn.org/ ........................................................................................ 142

World Food Programme (WFP). (2009). Emergency Food Security Assessment Handbook (2nded.) Food Security Analysis Service, United Nations World Food Programme. .............. 142

Yakob Aklilu & Wekesa, M. (2002). Drought, Livestock and Livelihoods: Lessons from the 1999–2001 Emergency Response in the Pastoral Sector in Kenya, Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN). http://mercury.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/96813/ipublicationdocument_singledocument/32a8cc2f-6b1e-4a52-9ace-0e2bd37ae32b/en/networkpaper040.pdf. .................................... 143

Yonas Admassu (eds) (2003) Proceeding of the Round Table on Drought and famine in the Pastoral Region of Ethiopia, Global Hotel, Addis Ababa, December 23-24, 2002, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia. .................................................................................................................. 143

Young, H., Jaspars, S., Brown, R., Frize, J & Khogali, H .(2001). Food-security Assessments in Emergencies: A Livelihoods Approach, Humanitarian Practice Network Paper, London. http://www.odihpn.org/documents/networkpaper056.pdf ..................................................... 144

X. NRM, LAND TENURE AND PROPERTY RIGHTS ................................................................. 145

Ayele Gebre-mariam (1994). Nomadic Peoples: The alienation of land rights among the Afar in Ethiopia, Nomadic Peoples 34/35, pp. 137- 146, Commission on Nomadic People. ......... 145


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Bekele Hundie & Padmanabhan, M. (2008, June). The Transformation of Commons in the Afar Region in Ethiopia: State Coercion, Diversification, and Property Rights Change among Pastoralists. CAPRi Working Paper No. 87, (http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/CAPRiWP87). International Food Policy Research Institute. ....................................................................... 145

Bekele Hundie (2006). Property Rights among Afar Pastoralists of Northeastern Ethiopia: Forms, Changes and Conflicts. A Paper presented at the 11th Biennial Conference of the International Association of the Study of Common Property, 19-23 June 2006, Bali Indonesia. Retrieved from www.saga.cornell.edu/saga/ilri0606/35hundie.pdf‎/ ..................................... 146

Flintan, F., Boku Tache & Abdurahman Eid (2011). Rangeland Fragmentation in Traditional Grazing Areas and its Impact on Drought Resilience of Pastoral Communities: Lessons from Borana, Oromia and Harshin, Somali Regional States, Ethiopia. Regional Learning and Advocacy Program for the Vulnerable Dryland Communities. http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/east-central-africa/reglap/documents/detail/en/c/1960/147

Flintan, F., Solomon Demlie, Mohammed Awol, Zahra Humed, Yemane Belete & Honey Lemma (2008). Study on Women’s Property Rights in Afar and Oromiya Regions, Ethiopia. Retrieved from http://www.elmt-relpa.org/aesito/hoapn?id_cms_doc=58&download_file=on&get_file=127 ......................... 147

Getachew Kassa (2002). An overview of root causes of problems that currently affect Borana Pastoarlists of Southern Ethiopia. In Mustafa Babiker (ed.): Resource Alienation, Militarization and Development: Case Studies from East African Drylands. Addis Ababa: OSSREA, pp. 67-76. ........................................................................................................... 148

Helland, J. (2002). Land alienation in Borana: Some land tenure issues in a Pastoral context in Ethiopia: In Mustafa Babiker (ed.): Resource Alienation, Militarization and Development: Case Studies from East African Drylands. Addis Ababa: OSSREA pp. 47-65...................... 149

Helland, J. (1982). Social Organization and Water Control among the Borana. Development and Change, 13: 239–258. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7660.1982.tb00119.x ................................. 149

Hiwot Desta (Undated). Overview on Degradation of Land Due to Overgrazing in Ethiopia, University of de Milano, Milan, Italy. http://www.mi.imati.cnr.it/sara/biodiversita/Overview%20on%20Degradation%20of%20Land%20Due%20to%20Overgrazing%20in%20Ethiopia.pdf. ..................................................... 150

PFE, IIRR & DF (2010). Pastoralism and Land: Land Tenure, Administration and Use in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Ethiopia. ............................................................ 150

Ridgewell, A., Getachew Mamo & Flintan, F. (Eds.) (2007). Gender and Pastoralism Vol. 1: Range Land and Resource Management in Ethiopia (pp.15-32) Addis Ababa: SOS Sahel Ethiopia. .............................................................................................................................. 151

Yasin Abdalla & Samat, N. (2011).Pastoral Land Right and Protracted Conflict in Eastern Sudan. The Journal of Pan African Studies 4(8), 74-90. ...................................................... 152

XI. TRADITIONAL INSTITUTION, AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ......................................... 153

Kelemwork Tafere & Gebreyasus Tekelu. (2013). From traditional Dagu to mobile and media technologies: communication and livelihood change among the Afar pastoralists of Ethiopia, Wudpecker Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 1(3), 035-040. .................................... 153


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Pastoralist Community Development Project & WIBD Consult (October 2005). Social Analysis and Indigenous Livelihood Strategies in Afar Pastoral Communities. Retrieved from http://www.pcdp.org.et/Docs/Research/Participatory%20Research%20&%20%20Social%20Analysis%20-%20The%20case%20of%20Afar.pdf ............................................................... 154

Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia (2004, June). Rally of the Borana, Guji, Gebra, Arsi and Marian, Pastoral Clans of Oromia. Report: Addis Ababa. Retrieved from http://www.pfe-ethiopia.org/report_files/oromoelders.pdf ............................................................................ 155

Stark, J., Terasawa, K. & Mersi Ejigu. (2011). Climate Change and Conflict in Pastoralist Regions of Ethiopia: Mounting Challenges, Emerging Responses. Foundation for Environmental Security, USAID, CMM Discussion Paper No. 4. ........................................ 155

Watson, E. (2001). Inter- Institutional Alliances and Conflicts in Natural Resource Management: Preliminary Research Findings from Borana, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Marena Research Project, Working Paper No. 4. Retrieved from www.cbnrm.net/pdf/sussex_001_wpaper_04.pdf/ ................................................................ 156

XII. MONITORING AND EVALUATION, AND PASTORAL PROGRAMMING .................................. 157

Bayer, Wolfgang & Waters-Buyer, Ann. (2002). Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) with pastoralists: a review of experiences and annotated bibliography. GTZ and ETC Foundation, Eschborn, Germany. Retrieved from: http://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/en-SVMP-waters-bayer-2002.pdf/ ...................... 157

Bezabih Emana (2010). Final Evaluation of Pastoralist Food Security Partnership Project, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia, Final Report, SID-Consult-Support Integrated Development. ...................................................................................................................... 158

Commonwealth of Australia (2006). Introduction to Cost-Benefit Analysis and Alternative Evaluation Methodologies, Financial Management Reference Material No. 5, Retrieved from http://www.finance.gov.au/publications/finance-circulars/2006/docs/Intro_to_CB_analysis.pdf. .................................................................... 158

Darnton, A. (2008, July). Reference Report: An overview of behavior change models and their Uses, GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Retrieved from http://www.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Behaviour_change_reference_report_tcm6-9697.pdf. ................... 159

Hopkins, C. (2012, July). Workshop on Developing Index-Based Livestock Insurance to Reduce Vulnerability Due to Drought-related Livestock Deaths, CARE Ethiopia Pastoral Livelihoods Program, Oromia Region. ................................................................................ 160

Long, Trisha, Russell, M., Bilinsky, P., Dalziel, E., Bryson, J., Tarver, E. et al. (2008). Success and Learning Stories. American Red Cross/CRS M&E Module Series. American Red Cross and CRS, Washington, DC, and Baltimore, Maryland. ........................................................ 160

Mechler, R. and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008). The Cost-Benefit Analysis Methodology: From Risk to Resilience, Working Paper No. 1. Moench, M., Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel (eds), ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention, Kathmandu, Nepal. ............................... 161

Osorio-Cortes, L. and Jenal, M. (2013). Monitoring and measuring change in market system: Rethinking the current paradigm. The SEEP Network, Retrieved from:


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www.seepnetwork.org/monitoring-and-measuring-change-in-market-systems---rethinking-the-current-paradigm-resources-937.php/ .................................................................................. 162

The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation in the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA/CMM) (2005). Livelihoods and Conflict: A Toolkit for Programming, USAID. http://www.commdev.org/livelihoods-and-conflict-toolkit-intervention ............................................................................................................................................ 163


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I. PASTORALISM: WAY OF LIFE, CHALLENGE, PROSPECT AND POLICY ISSUES

Fratkin, E. & Mearns, R. (2003). Sustainability and Pastoral Livelihoods: Lessons from East African Maasai and Mongolia. Human Organization, 6(2): 112-122.

This paper compares two pastoralist populations-East African Maasai and pastoralists of Mongolia—to discuss recent changes in the pastoral way of life and to describe what sustainability has meant in the past and what sustainability needs to mean in the future for pastoralist populations. The authors tried to explicitly explain the issues of sustainable development from its definitions to a wider application. Fratkin and Mearns exemplify the case of the Massai and Mongolia to demonstrate sustainable development concepts, socio-cultural events etc. The paper argues that, two concepts with regard to pastoral way of life, where increasing population pressure and competition for land leads to several solutions in two ways. One view as the author depicts, recommends abandoning pastoralism altogether and encouraging former herders to plant forage crops, cereals, and fodder to raise livestock in sedentary settings and to integrate into an industrialized, market-based economy.

An opposing view emphasizes restoring or protecting pastoralism through statutory legal recognition of customary rights to water and pasture resources; rights-of-way for herds to travel through cultivated lands during migration periods; rights to unhindered passage across international borders; recognition of pastoralist knowledge of water, pasture, and herd management; an end to propaganda to sedentarize pastoralists; the right to fair prices and water; and, finally, the right to run their own local affairs. A middle position, reinforced by the Mongolian and East African examples, is the increased market integration and commoditization of livestock based on hybrid forms of ranching and more traditional pastoral herding strategies, as well as the creation of deeper ties with farming and urban communities. The recommendations from this paper are useful for PRIME’s intervention in the area of resilience of pastoralists through sustainable market system and early warning system to protect pastoralists’ assets.

Little, D., Behnke, R., McPeak, J. & Getachew Gebru. (2010). Policy Options for Pastoral Development in Ethiopia. Pastoral Economic Growth and Development Policy Assessment, Report Number 3.

The paper authored by Little et al (2010), presents four policy recommendations on land tenure policy, land use policy, sedenterization policy and trade policy. Regarding trade policy, the authors argue that export of meat and meat products to the Middle East or OECD market is not a sensible policy direction. Rather, the government of Ethiopia should pursue both regional and domestic trade instead of overseas international and high risk markets. Ethiopian meat exporters can’t compete with the of Brazilian and Indian meat exports. Either they have to cut prices or improve quality of their meat. It is, therefore, necessary to invest on cost reduction through improving marketing efficiency along the Ethiopian border. There is a need to invest on the physical and marketing infrastructure, information provision for exporters establishing custom posts and avoiding delays, among others.


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Regarding land related policies, the paper indicated that Ethiopia does not need a wholly new or modernized system of pastoral tenure. Instead, it needs to build upon existing customary systems and clarify their relationship to government – a process of legal and administrative evolution, not radical change. To do this, Ethiopia needs specific laws that put into practice the pastoral land rights that are enshrined in the country‘s constitution. It also argued that the efficient utilization of pastoral area resources can be made through nomadism instead of the current voluntary sedenterization policy, which is pursued by the government of Ethiopia, should be promoted. According to this paper, given the limited resources (water and grazing land) in the dry pastoral areas of Ethiopia, mobility is an efficient way of life. The government should encourage such way of life. On the other hand, sedentary small-scale dry land agriculture should not be encouraged because it is not sustainable. The sustainable way out for the problem of growing population pressure vis-à-vis scarce resources is not sedentary dry land small-scale agriculture but the integration of the pastorals to non-livestock employment sectors. However, the provision of education should not compromise mobility; instead it should be consistent with the mobile system of pastoralists. Lastly, the paper argues in favor of Policy reform to widen the role of private veterinarians while limiting government to regulatory functions and controlling trans-boundary animal diseases rather than clinical services that can be better provided by the private sector.

Little, P.D., Behnke, R., McPeak, J. & Getachew Gebru. (2010). Future Scenarios for Pastoral Development in Ethiopia – 2010-2015, Pastoral Economic Growths and Development Policy Assessment, Ethiopia, Report No. 2.

This report is the second in a series of papers that examine pastoral economies and development in Ethiopia. It starts with the premise that the government has an important role in promoting a positive view of pastoral economies and development to counter the very strong under-appreciation of the economic contributions of pastoralism. The authors believe that this lack of acknowledgement, in part, is based on misperceptions and a lack of understanding about the sector‘s important contributions to Ethiopia‘s national economy and development.

The report generally address the possible future scenarios for pastoral economies and pastoralism over the next 15-20 years and highlight four key contested areas that need to be resolved: (1) irrigation and other land uses versus pastoralism; (2) land tenure and the importance of mobility and flexibility; (3) settlement and the issues associated with pastoral sedentarization; and (4) trade and especially the question of overseas export versus regional/unofficial cross-border and domestic marketing. Policy researches and other development activities which work in the area of pastoralism (including PRIME) especially in pastoral economy and opportunities for development in Ethiopia can make use of the descriptions and analysis made in the paper.


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Melakou Tegegn (2004). Pastoralism and International Instruments. In Yonas Admasu (Eds.) Pastoral Development in Ethiopia, pp. 135-148. Addis Ababa: PFE.

The study is about pastoralists’ right as indigenous people. The researcher used documentary analysis, case studies and personal observations methods to substantiate the arguments.

The study indicated that pastoralism and other indigenous issues are not yet very well known to many people and policy-makers. This makes working for pastoral rights an uphill struggle. The researcher argued for the right of the pastoralists based on the right of indigenous people recognized in International Instruments. Indigenous people, in the researcher’s opinion, are now united in a powerful social movement called the World Indigenous Peoples’ Movement. As a result, different bodies of international statute have recognized the rights of indigenous peoples and urged the governments of the world to do the same.

According to the study, we are concerned with these instruments, first of all, because they recognize the rights of pastoralists, and, secondly, our governments are signatory to most, if not all, of these instruments. The study indicated that the most important instruments for indigenous peoples come from the United Nations and its affiliates. Convention No. 169 recognizes indigenous peoples' rights in different regards. The other most important instrument is the Draft Declaration on Indigenous Populations. Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 is also very important step forward. At this time Indigenous peoples were identified as the major population groups affected by climatic changes, on the one hand, and the expansion of unsustainable ‘development’ projects on the other. To this effect, paragraph 26 of Agenda 21 recognizes the right of the Indigenous peoples and their communities on their historical lands. At African level Resolution on the Rights of Indigenous Populations was adopted at its 34th session held in Banjul in November 2003 recognizing the right of indigenous people similarly.

For marginalized communities such as pastoralists, the study indicated, the instruments enshrined in the resolutions of the International Conventions constitute the cornerstone in the fight for their rights as well for their social development. By demanding respect for these rights, the researcher recommended, the movement can contribute to the furtherance of pastoral development. The study is very important in that it makes governments, policy makers and implementers responsible as well as authoritative in their developmental activities in the pastoralist areas.

Mohamed Abdulahi (2004). Pastoral Development Strategies/policies in Ethiopia: Critical Analysis and Evaluation. In Yonas Admasu (Ed.) Pastoral development in Ethiopia, pp.37-63, Addis Ababa: PFE.

By employing documentary analysis, case studies and personal observations, the author argues that pastoral area development had received almost no attention from policy-makers in Ethiopia, and pastoralists continue to be marginalized economically, socially and politically. In most cases, the plights of the pastoralists are the result of the express and implicit policy of silence and denial since the 1950s. The researcher recognizes some insignificant changes since 1991. What


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is more unfortunate even at this very stage, in his opinion, is the fact that government policies and strategies on pastoral development are full of dilemma, confusion and wrong assumptions. The emphasis given to sedentarization shows as there is no change in perception about the pastoral way of life. According to the researcher, coercion can also be implicit and indirect, which has, in his opinion, already been reflected in the policies, strategies, and programs for pastoral development. The writer also denies the existence of knowledge gap in the area of pastoral development which the government claims to be. It is time, in his opinion, to change such policy of silence and denial.

According to the writer, NGOs undertake important development activities but there are a lot of issues to be considered in order to achieve sustainability in their efforts toward pastoral development. In the absence of long-term strategies, coordination, cooperation and linkage with each other, it is unthinkable to achieve sustainable pastoral development. The study indicated that implementing the right of the pastoralists stipulated in the current constitution, stopping the fire-brigade intervention, establishing participatory monitoring and evaluation system, respecting local institutions and the mobility tradition of the pastoralists are the way out in the future. Of course, the writer does not deny the exacerbated conflict in pastoralist area resulted from competition over natural resources, which calls for urgent policy intervention.

But the author fails to recognize the negative consequence of mobility of the pastoralists, which result in conflict when the pastoralists move from place to place in search of those scarce natural resources for which the government claims to have started consented Sedentarization. The study is very important in that it narrates the existing policy gap as well as the value of participatory pastoral area development and the importance of making use of the indigenous institutions of pastoralists.

Mohammed Mussa (2004). A Comparative Study of Pastoralist Parliamentary Groups: Case Study on the Pastoral Affairs Standing Committee of Ethiopia. www.nri.org/projects/pastoralism/ethiopiafinal.pdf

Despite the contribution of the pastoral system to the national economy of Ethiopia, the history of development policies and programmes in Ethiopia shows that they have neglected pastoralism. There have never been appropriate pastoral development policies and programmes in the country. Previous policies did not even guarantee the land-use rights of pastoralists. This research paper explores the circumstances in which the Pastoralist Standing Committee (PASC) can be an effective lobby for pro-poor, pro-pastoralist policy change and what external assistance it requires in this role. The research involved document reviews and structured interviews with members of the PASC were carried out for this study. In addition, individuals from donors, government agencies and NGOs were interviewed.

The paper pin pointed that lack of pastoral representation and participation is one of the problems for pastoralists. However, given the political context and mandate of the committee from Parliament and the background of the members, it is difficult to draw a conclusion that the

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PASC represents the pastoralists in a strong sense of the term. It could be argued that civil society and/or groups of pastoral MPs could lobby and advocate for pastoralists better than the existing standing committee. The committee is already undertaking certain activities including participating in policy dialogues on pastoral development as well as oversight of programmes and budgets of LMA. However, the committee has some capacity limitations that affect its ability to work on pastoral development more efficiently. The capacity limitations include lack of transport facilities, knowledge gaps on pastoral development and information gaps on the situation of various pastoralist communities. Therefore, although the issue of representation is complex and it is difficult to conclude that the PASC “represents” pastoralists, the option available at present is to strengthen and encourage the committee to speak on behalf of the pastoralists.

Accordingly, the following recommendations are made: The members should be empowered and encouraged to give voice to the concerns of pastoralists. The capacity could be reinforced by participating in workshops and training programmes on the issues of representation, participation and pastoralism. The training programmes might narrow the difference in strategic views on pastoral development, and allow a more harmonious advocacy and lobbying on behalf of pastoralists; the committee should be provided, on an ongoing basis and inappropriate formats, with new information on pastoralism in Ethiopia and in the region so that it will be in a better position to lobby and advocate for pastoralists; and the provision of support for transport will better facilitate members’ visits to the pastoral communities and their learning more on the ground. The above recommendations included in this paper can be shared with donors and NGOs already engaged in pastoral advocacy activities and already working closely with the PASC such as USAID. Moreover, the paper can be used to explore the possibility of influencing policies related to pastoral area livelihoods through PRIME’s policy research.

Pantuliano, S. & Wekesa, M. (2008). Improving Drought Response in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia: Somali and Afar Regions and Borena Zone of Oromiya Region. Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute, London.

The authors of this article examine factors that improve responses of drought, which is one of the common environmental problems affecting pastoral livelihood in Ethiopia. The overall purpose of this study was to provide an overview of the timing, appropriateness and efficacy of interventions in the drought that affected the pastoral lowlands of Ethiopia in 2005/2006. The study also sought to identify mechanisms to initiate more timely and appropriate interventions to protect and support pastoral livelihoods. The study has identified mechanisms, systems, capacities and institutions which need to be strengthened in order to trigger more timely and appropriate livelihood-based responses to drought. The study also explored donor interest in resourcing these changes. Fieldwork was conducted in selected drought-affected areas of Afar, Oromiya, and Somali regions. The study combined participatory approaches with conventional sampling methods. A comprehensive literature review was also undertaken on drought management in Ethiopia and in the region, including


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the impact assessments carried out following the 2005/2006 drought.

The authors argued that pastoralism is politically marginalized and there is a need for advocacy of policy changes aimed at strengthening pastoralist livelihoods. Key foci for action include:1) investment in services in pastoral areas; 2) strengthening pastoralists’ access to markets and livestock trade; lobbying to ease taxation on livestock marketing during droughts; and changing policies which make it difficult for the private sector to operate in pastoralist areas; (3) facilitating pastoralists’ access to land and other key resources; (4) addressing conflict in pastoral areas through facilitation of local-level dialogue; and (5) ensuring that systems are in place to facilitate early livelihoods interventions in the event of drought. The study recommends policy engagement through strengthening partnership for improving pastroalism livelihood; and national capacity to effect appropriate and timely drought response, and improving practice. The study was conducted in areas where PRIME is working now and acknowledged the best practice of livelihoods-based interventions along the full cycle of the Drought Cycle Management system of PLI which PRIME project is built on. Hence, PRIME can take full advantage of this study by incorporating the lessons learned and the recommendations into its programme implementation.

Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia (2002), Proposed Pastoral Development Policy Recommendations. Submitted to the Ministry of Federal Affairs. Retrieved from www.pfe-ethiopia.org/pub_files/ppdpr.pdf

The policy recommendation indicated that pastoralists in Ethiopia like in the other African countries have continuously suffered from a long history of political, economic, and socio-cultural marginalization. Due to both artificial and natural calamities, the pastoralists have emerged as the poorest of the poor. Strategies and plans do not seem to refer to the lessons drawn from past experience and understanding of realities in pastoral areas. The interest of pastoral communities seems to have attracted much more attention at the international level than ever before. The UN, which considers pastoral communities as authentic indigenous peoples from Africa, has paid serious attention to their plight at the various global summits and adopted series of documents. Yet, it argues, that pastoralism is still marginalized at national policy level.

According to the policy recommendation, recognition of pastoralism, use of indigenous knowledge, representation the pastoralists at all levels, developing by-laws to implement constitutional right of the pastoralists, encouraging and supporting participation of private sectors and NGOs in pastoral development, packages for enhancement of animal production, expansion of rural finance institutions, supporting the pastoralists with alternative livelihood systems, provision of social service on the basis of both mobility and stationary cases and promotion of livestock marketing need attention in pastoral development in Ethiopia. It also recommended the establishment of pastoral policy development advisory groups at different level.

The recommendation has been produced by a consortium of development partners who has been working in the pastoral communities. It has also brought some of the strategic and institutional issues on the table, which has not been well addressed even after a decade.

http://www.pfe-ethiopia.org/pub_files/ppdpr.pdf�

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Rettberg, S. (2010). Contested Narratives of Pastoral Vulnerability and Risk in Ethiopia’s Afar Region, Free University of Berlin, German. www.practicalactionpublishing.org

The paper focus on the role of local knowledge, risk perception and decision pattern in analyzing changing pastoral livelihood strategies. Based on an intensive empirical case study within the middle Awash Basin of Ethiopia’s Afar region, it is argued that the main concern for Afar pastoralist are political risks evolving from recurrent violent conflicts and increasing governmental development interventions, while drought plays only a minor role within local narratives of risk. The paper pointed out the special attention drawn to the strategic instrumentalization of heterogeneous governmental and pastoral risk narratives and the impact of conflicting narratives on the current pastoral livelihood crisis, shaped by increasing vulnerability and an ongoing political and economic marginalization of pastoralist in Ethiopia. The author talks about the narrative of pastoral vulnerability and risk in Ethiopia but later narrowed down to the case of Afar basin Ethiopia, which lessen the significance of the paper. Nonetheless, Afar being one of the pastoral part of Ethiopia, the narratives made can be rolled out to other pastoral part of Ethiopia with some consideration because the narrative focused on indigenous knowledge and perception which differs from one pastoralist area to another.

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopian Ministry of the Federal Affairs (February, 2008). Draft Policy Statement for Sustainable Development of Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Area of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: FDRE foreign affairs.

The Draft Policy Statement indicated that, in short term, the needs of pastoralists and agro pastoralists will be reflected in all national policy and planning frameworks and that the inhabitants benefit from systems of good local governance. Moreover, addressing their social and economic problems through the provision of appropriate basic infrastructures and services for both humans and animals which fits to the pastoralist life styles will be given due emphasis. In the long-term, the government envisions a stable pastoral and agro pastoral community through the facilitation of gradual and voluntary transition towards permanent settlement especially along the perennial river banks.

In order for this vision to be realized, according to Draft Policy Statement, encouraging and supporting voluntary settlement of pastoralists and agro pastoralists, restructuring the pastoral and agro pastoral economy to conform with market oriented economy, reducing sole reliance on livestock through diversification of sources of income, improving natural resource management, improving pastoral productivity, improving market networks, providing financial services appropriate to pastoralists, reducing and managing risks such as droughts and floods need to be addressed. The Draft Policy Statement indicated that investment will be made to improve the road infrastructure and communication network in order to minimize transaction costs in production, trade and business. This will be done through the establishment of abattoirs, rural dairies and small leather processing factories. Both crop and livestock production will be strengthened through dissemination of improved technologies in water harvesting, irrigation, range management, livestock disease control, livestock and crop-based marketing. Moreover,

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provision of social services such as education and health will be improved. Private sector investment will be encouraged in productive sectors, such as commercialized farming, industry, agro-processing, mining, tourism, and others. In addition, governance structures, development planning and government financial support systems will be devolved to the lowest level of local government in order to enhance participation of pastoral and agro pastoral communities in their own development. The Draft indicated that the Government is committed to continuously review and improve its strategies and welcomes partners in this regard.

The UN OCHA Pastoralists Communication Initiatives (2007). The Future of Pastoralism in Ethiopia. Retrieved from http://www.pastoralists.org/policy-and-government/

The study covered the Ethiopian pastoralists as a whole. Case studies, personal observations and document analysis are used as a method of the study. Ethiopia is looking for a new and deeper understanding of its pastoralist regions and an accurate appreciation of their socio-economic trajectories. These trajectories, as the study indicated, could be much more positive than many have led us to believe. Experts are now largely in agreement that pastoralism is uniquely well adapted to dry land environments. As an economic and social system, it operates effectively in the low and highly variable rainfall conditions found in the lowlands, managing the complex relationship between man and the natural environment.

The study indicated that there is already a strong export market, rural pastoralism is thriving in many areas, people are beginning to add real value to livestock products, and diversification into alternative livelihoods is underway. Ethiopia’s lowlands are seeing a transformation in the way life and livelihoods are governed. The study identified three key issues that are affecting pastoral livelihoods: environment, natural resources and people; market potential; and conflict and governance. Building on the situation in these three issues, the research identified sustaining pastoral livelihoods, adding value for diversification, expanding export trade, and diversifying alternative livelihoods as strategies. It also proposed key policy option for each of the strategies identified.

The study is very important for PRIME in that it showed how empowerment of the pastoralist; and drafting policies and practices that take into account the special nature and potential of the lowlands are very important to bring sustainable development. It has identified key intervention sector for development programs.

Yacob Arsano, Taffesse Mesfin, Ayele Gebre-Mariam, Getachew Kassa & Melakou Tegegn (2000). Proceedings of National Conference on Pastoral Development in Ethiopia organized by Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia, PFE, Addis Ababa.

This is a proceeding on policy related and development strategies of pastorlism in Ethiopia. A total of three papers from policy makers, academicians, and developmental agents, and one additional synthesis of papers presented are included. The first paper looked at whether pastoralism as a way of life is as viable as traditional crop cultivating agricultural system. The author presents that in spite of the immense economic potentials, pastoralist areas are under

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developed, and the people are almost all the time vulnerable to famine. This is, partly, due to wrong perception about the way of life, poor land tenure system and livestock marketing. After proposing essential policy shifts, the author argues that pastoralism is bound to remain as a system. Accordingly, what needs to be emphasized is how to sustain the system and bring about the desired development.

The second paper examines the heretofore macroeconomic policies of Ethiopia on pastoral development and presented historical trends of the timelines, intervention activities in the area, and current government attitudes towards the life style. The good practices on pastoral development attempted by NGOs in their development interventions in pastoral areas were also assessed. The author presented examples of interventions grouped as good initiatives (e.g. gender and development), unsustainable interventions (e.g. flour mills, Vet services, provision of relief food, water development, credit schemes, provision of improved seed), and lessons of good practices (e.g. networking, advocacy of education). The third paper assesses government policy on pastoral development. The author argues that until recently, the policies of governments focused on harnessing livestock and land resources of the pastoralists to develop the national economy, particularly the highland agricultural economy, and not on benefiting the pastoral peoples. The author tries to show the negative and positive impacts of the diverse policies of government among pastoralists, and lessons that could be drawn from these policies. The last presentation syntheses the issue and brings the flawed government policy, global impacts for the occurrence of hazards, and the prevailing conflict environment as reasons for the many problems pastoralists are facing.

The book presented, in a more comprehensive manner, the policy issues and perception of government towards pastoral livelihoods. It brings the complex environment under which pastoralism plays and is resourceful for policy analysis.

II. PASTORAL LIVELIHOOD DEVELOPMENT: LIVESTOCK AND MEAT MARKETING

Agricultural Growth Project (AGP)-Livestock Market Development (2013). Value Chain Analysis for Ethiopia: Meat and Live Animals, Hides, Skins and Leather and Dairy, Retrieved from http://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/AGP-LMD%20Value%20Chain%20Analysis.pdf

The Livestock Market Development Project’s (LMD’s) Value Chain Analyses (VCAs) describe and analyze the market factors, value chain performance against key metrics, product flow, core actors and their transactional and collaborative relationships, incentives for investment, inputs and services, other supporting actors, enabling environment, gender concerns and barriers to value chain competitiveness and possible responses. It also incorporates end market analysis of several important international markets for livestock products. The aim of the analyses is the understanding the factors that determine market success, and how this information is transmitted between actors in the value chain to provide market/price incentive to supply the market and invest in meeting standards, improving quality and expanding productivity. The methodologies

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used include desk review, extensive interview with producers, service suppliers, inputs providers, cooperatives and cooperative unions, traders, processors, exporters, retailers, financial services providers, representatives of public sector organizations, development partners and field visit of target woredas in four regions (Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, Peoples’ Region (SNNP) and Tigray), and in Addis Ababa.

The research of the analyses found out that all the three value chains in question (i.e., meat and live animals, hides, skins and leather and dairy) face difficulties in production, marketing, processing and export/sales. The findings include (1) livestock are not raised to maximize productivity for meat, (2) there are few market incentives to encourage improved practices and supply, (3) live animals are exported to undiscerning buyers at low price, (4) there is failure in translating market information into price incentives to manage quality and furnish more supply through price information in respect of hides and skins, and (5) there is lack of consumption to pull more investment into the dairy supply chain. It also highlights the important role that women have in the livestock value chains. In analyzing the enabling environment, the VCAs examine the various policies, regulations, guidelines and programs that can affect the livestock sector. It concludes that the livestock value chains operate in an enabling environment which is improving over time but is not yet effective in facilitating the competitiveness that allows actors to seek and expand opportunities. The analyses also found out that there is lack of effective institutional coordination mechanisms among stakeholders.

Asfaw Negassa, Costagli, R., Matete, G., Mohammad Jabbar, Samuel Okuthe Oyieke, S.O., Abdulle, M.H. et al. (2008). Towards Improving Livestock Export Marketing Support Services in the Somali Context: Survey Findings and Implications. Improvement and Diversification of Somali Livestock Trade and Marketing Project, Discussion Paper No. 13, Improving Market Opportunities, Nairobi, Kenya.

This study was conducted with the main objective of providing empirical information that informs the debate and decision making process towards improving livestock trade and marketing in Somalia by enabling the development of effective and efficient marketing support services through accountable and competent rural institutions. The data were collected first through rapid appraisal which was then used as a basis for designing and implementing formal surveys among livestock traders and other market agents along three market value chains using structured questionnaires. They used statistical and econometric methods in the data analysis.

They identified lack of market infrastructure, fluctuations in livestock prices, high costs of animals, unauthorized multiple road taxes and poor market support services as major constraints in the domestic markets side. While delayed payments, low selling prices, lack of recognized certification, seasonal fluctuation of import demand, low preferences for Somali animals and import bans are noted as major problems in the destination market side. The authors strongly underline the importance of provision of market information services, development of a system of certification for health and quality assurance, provision of short-term training to traders in global market situations, international rules and regulations, and business practices, empowering


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livestock traders through strengthening trade associations, organize regular trade missions to Middle East markets and breed characterization to provide a scientific basis for classification of existing breeds to exploit their full market potential in improving livestock export marketing support services.

Although the study was conducted in the Somali context, almost its findings and recommendations can also be applicable in Ethiopian pastoral context. The major weakness of this study is that it is mainly limited to the supply side issues although information on the demand side in the importing countries still needs to be collected and analyzed in order to better inform the livestock export interventions in Somalia. Although this study is conducted outside Ethiopian pastoralists, the findings and recommendations of this study are important to the PRIME project since it clearly mentioned challenges and approaches for enabling the development of effective and efficient marketing support services in pastoral contexts.

Barrett, C.B., Bellemare, M.F. & Osterloh, S.M. (2006). Household-Level Livestock Marketing Behavior among Northern Kenyan and Southern Ethiopian Pastoralists. In McPeak, J.G. & Little, P.D. (Eds), Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Research and Policy Challenges, Warwickshire, UK, ITDG Publishing.

This research reviews factors that affect pastoralists' marketed off-take response. The authors examines the view that investments in pastoral livestock marketing system quickly pay for donors and policy makers through reduced demand for relief aid, by increasing pastoralist marketing responsiveness to temporal variation in range conditions and thereby conserving wealth among vulnerable populations. Primarily, this research argues for direct livestock marketing interventions as a means for managing risk may reflect an insufficient understanding of the incentives pastoralists face and their long-term incentives to hold livestock. Primary data in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya were collected from pastoralist using the household-level survey instrument. The research explores several prospective explanations for household-level livestock marketing behavior and their implications for policymakers, donors and operational agencies concerned about the performance of livestock marketing systems and the welfare of pastoralists in the region. The findings reflect that livestock marketing costs and information about climate or market conditions do not appear to significantly limit household livestock market participation. This evidence supports the longstanding hypothesis that households sell livestock primarily to meet immediate expenditure needs and they otherwise accumulate livestock as the most remunerative asset to hold in the rangelands.

The main limitation of the research is that it does not explicitly identify how best to stimulate livestock off-takes among pastoralists. However, the research suggests three strategies for stimulating livestock marketing and pastoralists’ well-being; (i) enhancing the viability of herds in extensive pastoralism since marketing increases with herd sizes, (ii) improving the attractiveness of non-pastoral investment opportunities through improving the institutional and physical infrastructure and (iii) stimulating increased competition in long-distance, intra-regional livestock commerce through better quality roads, improved security, and reduction in the


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influence of ethnic- and clan-based collusion in trading networks. Yet, the authors primarily recommended the first two strategies since the later strategy remained largely under tested and understudied. The research is useful to PRIME in highlighting the critical importance of looking carefully at the empirical evidence before proceeding with the design and implementation of livestock marketing interventions for increasing pastoralists' marketed off take of livestock

Bellemare, M.F. & Barrett, C.B. (2006). An Ordered Tobit Model of Market Participation: Evidence from Kenya and Ethiopia, American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 88 (2): 324–337.

Bellemare and Barrett (2006) study livestock market participation by pastoralists in the area of northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia. The study uses household data from pastoralists of northern Kenyan and southern Ethiopian. They test using econometrics whether pastoralists make market participation and volume decisions simultaneously or sequentially. The authors find evidence in favor of sequential decision making behavior of pastoralists. This study points on the policy perspective of the findings in that households that make sequential marketing decisions are more price responsive and less likely to be vulnerable to trader exploitation. Thus, households follow strong life cycles of accumulation, steadily building their herds over most of their adult lives, and keep livestock as a sort of walking bank, adjusting sales and purchase volumes to fixed costs and non-livestock income, as well as to prices, in a manner suggesting that they are used to meet immediate cash needs when cash is not available.

The study suggests that pastoralists in particular in the southern Ethiopia (and also northern Kenya) are less drawn to the commercialization of livestock than to accumulating substantial herds. However, the recent findings of Catley et al. (2012) goes counter to the suggestions of the findings of Bellemare & Barrett (2006) because the work of Catley et al explicitly narrates the growing commercialization trend of livestock among pastoralists in the southern Ethiopia. This study could be useful to PRIME’s activities in order to understand how the pastoralists make their market participation decisions. Further evidence may be also gathered by the PRIME regarding the marketing behavior of pastoralists before its interventions in the support of strengthening the livestock marketing of pastoralists.

Daniel Tewodros (2008). Beef Cattle Production System and Opportunities for Market Orientation in Borena Zone, Southern Ethiopia, MSc Thesis, Haramaya University.

Daniel investigates beef cattle production system and opportunities for market in southern Ethiopia, Borena Zone. This research aimed at describing the cattle production and marketing systems for investing potentials and constraints of export abattoirs in Ethiopia. The author questions how the existing pastoral cattle production system in Borena Zone can provide sustainable and adequate live animal supply which can meet the demand for domestic consumption and the demand for export markets. The author used primary data gained from export abattoirs, producers, and butcheries through interviews and producers’ survey. The research illustrates that shortage of grazing land, water, disease, lack of technical supports, lack


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of security, labor shortage and conflict are the major household level constraints to cattle production system. The author underlines the importance of institutional support in the areas of market oriented cattle production system, market extension, animal health services and range development in the pastoral area, and development of export abattoirs facilities. Yet, the research has major limitations in disregarding factors affecting households’ market orientation and participation as well as some prominent market system actors such as livestock traders and brokers. The research is useful to PRIME project in depicting the development intervention areas and institutional support system to major livestock market actors in the Borana area.

Dugasa Dirbaba & Belachew Hurrissa (2006). Live Animal Transport Services in Ethiopia: Current Practices and Future Options. Unpublished Report, SPS-LMM Program. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

In this study, Belachew and Dugasa review the conditions and challenges of live animal transport services in Ethiopia to explore possibilities for improving the situation. The study aimed to assess current practices and reasons for due considerations to promote the use of dedicated trucks for transport of live animals in the country, as well as the merits and demerits of using dedicated trucks for live animal transport. The study was based on secondary information gathered from different literatures and personal communications. The evidence indicated that live animals are transported along all the supply chain, i.e. from market to the feedlots and from feedlots to the port outlet for export either by ordinary trucks or on hoof. The authors argued that ordinary trucks are not convenient for loading and unloading, lack shade to protect animals from sun burn and cold, not suitable to provide enough space and difficult to provide rest, feed and water to the animals whenever necessary while on transport. To the contrary, transporting animals by dedicated trucks avoid stress, injuries, weight loss, and deterioration of body condition and death associated to poor transport. The study asserted that none of the live animal exporters own or use dedicated trucks for live animals’ transport, which could be due to the high purchase price of such trucks and their use being limited only to transport of animals. Besides, there are no rules & regulations that prohibit transporting animals by ordinary trucks under poor condition. The authors suggested raising awareness of all actors along the value chain on magnitude of the problem and possible solutions, promoting the use of dedicated trucks, initiating the use of modified trucks, preparing and availing specifications for imported dedicated trucks, and legally enforcing the use of dedicated (modified) trucks as recommendations to overcome the problems.

This assessment primarily focused on qualitative understanding of how live animals are transported in the country; consequently, it lacks detail quantitative analysis. Moreover, it is purely based on secondary information gathered from different literatures and personal communications that may reduce the validity of the data used. Yet, the study is important to the PRIME project because the study explore possibilities for alleviating the problems in the live animal transportation system in Ethiopia. The study highlights potential PRIME intervention areas in promoting value adding live animal transportation system that do not impede quality and good handling of animals.


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Filip, C. (2006). Ethiopian Borena and Southern Somali Areas Livestock Value Chain Analysis Report, Pastoralist Livelihood Initiative-Livestock Marketing Project, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

In this value chain assessment report Filip analyzes the constraints and opportunities to growth and expansion of the livestock sector in the Borena and Southern Somali Region of Ethiopia. The report is based on the value chain analysis tool that assesses the dynamics and potential for competitiveness of the livestock industry. The study used value chain analysis method through which informal interviews with key participants in live animal and meat value chains are conducted. Primarily, the study focused on determining the major constraints and opportunities to growth and expansion of the livestock sector in the regions, and suggesting strategies for growth and expansion of the livestock sector in the regions. The author identifies the key factors of end markets, enabling environment, inter-firm linkages, and the value chain dynamics and success factors. Although the report lacks quantitative analysis and response analysis matrix, it is related with PRIME objectives because it examined the livestock and meat market channels in pastoralist areas, and recommends viable interventions for alleviating the value chains constraints.

Getachew Gebru, Solomon Desta, Coppock, D.L., Seyoum Tezera & Zewdu Edea (2009). Can pastoral linkages to livestock markets be sustained in southern Ethiopia? Research Brief 09-01-PARIMA. Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program (GL-CRSP), University of California, Davis. 4 pp.

This study examines whether pastoral linkages to livestock markets be sustained in southern Ethiopia. In response to rapid growth of livestock export market in Ethiopia, Pastoral Risk Management (PARIMA) project facilitated interactions among collective-action groups, policy makers, and livestock exporting firms to create a livestock marketing chain from southern Ethiopia. This study was, therefore, intended to investigate the extent that the market linkages have been sustained. The research used data collected through focus groups and participatory appraisals. The findings indicated that the markets have been growing, but are volatile. Members report they need access to early warning and livestock market-information systems, as well as more capital, to promote trade. The study also indicated that export firms have imposed added conditions on animal delivery that puts cooperatives at a disadvantage versus wealthy traders. This suggests that pastoral cooperatives may be increasingly sidelined from effective market participation. Connecting pastoral producers to markets is a dynamic process, and gains achieved can be quickly eroded.

The main limitation of this study is that it lacks quantitative analysis and fails to exhaustively identifying success and failure factors to sustainability of market linkages created. Yet, the research forwards important recommendations in promoting sustainability of market linkages including implementation of early-warning and livestock market information systems. Furthermore, the authors suggested local researchers to identify animal production constraints that limit market supply and use action research to test interventions in partnership with


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communities. The findings of the study are important to PRIME objectives since it implicates lesson learned and areas of future interventions for promoting sustainability of any market linkages created to pastoral regions.

Getachew Legese, Hailemariam Teklewold, Dawit Alemu & Asfaw Negassa (2008). Live Animal and Meat Export Value Chains for Selected Areas in Ethiopia: Constraints and Opportunities for Enhancing Meat Exports, Improving Market Opportunities. Discussion Paper No. 12. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 56 pp. http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/25202

This study investigates the roots for Ethiopian meat and live animals exporters’ frequent complaint in shortage of supply and poor quality of animals. As claimed by the authors, despite high livestock population of the country, major meat and live animal exporters are complaining of shortage of supply and inferior quality of animals (especially shoats). Thus, study is imperative to identify the major factors contributing for the reported supply shortage that has hindered smooth functioning of the Ethiopian live animal and meat export market. This study characterizes live animal and meat export value chains to determine constraints and opportunities for enhancing the efficiency of meat export from Ethiopia. This value chain analysis focus on Borena Zone, Bale Zone, East Hararghe Zone, Metehara and Miesso in Central Rift Valley areas; and Kemesse, Kombolcha, Degan and Bati in Wello areas by excluding Afar and Somali regions since ACDI/VOCA has previously made an extensive livestock value chain analysis in the Afar and Somali regions. The study used Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) method through which informal interviews of key participants in live animal and meat value chains; consultations with private, non-government and government sectors, field visits to physical facilities and major production regions (markets, export abattoirs, feedlot operators); and personal observations on the performance of marketing functions are used to gather necessary data.

The study concluded that matching exporters’ demand with market supply is a major observed problem rather than shortage of supply of shoats for export abattoirs. The findings indicated that most export abattoirs lack information about the expected production levels and potential availability of shoat supplies in the major livestock markets and it suggested the need for concerned agencies in Ethiopia to make such information timely available to the exporters. The authors argue that lack of this information makes it very difficult for exporters to tap market opportunities by entering into future contracts and hence forcing them to delay contractual commitments until the animal reaches at their disposal.

The main limitation of this study is that it lacks quantitative analysis regarding meat exporters’ efficiency and establishing causal relationship between value chain constraints and meat exporters’ efficiency. The study is important to the PRIME project because the study explains how lack of an efficient and effective livestock marketing system is limiting the efficiency of meat export from Ethiopia. The finding suggest that future intervention by PRIME needs to help transform the traditional livestock marketing systems into collaborative marketing system by creating linkages among marketing chain actors in the pastoralists livestock marketing system. It

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also imply the need for conducting a detailed live animal and meat export value chain analysis focusing on: efficiency of the different channels and value chains, distribution of transaction costs, market shares and volume of flows across channels, marketing margins across channels, price shares to producers from the final price, and the role of agents and social capital in livestock marketing that could be done by Haramaya University, which is among member of PRIME consortium.

Helina Tilahun & Schmidt, E. (2012). Spatial Analysis of Livestock Production Patterns in Ethiopia, Development Strategy and Governance Division. International Food Policy Research Institute – Ethiopia Strategy Support Program (ESSP) II, Ethiopia, Working Paper 44.

The paper stresses that the livestock production and markets vary substantially across space in Ethiopia due to a variety of reasons including topographical variations, market access, water availability, and population characteristics. This study links smallholder livestock population data from the Agricultural Census (2001/02) and data from the annual CSA Agricultural Sample Survey (2005 to 2008) with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data in order to assess livestock population, market access, and grazing land. The paper utilized existing studies of travel time (Schmidt and Kedir 2009) to calculate shares of livestock (cattle, sheep and goat) populations within defined travel time thresholds of major markets. In addition, it attempted to provide greater insight of changes in available grazing land given increasing human and livestock population pressure even though this particular assessment neglected other species than cattle and small ruminants. This unique approach to link and analyze the livestock population with market access and grazing land across the different parts of Ethiopia presents the overall livestock sector challenges and opportunities which can feed into policy making process with relevancy to PRIME objective.

Jiwa, F. & Wanjau, K. (2008). Alternative Livelihoods Development Framework: Guideline for the Identification, Selection and Development of Alternative Enterprise Opportunities. A Document of Care Kenya’s Livelihoods Diversification and Marketing Technical Working Group.

The alternative livelihoods framework provides guidelines on the process involved in the identification, selection and development of income generating activities intended for communities living in the pastoral cross-border region of Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. The study used 1)focused group discussions with entrepreneurs and groups involved in different economic activities 2) Informal meetings with trade representatives and 3) Formal meetings and discussions with financial, trade association, private sector markets and suppliers, as well as with organizations and programmers that work with SMEs, 4) Stakeholders workshop to deliberate on information already collected to review the relevance and applicability, 5) Secondary literature review and objective analysis with BDS/SMEs sector experts; 6) Sub-Sector Analysis – Process


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that examines the relationships between enterprises that produce, procure, process, and distribute goods within a single product group.

The guidelines defines the context and scope of alternative livelihoods activities within a project, provides guidance on the stages and methods involved in the different stages of enterprise development, and suggests a time-frame and expected outputs of the process. The guidelines are based on CARE Kenya’s experience with implementing market-based economic development programs. It defines livelihood as the range of the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. Alternative livelihoods as it relates to pastoralist community are defined as the economic activities that are not directly related to livestock keeping. These includes the livestock-value adding activities such as the exchange, processing and marketing of livestock by-products like milk, meat, hides and skins and crop agricultural and business activities that can generate additional income for pastoral households. The paper also discussed the different techniques and tools of acquiring and analyzing information for the identification and selection of viable alternative livelihood enterprises for pastoralists. Possible alternative livelihood activities that may be pertinent to pastoralists in different sectors including crop agriculture, forestry, trade, service provision, small scale processing and craft are indicated.

The guideline is relevant for PRIME in designing alternative livelihood options as it was designed within the concept of ‘making the market work for the poor’, which is the underlying principle of PRIME as well. The paper provides a general framework for monitoring and evaluation of livelihood development projects. The document is more of a manual than analytical paper. It is helpful in planning and monitoring alternative livelihood projects related to pastoralists but it does not provide any intimation about problems and policy implications related to pastoralists.

Kejela Gemtessa, Bezabih Eman & Waktole Tiki. (2006). Livelihood Diversification in Borana Pastoral Communities Ethiopia- Prospects and Challenge. WEBKBON consultant. Retrieved from http://www.ilri.org/Link/Publications/Publications/Theme1/Pastoral conference/Briefs

Livelihood diversification is one of the viable strategies of pastoral communities of Ethiopia to combat impacts of climate change, and this paper assesses the prospects and challenges of livelihood diversification. The objective of the study was to inform policy makers, donors, and development practitioners on areas and strategies of improving sustainable livelihoods of the pastoral communities in Ethiopia and reducing their vulnerability to disasters. The study was conducted in Dire District of Borana zone in Oromia region in 2005 E.C. Participatory research methodologies such as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Participatory Community Dialogue (PCD), and household survey were applied using standard data collection tools. Moreover, household survey was conducted to collect quantitative information in the pastoral communities.

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The article confirmed that livestock mobility is good for high productivity. However, mobility is curtailed by combination of factors such as population growth and settlement in remote grazing areas, existence of claims by different ethnic groups on rangelands, the impartial impact of drought, increasing settlement to get social services, privatization of land, and the declining number of cattle holding per household. The study also brought the controversial view on expansion of cropland on to the surface. The rich who have large herd size wishes to have larger rangeland size to feed their livestock. On the other hand, the poor who in most cases lost their animals to drought would like to increase their income portfolio by expanding cropland. Partial sedentrization is emerging due to increased risk of drought. Provision of public facilities such as construction of roads and infrastructure in the pastoral areas for easy transportation and operation can solve some of the problems of pastoral risks such as lack of market for cattle, and information sharing problems. Small scale enterprises that can be performed by women that include milk processing, grain mill operation, trade of livestock, cattle fattening, handcrafts, and petty trade require technical and financial support. In an attempt to create asset basis for the poor and destitute households, women shall be targeted within the household context so as to gradually establish asset ownership by women and empower them. The authors also recommend mobility, and appropriate land use planning.

The research does not put any recommendation regarding the competition for different land use system between the rich and the poor segments of the community. PRIME should be aware of the competitive land use system when implementing interventions and can do research on the optimal land use system of pasture Vis-a-Vis farming land to meet the interest of the rich and the poor.

Mahmoud, H.A. (2012). Pastoralists’ Innovative Responses to New Camel Export Market Opportunities on the Kenya/Ethiopia Boarder Lands, In Catley, A., Lind, J. & Scoones, I. (Eds.), Pastoralism and Development in Africa; Dynamic Change at the Margins, New York, Routledge.

This book chapter explores the growing camel marketing activities in the Kenya/Ethiopia borderlands. The author indicates the emergence of increased demand for camels and camel meat in Arabian countries and the response from pastoral communities in the Horn as one which supports an ongoing pastoral innovation in livestock marketing. The study used extensive field work in the Moyale market on the Ethiopian/Kenya border and used secondary data. The author describes how the marketing system for camel export is dependent on brokers for pricing, sales, and other activities. The study assumes that in an uncertain market environment, informal institutions such as clan based brokerage could be so crucial to the livestock marketing system of pastoralists in the southern Ethiopia along the markets bordering Kenya. The author argues that camel trading at the Moyale, Ethiopian market is a good example of an emerging enterprise which is strengthening the livestock-based economy with direct and improved benefits to local pastoralists. It indicates that camel trade is becoming a mechanism that is facilitating restocking and herd building among pastoral communities that participate in the trade. The author also


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explains the high price offered at Moyale part of Ethiopia has motivated pastoralists to supply their camels from Somalia and Kenya crossing the border.

However, being a descriptive case, the study does not specify and identify factors that could influence the market participation of pastoralists. The author also cautions on the implication of the high price generated from camel trading on other uses of camels such as milk production. Taking the growing camel trading as evidence, Mahmoud also challenges the old premises regarding the unresponsiveness of pastoralists to livestock markets, and suggests that new direction in pastoral development needs to include promoting the livestock marketing. This study is relevant to PRIME because it documents the growing role that the pastoralist livestock marketing has on the livelihood of the market participants. It also indicates that, given a remunerative livestock prices, pastoralists are responsive to the livestock markets.

Malede Birhan (2013). Livestock Resource Potential and Constraints in Somali Regional State, Global Veterinaria, 10 (4): 432-438.

This review paper by Malede illustrates the overview of livestock resource potential and constraints in Somali Regional State of Ethiopia. The author focuses on finding the possible solution to the livestock production system in the region. The paper presents numerous problems and constraints that are manifested by natural, human as well as topographical factors for livestock development in the region. The author suggested that livestock policies are the major items from which a comprehensive pastoral development program could be formulated. The author identifies aspects like animal breeding, health, marketing and land use policies as the current major issues in developing the livestock resources in the region. The review noted issues including limiting livestock number commensurate with feed resources, developing efficient grazing system, maintaining plant composition in favor of useful plants for grazing, elimination of undesirable plants, reseeding of desirable forage species, fair distribution of watering points in the rangeland, extension services, establishment of feedlot, appropriate veterinary services, developing water-harvesting techniques, developing large-scale beef companies, establishing genetic improvement (breeding) center and establishing marketing facilities as possible ways in improving the resource potentials in the Somali Region.

The major limitation of this review paper is that it lacks quantitative analysis and marginalizes marketing issues in the analysis as well as in the recommendation. The paper is useful to PRIME objective in implicating generic intervention in enhancing livestock productivity in pastoral contexts and recommending a multi-disciplinary approach in alleviating livestock productivity constraints in pastoral regions.

Melaku Geboye (2007). The Regulatory Framework for Trade in IGAD Livestock Products, IGAD LPI Working Paper No.7-8, Retrieved from http://www.igad-lpi.org/publication/docs/IGADLPI_WP07_08.pdf

The research analyses the regulatory framework within which IGAD (focus countries being Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan) livestock products are traded with the aim of identifying key

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regulatory problems- national, regional and global- affecting trade in the livestock sector, and to provide policy recommendations for improvement. The methods utilized in the research include identification of relevant national laws and policies, international treaties, standards, guidelines and recommendations; meetings with relevant government officials and non-governmental stakeholders in the livestock sector; a review of existing literature; and quantitative data from official sources. According, the regulatory framework for trade in livestock products within WTO, EU, and IGAD members (Kenya, Sudan & Ethiopia) frameworks, challenges and prospects were discussed.

It stated that the region is among the richest in the world in concentration of livestock resource, but failed to generate substantial export revenues for these countries and people the lives of which depends on livestock. The reasons, according to the research, include prevalence of animal disease, producers’ lack of market orientation, and poor veterinary and administrative infrastructure. Incomplete, out-dated and incoherent sanitary and food regulations, multiple and excessive taxation of livestock destined for export, legal uncertainties, weak and inefficient judiciary, disregard for the rule of in day to day administrative decision making, lack of effective coordination among different levels of government in the enforcement of laws, absence of established communication channels between stakeholders in the livestock industry and relevant government institutions, and overall lack of capacity to use law as an instrument to implement policy decisions are identified as challenges inherent in the IGAD member countries’ internal regulations. The paper recommends for accession of member states to relevant international organizations and their collective representation therein. As a short-term solutions for the challenges they face with respect to their internal regulations, the author recommends the member countries to conduct a law review and law reform process with a view to develop a coherent, up-to-date, complete, accessible and enforceable set of sanitary and food safety regulations for the livestock industry and to address problems of excessive and multiple taxation of the livestock sector and using the rule of law as part and parcel of the effort to encourage economic development and poverty reduction.

The research is very important for PRIME as it analyses laws of Ethiopia which are able to inform PRIME’s intervention in areas of improvement of livestock and livestock products trading. Given that the assessment used extensive methodologies and reviews, the results are sound and supported with empirical evidence. It can complement the value-chain assessment PRIME did and provide additional insight about the market system. The methodologies and findings can be used in project programming and intervention activities such as increasing productivity and competitiveness of livestock products, catalyzing investment in livestock and livestock products, increasing income opportunities for TOPs, and increasing household nutrition and gender equity.


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Pavanello, S. (2010). Livestock Marketing in Kenya-Ethiopia Border Areas: A Baseline Study, HPG Working Paper, Overseas Development Institute. www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/6054.pdf ‎

Pavanello’s study was conducted in the border areas of Kenya and Ethiopia where by Dillo, Magado, Dubluk, Harobake and Moyale are included from the Ethiopian side. The study aimed to identify and assess structural issues behind livestock marketing, in order to identify potential entry points for action to improve livestock marketing. The study used structure-conduct-performance paradigm as an analytical approach to investigate how the livestock market environment influences the behavior of market participants (including pastoralists and traders), which in turn influences how markets perform. Data for the study were gathered through a case study based on individual interviews and focus group discussions, personal observation at market sites and a review of the literature. Pavanello’s study is largely exploratory based on describing the patterns of livestock marketing behavior, the main livestock market participants and their role within the marketing system, and analyses aspects of cross-border trade across Borana of Ethiopia and Kenya. The study details the informal clan-based nature of the livestock marketing and livestock marketing routes in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The study indicates that access to poor market price information is a significant constraint to trade for producers than for traders. The study also indicates infrastructural challenges, absence of an organized market intelligence system and policy and institutional problems as major constraints to developing efficient livestock marketing activities in the southern Borana area.

The study recommends for support to livestock marketing groups and cooperatives in southern Ethiopia as constituting a significant step towards building and strengthening capacity in pastoral areas. Recommendations and constraints indicated in Pavanello’s study are, however, generally not new, because most of them have been indicated in previous studies (see for example MCPeak and Little, 2006). And also that the study lacks to link specific attributes that facilitate or hinder marketing activities of pastoralists or other marketing chain actors. This study could also be helpful in the implementation of PRIME activities in that the study has emphasized the need for the promotion and support for dialogue in developing the marketing system in pastoral areas. As suggested by the study, PRIME can also involve in promoting partnerships and linkages between different marketing chain actors in the pastoralists livestock marketing system.

Rich, K.M., Perry, B.D., Kaitibie, S., Mitku Gobena & Nega Tewolde (2008). Enabling Livestock Product Export from Ethiopia: Understanding the Costs, Sustainability and Poverty Reduction Implications of SPS Compliance, ILRI.

This study assesses the feasibility and economic viability of Sanitary and Phytosanitory Certificate System of SPS-LMM program. The proposed certification model is considered to be technically feasible to meet international standards that comply with export market requirements and in line with the concept of developing a disease-free compartment. The system entails the initial testing, vaccination and quarantine of animals over a 21-day period in the first phase (Phase 1), followed by a second phase (Phase 2) where quarantined animals are finished in a

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feedlot system to bring them up to export weight (400 kg). The study examines the economic feasibility of the proposed two-phase SPS certification for beef exports. The costs and benefits of this SPS certification system are deemed to be technically credible so that Ethiopian meat exports can maintain access to international markets. The study used a dynamic cost-benefit model using system dynamics tools to examine the feasibility of this system under a number of different scenarios. The study reveals that under current conditions for inputs (animals, feed resources, equipment and capital expenses), the proposed system is not economically feasible for the export of beef products to Middle Eastern markets.

The study also indicated that improvements in feed use through better rations can lower the cost of the system considerably. However, analysis of the detailed cost structure of export abattoirs, their procurement mechanisms and procurement areas are overlooked in the study. This study could be supportive in the implementation of PRIME activities in that the study noted the need for significant improvement in supply chain support functions, feed access, animal purchases and challenges of Ethiopian beef products. The study results highlighted a couple of potential entry points for pastoralists. Moreover, the authors argued for the development of a more integrated supply chain for livestock and meat products as having strong pro-poor benefits in terms of reducing intermediaries and raising farm-gate prices for pastoralists, thus potentially provide greater incentives for disease control efforts at the livestock producer level.

Solomon Desta, Getachew Gebru, Seyoum Tezera & Coppock, D. L. (2006). Linking Pastoralists and Exporters in a Livestock Marketing Chain: Recent Experience from Ethiopia, In J. McPeak and P.D. Little (Eds.), Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Research and Policy Challenges, pp.109-127, Intermediate Technology Publications.

In this book chapter Solomon et al revisit pastoral livestock marketing among the Borana pastoralists of Ethiopia. The authors explore their rationale regarding the promotion of pastoral livestock marketing and report their experiences on the evolving new marketing chain that focused on the goats and sheep to the export market; to the Middle East. The book chapter is based on the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) method and case study evidence reports from field tours, workshops, and seminars that involved the linkages among pastoralists, policy makers, and livestock exporters. The research mainly focuses on how the facilitation activities in aggregate set the stage for a case study where effects of human capacity building could be observed. To this effect, the research aims to provide preliminary documentation of the systematic responses that emerged when a new livestock marketing chain was created in the Borana pastoralists of Ethiopia. The study emphasizes the role of educating pastoralists, access to financial services and market information, and the establishment of contracts (between pastoralist sellers and buyers such as traders) in forming the new livestock marketing chain for goats and sheep. However, the study does not explicitly indicate (any) intrinsic factors from the pastoralists (such as level of market orientation) in facilitating the marketing chain for livestock. This study is related to the objectives of the PRIME project in that the study concludes that


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pastoralists’ access to the export market may serve as an incentive to invest in their improved animal productivity and health.

United Nations Economic and Social Council: Economic Commission for Africa. (2012, November). Report on Livestock Value Chains in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Regional Perspective, Eighth Session of the Committee on Food Security and Sustainable Development and Regional Implementation Meeting for the Twentieth Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. www.uneca.org/.../4._cfssd-8-0030-ore-report_on_livestock_value_chai

This paper is a report that documents the results of a stocktaking exercise carried out with a regional perspective of the livestock value chains in Botswana and Ethiopia and the linkages in the agricultural and agro-based sector in the COMESA and SADC sub-regions. The report is a synthesis of two country reports on livestock value chains undertaken in order to: (a) determine and establish the current livestock production potential, the demand for livestock products/byproducts and market access to both regional and international markets; (b) identify commodity flows and stakeholders, including their interaction across the value chain; (c) identify major challenges and opportunities across the value chain; and (d) indicate the relevance and significance of livestock in the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and agro pastoralists/pastoralists, including those across the COMESA/SADC sub-regions. The strong side of the paper is that it described the livestock value chain using a comparison with Botswana, one of the countries with huge livestock genetic base. The paper is useful in that it identified the major challenges and opportunities for the livestock value chain for designing strategic interventions.

Wassie Berhanu, Colman, D. & Bichaka Fayissa. (2005). Diversification and Livelihood Sustainability in a Semi-Arid Environment: A Case Study from Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Development Studies, 43 (5), 871–889.

This paper examines the recently growing adoption of non-pastoral livelihood strategies among the Borana pastoralists in southern Ethiopia. The paper classified the sources of pastoral household income into three main categories: pastoralism, dry-land farming, and non-farm non-pastoral (NFNP). A large portion of the current non-pastoral participation among the Borana pastoralists is in petty and natural resource-based activities. The paper employed a comparative analysis of the returns of pastoral and non-pastoral economic activities to analyze the economic rationale behind the growing pastoralist shift to cultivation and other non-pastoral activities behind of diversification. To this end, pastoral and crop production functions are estimated using the Cobb-Douglas model. The low marginal return to labour in traditional pastoralism suggests the existence of surplus labour that can gainfully be transferred to non-pastoral activities. An examination of the pastoralist activity choices reveals that the younger households with literacy and more exposure to the exchange system display a more diversified income portfolio preference. The findings underscore the importance of human capital investment and related

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support services for improving the pastoralist capacity to manage risk through welfare-enhancing diversified income portfolio adaption. As a matter of fact, the study contributes towards the designing and customization of alternative livelihood options in PRIME project areas.

Workeneh Kassa, Ingenbleek, P.T.M., & Van Trijp, H.C.M. (2012). Is the market orientation–performance relationship generalizable to informal economies in emerging markets? An empirical test in the pastoralist economy of Ethiopia. In Workneh Kassa (2012). Marketing’s contribution to the sustainability of pastoralism: Evidence from Ethiopia. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, the Netherlands.

This thesis study is the first in its extensive analysis of the marketing concept in relating to the pastoralists livelihood performance. The study investigates on the market integration types of pastoralists (chapter 3) and how market orientation contributes to the livelihood performance of pastoralists (chapter 4). In chapter 3 the study aims to identify the market integration types of pastoralists and how market integration is related to market orientation. In chapter 4 the study aims to test empirically how the market orientation influences the livelihood performance of pastoralists. The study used extensive case study from Borana, Somali region and Kereyu pastoralists of Ethiopia. It also used survey data from pastoralists of Yabello Woreda in the Southern Borana area and Kereyu Fentale in the Rift Valley area. The study identified four market integration types of pastoralists through its inductive case study and argues that market integration becomes market orientation when value adding effort (e.g. fattening livestock) is exercised by pastoralists on livestock that they intend to sell. However, the identified market integration types may not be generalizable since they are not further tested using the survey data. In testing the market orientation-performance relationships, the study finds that consistently across the two areas and two time periods, the customer orientation-the core of a market orientation concept leads to increased performance for pastoralists. But the study finds that competitor orientation does not influence the performance of pastoralists. The study indicates that mere market interaction or participation in itself is not an effective means, unless a market-oriented process of customer value creation is adopted by pastoralists.

The study, therefore, recommends that development policies should not only focus on creating access of pastoralist sellers to markets, but also on establishing a market-oriented mindset among pastoralist sellers. The findings of this study are important to the PRIME activities because it clearly delineates whether market access or market orientation (e.g., with value addition to satisfy the requirements of buyers) really contributes to the enhancement of the performance and hence livelihood of pastoralists. Thus, based on this study, PRIME may target more on enhancing market orientation, not just market integration of pastoralists that is based on value creation.


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Yacob Aklilu (2008). Livestock Marketing in Kenya and Ethiopia: A Review of Policies and Practice, Feinstein International Center, Addis Ababa.

This study focuses on general policy outlines, animal health services and infrastructure for livestock and meat marketing for export. The study uses the review of literature and policy related documents. The study also applied interviews with key informants such as veterinary services professionals, meat and live animal exporters, and livestock marketing cooperatives in Ethiopia and Kenya. The study indicates that poor animal health services and the outbreak of diseases such as rift valley fever (RVF) and foot and mouth disease (FMD) remain major constraints for the marketing of livestock and meat from pastoralist areas in particular. The study underscores the need to strengthen veterinary services (through public and private goods) in light of the recurring bans being imposed by importing countries of the Middle East. The study also indicates that international trade barriers (SPS, tariff and non-tariff) are imposing huge limitations on the livestock and meat export in Ethiopia.

To improve the livestock and meat export from pastoralist areas, the study recommends for: (i) establishing and maintaining a credible SPS system through robust veterinary systems consisting of both public and private service providers, and (ii) streamlining the efficiency of the marketing system from production to consumption (export) levels. The study also recommends the need for an agreement to a smooth cross border livestock trade, and collaboration on animal health issues in terms of conducting joint vaccination operations across the border. This study is, however, descriptive and does not help to prioritize the impact of the identified factors on the livestock and meat export marketing. In addition, the opinions of the individual pastoralists regarding their constraints in the marketing are not adequately explored in the study. The study is important to the PRIME activities because it explains how the animal health issues are limiting the export of livestock from the borders of Ethiopia and Kenya. This may indicate the potential areas where PRIME activities can engage in to improve the livestock marketing and animal health services for pastoralists in the three clusters.

Yacob Aklilu (2004) Pastoral Livestock Marketing Groups in Southern Ethiopia: Some Preliminary Findings, Access to Markets Workshop, November 2-3, 2004, Nazreth, Ethiopia.

The study investigates the role of the formation of producer marketing cooperative groups on the volume of market supply of shoats and the prices received by the producer groups. This study aims to assess the performance of the pastoral livestock marketing groups in the southern Borana pastoralists. As a methodology, the study employed case study techniques that include focus group discussions, review of financial records, and field assessments. The study indicates a significant increase in the price obtained by the producer groups following the group formation. The study also indicates a sixth-fold increase in the supply volume of shoats to the markets from the project area, as compared to average level of supply prior to the formation of the producer groups. The study further identifies factors that impact the performance of the producer groups including delays in effecting payments, delays in the collection of shoats, purchase order cancellations, collection of shoats without delivery notes, and lack of effective communication


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between the exporters and the pastoralist livestock marketing groups. It reveals the lack of necessary technical and directional support by NGOs to the pastoralist livestock marketing groups. The study also indicates a fierce competition from the private traders as one of the factors that squeezed the profit level of the producer groups despite increases in the volume of shoats marketed.

This study is, however, too descriptive that does not relate empirically any of the factors impacting on the performance of producer marketing groups. As its method of data collection, the study does not take the views of non-member pastoralists in the same area. And hence, it may be difficult to make broader generalizations on the performance of producer marketing groups in the southern Borana area. The study still contributes to the PRIME activities because it describes factors that can contribute to the performance of pastoralist marketing groups. Based on this study, PRIME can design its future interventions regarding the formation of pastoralist marketing groups/cooperatives.

Yacob Aklilu & Catley, A. (2010). Livestock Exports from Pastoralist Areas: An Analysis of Benefits by Wealth Group and Policy Implications, IGAD LPI Working Paper No. 01-10.

In this extensive report Yacob & Catley, as part of the case study from the Horn of Africa, take the Somali and Borana pastoralists’ livestock marketing in Ethiopia. The research report employed both secondary and primary sources as part of its method in gathering the necessary data. Primary data in Ethiopia was collected from key informants and focus groups through field visits in Borana. The research mainly focuses on the analysis of benefits from the livestock export across the different pastoralist wealth groups. The research documents the support and attention to the export of live animals from the region and related certification, quarantine, and other inputs by NGOs and governments. The findings indicate that even though different intervention programs have often placed commercialization and export trade as a driving force for poverty reduction, the benefits from the livestock marketing are skewed towards wealthier pastoralists and other actors such as traders and exporters. The study suggests that to sustain the livelihood, poorer pastoralists need to build herds before more commercially-orientated market engagement.

The report in its case study in Borana, also shows that establishing more direct transaction linkages between pastoral producer groups and Ethiopian meat exporters has brought no change in livestock off-take among poor pastoralists, but a marked increase in sales among the middle wealth groups. The producer marketing groups were also squeezed out of this business, partly because of the formation of similar marketing groups by many other agencies in the same catchment areas, and also because of the fierce competition from livestock traders. The study also analyses the impact of livestock import ban by the Middle East countries on pastoralists, where the price of sheep and cattle fell by 55% and 65% respectively in the Somali Region of Ethiopia during the 1998 ban.


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However, this extensive report which analyses the marketing behavior of pastoralists in the Horn of Africa (where Somali and Borana pastoralists are extensively covered from Ethiopian side), still does not explicitly relate the causal relationships between wealth and increased livestock export. As a consequence it does not indicate whether the increase in livestock export from the wealthy group of pastoralists is solely a result of a higher livestock number or also contributed by other factors such as more diversification tendency by the wealthy groups. This study is crucial to the objectives of PRIME because the study indicates that improving livelihoods is not merely the issue of increasing the livestock marketing but also a matter of enhancing the health and productivity of livestock of pastoralists. In addition, the case study in Borana on establishing producers cooperative marketing has indicated that formation of many such undertakings by other NGOs and GO has resulted in competition among the cooperatives forcing them to be squeezed. This may suggest that any future intervention by the PRIME in the three clusters needs to carefully document the presence of duplicated efforts which may turn counter to any existing efforts.

III. LIVELIHOOD DEVELOPMENT: DAIRY MARKETING AND BEEKEEPING

Ahmed, M.M., Ehui, S. & Yemserach Assefa (2003). Dairy Development in Ethiopia, In Benin, S.E., Berhanu Gebremedhin and Staal, S. J. (Eds.). Socio-economics and Policy Research. ILRI, Working Paper 58, Nairobi, Kenya, 47 pp.

This paper assesses the development of the dairy sector in Ethiopia over the past 50 years. In particular, it presents an overview of the dairy sector in Ethiopia. It also identifies key phases in the development of the dairy sector in Ethiopia and examines the trends in production and consumption, policy changes and development emphasis during each phase. Apart from these, the paper provides evidence on the potential impact of improved dairy cattle, examines the factors that increase smallholder participation in market-oriented dairying and identifies key policy and technology issues to be considered in the design of appropriate policy and development strategies. The paper also draws together evidence from neighboring countries in order to assist in drawing conclusions for dairy development strategies in Ethiopia. The paper is a must to read document for PRIME project’s proposed activity on identifying key policies and technology issues to be considered in the design of appropriate policy and development strategies, although more updated papers on dairy development are required as this working paper is documented nearly a decade ago.

Anderson, D. M., Elliott, H., Kochore, H. & Lochery, E. (2012). Camel herders, middle women, and urban milk bars: the co modification of camel milk in Kenya. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 6 (3): 383-404. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com.

This paper illustrates how camel-owning pastoralists are adapting to political, climatic and demographic changes in northern Kenya. Valued for its medicinal properties, camel milk has been transformed from a food produced and consumed on a subsistence level by camel-owning

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pastoralist communities in northern Kenya and elsewhere in the Horn of Africa, to a highly valued commodity around which there is a booming trade and growing international interest. The rapid pastoral sedentarization and urbanization has created high demand for camel milk among town people. These new pockets of demand first prompted small-scale, informal trade run by women from camel-owning communities. The growth of Eastleigh, Nairobi, as an urban centre accommodating a large Somali population, following the collapse of the Somali state, has further fuelled the boom in the camel milk trade, leading to growing formalization and consequently a shift in gender roles within the business. This study showed rational responsiveness of pastoralist to economic incentives. The growth of the economic value of camel milk commercialization from a mere subsistence food to a highly valued commodity around which there is a booming trade within Kenya and growing international interest indicates that ordinary people respond to the changes taking place around them.

Processes of sedentarization and urbanization, catalyzed by political pressures and climate change have not necessarily rendered traditional pastoral communities redundant or displaced, but have prompted shifts in livelihood systems which enable people to navigate through a changing environment. The expansion and formalization of the camel milk trade following the development of Eastleigh emphasizes the agency of people in northern Kenya to seize opportunities opened up by changing situations elsewhere. Analysis of the burgeoning camel milk trade hence challenges notions of pastoralist societies as passive victims to political and climatic upheaval. In addition, this study describes the rise of the business woman, illustrating the agency of women in northern Kenya in responding to these changes, who have all too often been silent in studies of pastoralist livelihoods and economies applying a case study. The study is pertinent for the analysis of market actors from gender perspectives and traces the key actors who influence the whole market system.

Anteneh Girma, Tesfaye Lemma & Ranjitan, P. (2008). Towards Pluralistic Livestock Service Delivery System for the Commercialization of Smallholder Livestock Agriculture in Ethiopia: Evidence from Smallholder Dairying in Debrezeit Milk Shed, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/29025/ESAP_Proceedings16.pdf?sequence=1

This article reports the result of a study on dairy service delivery system conducted in Debrezeit milk shed, which has relatively developed and market-oriented dairy systems. Specifically, the study looked into actors and their roles, performance of actors as perceived by their respective clients, interaction between actors, and policy and institutional arrangements influencing pluralistic service delivery for the commercialization of smallholder dairying. The required data was obtained through survey from 150 smallholders dairy producer randomly selected from urban, peri-urban and rural area. Semi-structured interview was employed to obtain additional data from service providers in the milk shed. In addition, review of policy documents and discussion with key informants has provided additional insights.

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In the milk shed, dairy sector is currently in a transition towards market-orientation with private sector investment and multiple actor involvement in the service delivery. The results reveal that while the public sector remained the major service provider, the role of private service providers and Ada’a cooperative is being increasing, particularly in livestock feed supply, product marketing and processing, micro finance, veterinary services. However, there is no effective mechanism to coordinate multiple service providers for them to effectively function as a system. Forage seed/cutting material supplier and vet clinical service providers are missing in the peri-urban and rural sub systems whereas there is no functional dairy advisory service provision in the urban subs system. The policy and institutional analysis revealed that existing government policies and strategies are important steps forwards for the commercialization of the sector without any restriction on non-public service providers to participate in the market. Nevertheless, success in pluralistic dairy service delivery, among others, is constrained by inadequacy of the existing policies and strategies, still more enabling environment and institutional arrangements setback.

This study analyzed cost sharing as an option for developing sustainable and responsive service delivery, by assessing producers’ willingness to pay for advisory service using Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) method. Results show that 71.3 % of the producers described themselves as willing to pay for dairy advisory service if their income from dairy would increase. The paper is a very interesting one in that it has brought to the surface the major constraints in the pluralistic service delivery for the commercialization of smallholder dairying in the major milk producing area of Ethiopia. Thus it can provide necessary information for PRIME to identify the major setbacks and also possible intervention areas in the sector through contextualizing it to its delaminated project areas.

Asfaw Negassa (2009). Improving Smallholder Farmers’ Marketed Supply and Market Access for Dairy Products in Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Research Report 21, 107 pp.

The major objective of this study was to provide a comprehensive review documenting dairy supply and demand and the role of collective action in Arsi Zone/Ethiopia. The specific objectives were to assess current and prospective demand for milk and milk products in Asella (the zonal headquarters) and Adama, to assess the current milk production, consumption and marketing behavior of farmers in selected woredas taking both participants and non-participants in farmer milk cooperatives in order to asses current and prospective supply of milk, and to assess the role of collective action, e.g. farmer groups and other possible forms in overcoming problems of remunerative marketing and market access by smallholder milk producers, with a particular focus on the role and implications of gender.

The analytical framework used by Asfaw for this research was based on the value chain concept. There are three main actors in the dairy value chain which are considered in this study: dairy producers, milk marketing cooperatives and consumers. Primary data were collected through 3 surveys of 200 smallholder dairy producers, 24 dairy marketing cooperatives in Arsi Zone and


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200 urban consumers. Both descriptive and econometric analyses of the survey data were made. In addition to the administration of the three formal surveys, several informal interviews were also conducted with officials and key informants in Arsi Zone. The purposes of these informal interviews were to obtain information that supplements the data that was collected through sample surveys. Additional secondary data at the zonal and lower administrative levels were also collected. Findings from the paper characterize the main actors in the value chain, describe the challenges and finally forward possible solutions. The value chain method in analyzing the dairy sector which is followed in this paper is similar to the method employed in PRIME.

Aynalem Haile, Workneh Ayalew, Noah Kebede, Tadelle Dessie & Azage Tegegne. (2011). Breeding strategy to improve Ethiopian Boran cattle for meat and milk production. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 26. Nairobi, Kenya, ILRI. http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/3141/WP_26.pdf?sequence=1

This is a report paper produced by the IPMS project with the objective of developing breeding plans for the Ethiopian Boran cattle and is based on, one secondary data sources that include literature review from earlier works on Ethiopian Boran cattle; secondly using results of data collected and analyzed from dairy herds at DebreZeit research station of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Holetta Agricultural Research Center of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (HARC-EIAR); thirdly detailed desk work to design the improvement program; and finally suitability analysis for Boran cattle using GIS.

The paper discussed the Borana rangeland and the Ethiopian Boran cattle, performance of the Ethiopian Boran cattle, compared past and current Boran genetic improvement activities in Ethiopia and provide pertinent recommendations to improve Ethiopian Boran cattle for meat and milk production. The authors reported that selection scheme based on open nucleus breeding program is suggested to improve the beef and dairy attributes of the Ethiopian Boran cattle. Where crossbreeding is an option to improve dairy performance, a detail operational scheme is also suggested. Suitability of Ethiopian Boran cattle to different locations in Ethiopia is also mapped using GIS. Dairy being an important sector underlined for intervention by PRIME in pastoral part of Ethiopia including Borena, breed improvement issues and strategies in the area can be consulted from this working paper.

Azage Tegegne, Berhanu Gebremedhin, Hoekstra, D., Berhanu Belay & Yoseph Mekasha (2013). Smallholder dairy production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: IPMS experiences and opportunities for market-oriented development. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 31. Nairobi: ILRI.

This working paper by Azage and others stated that Ethiopia has a huge potential for dairy development in Africa and that the large and diverse livestock genetic resources, existence of diverse agro-ecologies suitable for dairy production, increasing domestic demand for milk and milk products, better market opportunity, and proximity to international markets indicate the

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potential and opportunities for dairy development in the country. However, it is argued in the paper that dairy development has been hampered by multi-faceted, production system-specific constraints related to genotype, feed resources and feeding systems, access to services and inputs, low adoption of improved technologies, marketing and absence of clear policy support to the sector. Thus, in order to mitigate challenges that limit productivity and thereby exploit the untapped potential, it is necessary to characterize and analyse dairy production and marketing systems, identify major constraints along the value chains and devise pertinent and practical strategies to alleviate the problem and improve dairy production and marketing systems in the country. The Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) employed a participatory and market-oriented commodity value chain development approach to help boost production and productivity of smallholder farmers.

This working paper is a synthesis of the results of the studies conducted by IPMS and provided information on the characteristics of smallholder dairy production and marketing systems, input supply and services, dairy technology and performance of dairy animals, and identifies major constraints that influence dairy development in the country. Methodologically, this working paper is based on a number of thesis studies conducted in three regional states. The study areas included the districts of Bure, Fogera and Metema in Amhara Regional State; the districts of Shashemene and Mieso in Oromia Regional State; and the districts and towns of Hawassa, Dale/Yirgalem and Dilla in Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS). Data collection procedures for the studies involved a combination of methods includingreview of secondary sources, diagnostic survey, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), focus group discussions, rapid market appraisal (RMA), monitoring and observations, and onfarm feeding studies.

The paper also discusses constraints to dairy development such as shortage of feed and water, Shortage of forage seed and planting materials, Poor access to inputs and service (extension, animal health, credit, market information, AI and dairy inputs), disease and parasite, market related constraints, etc. Furthermore, opportunities and suggests the ways forward for improved smallholder dairy development and market success.

Care Ethiopia (2009). Women’s Milk and Small Ruminant Marketing in Mandera Triangles: Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. Wabekbon Development Consultants. http://edu.care.org/Documents/Womens%20Milk%20and%20Small%20Ruminant%20Marketing%20in%20Mandera%20Triangles.pdf

Among livestock products this paper focused on analyzing women’s small ruminants and milk product marketing characteristics in the Mandera Triangle (Ethiopia, Kenya and Somali pastoral area). The paper used the classical study methods including secondary data analysis, desk review, key informant interview and workshop feedback. This study, therefore, has attempted to contribute to filling the information gap by investigating role played by pastoralist women of Mandera Triangle (Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia) in the milk and small ruminant marketing. The paper depicted the significant role of women in pastoral societies with regard to the control and

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distribution of milk and small ruminants. The paper also investigates the challenges and the coping strategies in pastoral area livelihood in general and Mandera Triangle in particular. The paper finally suggested policy recommendations. This paper can be vital to PRIME investigation in understanding the milk marketing practices and the role of women.

CARE. (2010). Value Chain Analysis of Milk and Milk Products in Borana Pastoralist Area. Care-Ethiopia Regional Resilience Enhancement against Drought Project. Yonad Business Promotion and Consultancy Service PLC. Retrieved from: http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/FINAL_Milk_VCA_Study.pdf

The study was carried out by the team of four experts from Yonad Business Promotion and Consultancy Service PLC being commissioned by CARE Ethiopia, using a participatory approach that covered all key players in the milk and milk products subsector in the study area. The study covered over 164 peoples in the whole milk value chain at different locations including Yabello, Moyale, Miyo, Dire and Teltale woredas of Borena zone, in Dilla, Awassa towns and Addis Ababa. The study indicated that the region has untapped dairy potential owing to the existence of large number of livestock including cow, camel and goat. Despite such high production potential, the prospect of dairy market in the region is limited due to low demand and absence of technology. By the time this study is conducted, which is not indicated in the report, only 44% of the total milk produce is marketed while only 6-10% of the total production reaches the terminal Moyale market. The paper indicated that the major factors that constrain the development of the dairy sector in Borana region include low milk productivity, low quality milk, poor organization of development actors in the sub sector and in the chain, lack of business orientation among the pastoralists, lack of market oriented producer organization and lack of poor market infrastructure. The causes of these factors could be categorized into natural, institutional and social. Further, it is argued that since most of the constraints facing the milk industry in Borana pastoralist are cross cutting issues; they need the integrated effort of organizations and institutions that bought-up their vision and mission towards addressing the constraints. The constraints could not be addressed on a piecemeal approach.

Debissa Lemessa (2007). Beekeeping: A Livelihood Strategy in Pastoral and Agro–Pastoral Dry Land Areas of Southern Oromia (Liban District) and Somali Regional States (Filtu and Dollo Ado Districts). Can be accessed from: www.beesfordevelopment.org/uploads.

The paper presents a description of the current practice and potential of beekeeping in Pastoral and Agro–Pastoral Dry Land Areas of Southern Oromia (Liban District) and Somali Regional States (Filtu and Dollo Ado Districts). The study was based on primary information gathered from local beekeeper using informal surveying–PRA tool, individual interview, and group discussions.

In this region, beekeeping plays an important role in the people’s life particularly in the drought prone areas of the region. It is the most important means of livelihood next to livestock and crop

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production; the first being by far the most widely practiced. Owing to the existence of different types of fauna in the region, there is high potential of beekeeping development. In addition to this, the paper also explained other socio-economic opportunities for the development of beekeeping in the region. These opportunities include conducive government policy, involvement of NGOs, and availability of surplus labour force. On the other hand, there are also limiting factors that should be mitigated if beekeeping in the region has to be modernized. These limitations include: lack of market information and promotion, pests, the possibility of recurrent drought and forest clearing.

Yet the practice of beekeeping in the region is chiefly traditional, and production and productivity is low. Because of external interventions from NGOs and government bodies integrated beekeeping with agro-forestry, horticulture and livestock rearing has been started recently. However, the paper does not explicitly mention the specific actors in the modernization of the sector of the region. Moreover, the paper iterated the paramount role that beekeeping can play in areas of erratic rainfall and crop failure; however, it is not clear why not even in other pastoral areas. The paper gives an insight on how beekeeping can be used as alternative livelihood options concurrently with cattle rearing, goat, sheep and camel production in drought prone areas the role this has towards forest biodiversity and how beekeeping creates employment opportunity for women and children. The paper argues that such productive and conservation system is an important option for diversifying the livelihoods of the dry lands pastoral and agro pastoral community who are in the food insecurity zone because of recurrent drought over times.

Getachew Felleke, Medhin Woldearegay & Getnet Haile (2010). Inventory of Dairy Policy-Ethiopia. SNV Ethiopia. http://eadd.wikispaces.com/file/view/DVC-Dairy+Policy+Inventory-Getachew++++++Felleke-ET-Undated.pdf.

This study is conducted by Getachew and his colleagues with the objective of inventorying policies relevant to the dairy sector in Ethiopia, taking into account the current situation and ongoing efforts in this regard, and reviewing the gaps in the policy landscape that cause bottlenecks, constraints and limitations to arise in the dairy sector. The report will provide input for further discussion on policy development needs and the way forward. The document addressed and thoroughly discussed issues of the dairy system as to their background, status, challenges, gaps and opportunities. The paper described the Ethiopian dairy system by the statement that “though there is huge livestock population with high potential for milk and dairy production and ever more people tend to drink milk and consume more dairy products, yet milk production is still too low in the country to satisfy the needs, which is hampered by bucketful of paradoxes, hopes and heartbreaks”. All the relevant policies which are related to the dairy sector, or affects the sector in one or another way in terms of production, marketing, consumption, quality, breeding, feed etc are thoroughly reviewed in this document. Policies are reviewed in light of the identified gaps and challenges analyzed in the dairy sector actors.

Inventory of the existing policies and strategies at sectoral level and programs developed thereof in Ethiopia had indicated that the overall objective of the policies and strategies are more or less

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comprehensive in addressing basic principles of development with a the exception of few items. Getachew and others indicated that, intuitional capacity, ownership, follow-up, coordination and continuity are among the main challenges which deter the effectiveness of these policies. Finally, the output of this study is summarized and presented in a tabular form in this document indicating challenges, constraints and proposed policy level interventions. This paper is highly relevant to identify important policies pertaining to dairy sector for improved productivity which can set the scene for scaling up in PRIME.

Getnet Haile (2009, December). The impact of Global Economic & Financial Crises on the Ethiopian Dairy Industry. Least developed Countries Ministerial Conference, Vienna International Centre, Austria.

Ethiopia’s Dairy industry has a history of more than half a century. In this period it has passed through major structural changes, which resulted from various political systems that the country has adopted. The paper tried to review those structural changes and its impact on the dairy industry and also documented about global financial crises (GFC) and its impact on Ethiopian economy and the dairy sector. In view of this review, the author found out that there is no a direct link between GFC and the performance of the dairy sector. This is mainly due to the fact that the demand for Ethiopian dairy product is almost from local except from insignificant amount of camel milk export to Somalia (Hargesa). The impact of the GFC is reflected on Ethiopian export. The indirect relationship of GFC and its impact on the Ethiopian Dairy industry is that GFC caused the decline in the demand of export commodities, this caused the decline in the foreign currency reserve of Ethiopia, this in turn leads to decline in the reserve of foreign currency intervened by rationing of foreign currency – long waiting list, and of devaluation to boost export.

Because of the rationing (long lead time), some dairy processors were unable to replenish their packing material stock when it run out. The short supply of imported items contributes for inflation, and the devaluation of the currency contributed for the rising of local price of packing materials, other inputs, and machinery costs. Export receipts and remittances weaken and inward direct investment is becoming slow. The affected groups of the industries are mainly the new entrant small processors. The big size industries were managed to sustain the shock for their large buffer stock of packing materials and spare parts. New entrants are affected because of the restriction of borrowing The devaluation of Birr affected all size of the milk processors, animal feed processors, new entrants who wish to procure machineries from outside, as the cost of input increases in local currency. The authors also found out that there is small quantity of export of dairy products in Ethiopia. Camel milk export is increased in the year 2008. As the size of the formal export is insignificant, the Global crisis will have no significant impact.

In light of the above findings recommendations are made for the global financial crisis among others allocating special foreign currency fund to be utilised by the dairy sector until the effect of the crisis diminish and establishment of a consortium of development and printing of packing materials by the industry than to relay an importer for the supply of packing material. Whereas


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for the challenges caused by structural problems, courses of actions such as that dairy policy has to be issued by the government, Strengthening and conducting the value chain development activities accomplished by different organization in a coordinated manner and Provision of training to managers and technicians in the sector on farm management, industry management and marketing were recommended to mention few.

Holden, S. J. & Coppock, D. L. (1992). Effects of Distance to Markets, Season, and Family Wealth on Pastoral Diary Marketing in Ethiopia. Journal of Arid Environments, 23(3): 321-334. Can be accessed at http://hdl.handle.net/10568/28881.

The authors conducted a peri-urban dairy marketing survey among households of Borana pastoralists in 1987. The result presents a survey designed to determine the effects of distance to market, family wealth, and season on the quantity of dairy products sold per person and per lactating animal. It also quantifies the contribution of dairy marketing to the household economy on an annual and seasonal basis and assesses the role of dairy marketing in terms of pastoral food security. The article includes data on family size and holdings of lactating livestock for pastoral households of varied wealth. They showed that diary sales contributed about 20% to pastoral household income annually and that the sales peaked in the wet season and sharply in the dry season. Household closer to the market (10 km) were shown to sell sixteen times more than household far away from the market -more than 20 km away. The paper concludes that Wealthier household sold more milk than poor house. Diary marketing contributes to food security by enabling regular purchase of grain at favorable terms of trade and delaying sales of livestock capital which important input to the factor analysis of diary market and non-livestock markets.

Holden, S. J., Coppock, D. L. & Mulugeta Assefa. (1991). Pastoral diary marketing and household wealth interaction and their implication for calves and humans in Ethiopia. Human Ecology, 19(1): 35-59. Can be accessed at http://www.jstor.org/stable/4602998

This paper is based on the surveys of pastoral households in a semi-nomadic Borana community during 1987-1988. The objective of the survey was to test the hypothesis that poorer families living closest to a market town would be most affected by the enhanced opportunity to sell dairy products, which would intensify competition between people and calves for milk and have negative implications for calf management. As expected, the poorer families covered in the survey reported the highest rates of milk off-take per cow, and the milk increment was probably sold to purchase more grain for human consumption at the expense of milk intake for the calf. Consequently, this strategy may increase the susceptibility of malnourished calves to disease, especially those from lower-producing dams. Benefits of improved human energy intake from grain and retention of livestock capital must be weighed against risks of calf death and possible malnutrition of people from milk restriction when assessing dairy marketing trade-offs that are most acute for the poor. Opportunity to sell dairy products at favorable terms of trade helps the poorest people survive, and their risks could be mitigated by policies that facilitate grain marketing in the rangelands and interventions that improve calf feeding

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management, diversify human diets, and create alternative opportunities for women to generate income. The households postulated to be most at risk were identified from a complex, but logical, interaction among factors of distance to market, household wealth, and the quality of milking cows held. This indicates that targeting such needy groups for development assistance may require a more detailed and interdisciplinary analysis of production systems than is commonly practiced. The study helps PRIME guide on the analysis of diary marketing supply system and its nutritional impact on calves and household’s nutrition and which is essential to bring about resilience.

Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) (undated). Dairy: A Synthesis of IPMS Value -chain Development Experiences of Ethiopian Farmers Ethiopia.www.ipms-ethiopia.org

This paper presents the experiences of IPMS in the dairy sector development. It describes the strategies of development depicting the introduction of a participatory and market-oriented commodity value chain development approach to help boost production and productivity of smallholder farmers. The project followed a holistic approach in that it considers input supply, production, agricultural services, marketing, and business support services as necessary building blocks of commodity development. The experiences mentioned were built around the key guiding principles like market demand as the driving force for production decisions, identifying both the public and private sector as critical actors of commodity value chains, knowledge sharing and capacity building efforts encouraged to leverage innovations and increase efficiencies, approaching gender equity as good business, sustainability by careful consideration of environment and natural resource enhancing in the development exercise.

Selection of priority commodities, diagnosis of challenges, and design of interventions all follow the above approaches. In the end, the paper describes the implementation of the approach which is carried out by public and private sector partners in the areas where the project has been active. This paper is relevant to understand the dairy sector and hence to forward possible solutions and strategies especially in the project’s operational area in particular. The value chain method in analyzing the dairy sector which is followed in this paper is similar to the method planned to be employed in PRIME which is important in identifying actors, processes and challenges.

Kedija Hussen, Azage Tegegne, Mohammed Yousuf & Berhanu Gebremedhin (2008). Cow and camel milk production and marketing in agro-pastoral and mixed crop-livestock systems: The case of Mieso District, Oromiya Regional State, Ethiopia. International Livestock Institute (ILRI) Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper, 13, 56.

The study was conducted in Mieso district of Oromia Regional State. The objectives of the study were to characterize the traditional milk production and marketing system, as well as identify constraints and opportunities for further development. It is indicated that the major technical constraints to dairy production in the district were feed scarcity, water shortage, poor veterinary

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service and limited access to markets. Contribution of milk production and marketing depends largely on assured supply of accompanying inputs such as feed, veterinary drugs and improved milk marketing facilities. This study showed that there is a large potential for dairy development in the Woreda. The paper, among others, emphasizes the role of enhanced fodder production and management, adoption of improved biological and physical technologies, strengthening the existing cooperatives, provision of financial services and avoiding frequent ethnic conflicts for the development of the dairy sector in the area. The study concludes that there is a good potential for market oriented development in the district and suggests way forwards for diary production improvements which are pertinent for PRIME intervention in diary improvement.

Kedija Hussen, Azage Tegegn, Mohammed Yousuf & Berhanu Gebremedhin (2007). Cow and Camel Milk Production and Marketing in Agro-pastoral and Mixed Crop- Livestock Systems in Ethiopia, 18 pp.www.ipms-ethiopia.org.

This study was undertaken to characterize the milk production and marketing system, to identify major constraints for the development of market oriented dairy production, and to formulate recommendations for further interventions. The study was conducted in Mieso district of Oromia Regional State, located 300 km east of Addis Ababa and at about 200 km east of Adama town. The study clearly demonstrated that there is a good potential for market-oriented dairy development in the district. The authors also identified the need for interventions to develop infrastructure, enhance input supply system, and undertake capacity development and training to enhance the skills of farmers and pastoralists in dairy production, processing and marketing. According to Kedija and the associates, attention should also be given to effective conflict management and resolution including the application of customary systems, improved access to veterinary services including training of paravets, improved feed production, conservation and feeding systems, improved marketing system and introduction of improved dairy breeds in some areas where feasible.

The authors further recommended that deliberately encouraging private-public partnership can make substantial contribution to alleviating key challenges for dairy development. Particularly, most of input and service delivery related problems can be substantially ameliorated through enhanced cooperation between milk producers or producer groups, dairy research and private input and supportive service providers. The papers magnifies the importance of following the dairy value chain approach for improving the potential dairy production and marketing opportunities in the study area, which tallies with the PRIME objective of creating market linkage and market-oriented dairy development, hence the paper can inform PRIME implementers very well.



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Land O'Lakes, Inc. (2010). The Next Stage in Dairy Development for Ethiopia: Dairy Value Chains, End Markets and Food Security. Dairy Industry Development Assessment Report, Land O’Lakes, Inc.

This study takes a value chain approach to identify the constraints, opportunities, interventions and possible impact for the dairy sub-sector from input supply to final consumption of milk and milk products. These innovative solutions are recommended to have sustained impact over the next decade to meet targets set for meeting demand projection in the year 2020. Up on request from USAID, Land O’Lakes (LOL) conducted a rapid assessment of the dairy value chain in October and November, 2010 study to provide information in the planning of new livestock initiatives in the agricultural growth programme (AGP). The team reviewed a number of documents on the dairy sub-sector in Ethiopia and the East Africa region. The LOL team developed an interview guide for the purpose of data collection from various stakeholder groups. Interviews were conducted in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, Mekele, DebreBirhan, Fiche/Chancho, Jimma, Hawassa, DebreZeit, Assela, and Dire Dawa. The study team members interviewed input dealers, producers (commercial, urban and peri-urban, smallholders), market agents, processors, transporters and retailers. The team held a one day workshop to present the findings from the stakeholder interviews in the different milk sheds.

Findings from the field reconnaissance which include demand for milk and milk products, milk’s role for food security and household nutrition, milk production, inputs by production system by milk shed, feeds and feeding, genetics, animal health services, extension service, credit and financial services, land, distribution, processing and marketing, formal and information distribution channels, domestic market, employment, value chain (formal and informal), the policy environment, were compiled into tables for ease of comparison. This rapid assessment revealed some significant findings including the low consumption of milk below recommended dietary intake levels in Ethiopia compared to neighboring countries and; the increased predicted rise of demand for milk and milk products due to various reasons, low milk volume supplied as fluid milk and the formal sector handles small fraction of the fluid milk market in urban areas, increase the supply and quality of milk and milk products, a very high percent is sold as raw milk which poses problems of adulteration and hygienic concerns, the cost of milk production is high because of low productivity and transaction costs to bulk and transport fluid milk from a large number of smallholders.

The productivity of the dairy herd is low, and costs of production are high. In addition, the smallholder producers are not commercialized. There is a large potential to address both of these constraints and achieve a greater production of milk to meet increasing demand projections. The paper finally recommended interventions based on the agro-ecology production systems. The overall value chain based assessment result of the dairy sector from this paper can shade light to the possibilities of scaling up best practices intended in PRIME strategic activities.


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Lumadede, A.K, Owuor, G., Laqua, H., & Gluecks, I.V. (2010). Pastoral Milk Production and Market Chain Analysis in Dollo Ado and Dollo Bay, Somali Region of Ethiopia for Save the Children/US – Version 1, Save the Children/US.

This is paper documented the report of a study conducted by VSF Suisse in the period 8th to 21st October 2009 on the pastoral milk production and market chain analysis in Dollo Ado and Dollo Bay, Somali Region of Ethiopia. The study was commissioned by Save the Children/US. The study was conducted to better understand the opportunities and challenges associated with milk marketing in the region. The main purpose of the study was for to provide Save the Children/US with baseline information on milk hygiene and marketing and to train selected Save the Children/ US staff and a selected women with training in improved milk hygiene. The study methodology included a review of relevant documents and interviews with relevant stakeholders. Markets were also visited in Dollo Ado - Suftu, Sablaley and Lolomoge – and in Dollo Bay - Boryale and Dhurey.

In all a total of 14 producers, 23 traders and 9 consumers were interviewed. The study assessed the milk production, milk marketing issues, customer preference, milk hygiene and household income from milk sales. The report also brings out the major challenges to milk and milk products marketing to be low productivity and poor milk quality, and Low level of organization, coordination and cooperation of actors involved in the chain just to mention few. The authors recommended interventions to improve and strengthen the milk market including, among others, training of all actors on improved milk hygiene practices and simple milk testing (e.g.clot and boiling test, alcohol test, lactodensimeter) and improvement of local market infrastructure such as establishment of collection points, cooling facilities, market stands, sheds, milk bars. The challenges and opportunities mentioned and the recommendations forwarded in this study report can be used to inform future milk value chain studies in other pastoral part of Ethiopia.

Sadler, K., Mitchard, E., Abdulahi Abdi, Yoseph Shiferaw, Gezu Bekele, and Catley, A. (2012). MILK MATTERS: The Impact of Dry Season Livestock Support on Milk Supply and Child Nutrition in Somali Region, Ethiopia. Feinstein International Center, Tufts University and Save the Children, Addis Ababa. www.fic.tufts.edu

Whilst there is considerable research and early warning literature that highlights the importance of livestock and livestock products for the income and the dietary intake of pastoralists in Somali Region, there is little work that describes use of these products within and amongst households, or that attempts to evaluate the significance of access to milk for the nutritional status of children. The objective of this study (Phase II of the project) was to evaluate the impact of community-defined livestock interventions on child nutritional status during the dry season. In addition, the study sought to compare the costs of an early intervention focusing on livestock health and milk production with an emergency-feeding program for children. The Milk Matters project involved distinct phases, each characterized by specific methodology: (1) site, household, and milking animal selection; (2) implementation of cohort studies; and (3) evaluation.

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This work indicates that the main risk period for child malnutrition is the late dry season in many pastoralist areas. The nutrition and humanitarian literature explains pastoralist child malnutrition by reference to a broad spectrum of direct causes that include the health environment and disease, infant feeding and maternal caring practice, and reduced availability of milk and cereals, but have rarely examined the relative importance of these causes. Overall the results of this paper demonstrate that by targeting support to milking animals that stay close to women and children during dry season and/or drought, significantly increase milk production and consumption among children is improved and their nutritional status benefits. This is one of the first studies to document an explicit, quantitative link between livestock interventions and impact on child nutrition in pastoralist areas. In pastoralist Ethiopia, livestock is at the heart of the economy, and food security and livelihoods actors recognize this by supporting livestock projects. Meanwhile, nutrition actors have continued to respond to acute malnutrition with child feeding programs.

This study has demonstrated that through targeted livestock support to milking animals that stay close to women and children during dry season and/or drought (overall a relatively small proportion of the whole herd), milk production and consumption among children is improved, and their nutritional status benefits. Researches and interventions around food security to the most vulnerable part of pastoral Ethiopia can make use of the approaches followed in this paper for future sustainable interventions.

Smallholder Dairy Project (2013). An Annotated Bibliography on the Smallholder Dairy Project. Consulted for the Pro‐Poor Livestock Policy Research project. www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/4519.pdf ‎/

This paper is an annotated bibliography that contains short summaries of Smallholder dairy projects in Kenya. The paper presents the sequential lists of relevant bibliographies with concise summaries that are relevant and pertinent to the dairy industry in Kenya. The Bibliography takes account of the Kenya context with regard to dairy projects in the country in good depth from journals to books and from news letters to web-based information, which can be considered as the good side. However, the paper lacks breadth in terms of compiling world-wide view of dairy sector that could be contextualized to the Kenyan and other related potential dairy industry interventions.

Staal, S.J., Pratt, A.N. & Jabbar, M. (2008). Dairy Development for the Resource Poor Part 2: Kenya and Ethiopia Dairy Development Case Studies. PPLPI Working Paper No. 44-2, ILRI. http://www.fao.org/ag/pplpi.html

This is the 44th of a series of Working Papers prepared for the Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI). The purpose of these papers is to explore issues related to livestock development in the context of poverty alleviation. The process of dairy development that this study addresses is driven by underlying fundamental changes in economic growth, the value of resources and consumer demand. This working paper also emphasized that livestock is vital to the economies of many developing countries and in general, animals are a source of food, more

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specifically protein for human diets, income, employment and possibly foreign exchange. Especially for low income producers, livestock can serve as a store of wealth, provide draught power and organic fertiliser for crop production and a means of transport. Consumption of livestock and livestock products in developing countries, though starting from a low base, is growing rapidly.

The aim of the study is in fact to analyse the trends in dairy development in these two regions and identify their key determinants, and to analyse the impact of policy interventions on those trends and to identify impacts of dairy development, particularly on the poor. The paper also analyzed trends and determinants of dairy development in East Africa and South Asia in order to assess the role of policies and institutions on the evolution of the sector in general, and their impact on the poor in particular. The paper also looked into policies which build on traditional production systems, with a particular focus on employment generation and food safety and quality, are therefore expected to be pro-poor. The paper examines dairy development in two key dairy producing regions in the developing world: East Africa and South Asia. The study all in all reported a conceptual framework for dairy development, followed by regional analysis of dairy development trends across all the countries in the two regions and a synthesis of the outcomes of the case study analyses, highlighting implications for policy interventions and investment, including proposing a model for pro-poor dairy development. It also consists of in-depth case studies and analyses of dairy development trends, determinants and outcomes in Kenya and Ethiopia and India and Pakistan. The paper can provide information on trends of dairy development ad it impact as well as key policy interventions to government, development actors and other local and international agencies.

TAM Consult, (2008). Dairy Investment Opportunities in Ethiopia. SNV Netherlands Development Organization.

This paper assesses the development of the dairy sector in Ethiopia over the last four decades, with the objectives of generating information useful in directing and advising on the need for investment in the dairy sector; providing guidance on the nature, scale and location of investments if the sectors prove to have opportunities for enterprising venture; and identify investment opportunities in the dairy subsector of Ethiopia through value chain approach to find out entry points into the business. The study has mainly focused on desk research. It is supplemented with consultation and key informant interviews with individuals who are practitioners or officials in the dairy industry, public institutions and non-governmental organizations.

This document describes key phases in the development of the dairy industry in Ethiopia, trends in production and consumption, the policy environment influencing the investment in dairy sector and the ease of entry into the dairy business. It also identifies key policy and technology issues as well as socio-environmental factors to be considered in designing of appropriate strategies for 00 of the dairy industry. Ethiopian dairy market access and trends are highlighted with regard to economic blocks and domestic market; the support market/ business services for


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effective dairy industry development are analyzed in detail. The paper also draws together evidence on investment opportunities, dairy product market access and market trends at all levels. And lastly the paper indicated that, the way forward to all this is building a competitive Ethiopian dairy industry on private investment that generates employment and income for smallholder families and provides affordable, high quality, nutritious dairy products for Ethiopian consumers.

The paper also recommended that private investment in the dairy sector requires a reliable source of high volumes of quality milk as raw material, available in concentrated geographic regions and Ethiopian milk and milk products must not only be of the highest quality, but also available at prices competitive with imports. The recommendations from the dairy value chain result from this paper can be consulted in further studying the leverage and intervention points and identifying important actors.

Tesfaheywet Zeryehun, Tsegaye Ayalew & Regassa Bayecha (2013). Study on Prevalence, Bacterial Pathogens and Associated Risk Factors of Bovine Mastitis in Small Holder Dairy Farms in and around Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 23(1): 50-55.

Tesfaheywet and his colleagues carried out this research with the purpose of determining the prevalence, bacterial pathogens and the associated risk factors of bovine mastitis in small holder dairy farms in and around Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study was carried out on 499 dairy cows based on data collected using questionnaire survey, farm visit, animal examination and California mastitis test (CMT) and isolation of the causative agent. The present study revealed abnormalities of udder as evidence of mastitis in 373(74.7%) cows. Of these, 98(19.6%) were clinical and 275 (55.1%) sub clinical form of mastitis. Quarter level prevalence was 5.2% and 42.7% for clinical and sub clinical mastitis, respectively. The prevalence among successive stage of lactation was 87.2%, 65.9% and 73.1% in early, mid and late lactation, respectively. This variation was statistically significant (P<0.05). Parity and age were also considered as major intrinsic risk factors that influenced prevalence of mastitis. Milking practice and farm hygiene were considered as extrinsic risk factors, where owners who practiced using towel had 62.9 % infection rate and whereas those that did not use were affected at a rate of 79.7%. The prevalence of cows that were managed in poor hygienic condition was 82.6%, while those managed under poor hygienic condition showed an infection rate of 59.6%, these prevalence were significantly different (P<0.05). Bacteriological examination of milk sample revealed the highest isolation rate of Staphylococcus aureusat a rate of 28.8% and Micrococcus shows the least percent 5%.

The present study concluded that mastitis was a major health problem of dairy cows in the area which undoubtedly affect productivity of dairy industry and hence warrants serious attention. The researchers established the level of mastitis (both clinical and subclinical) and also identified the common pathogens and the associated risk factors in central Ethiopia. Mastitis being a common nuisance for milk producers, the paper identified those intrinsic and extrinsic (management) factors which contribute to the udder health problem that might ultimately reduce


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productivity. Therefore, any effort to strengthen dairy value chain should not be negligence about such risks as to causing more than 50% prevalence of mastitis. Further, milk from cows with mastitis may have a health hazard as well.

Tesfaye Lemma, Puskur R., Hoekstra, D. & Azage Tegegn (2008). Exploring Innovation Capacity in Ethiopian Dairy Systems. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers, ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. www.ipms-ethiopia.org/

This paper presents the interim results of diagnostic assessment of innovation capacity in the Ethiopian dairy systems. Organizational survey, to be followed by community level study and stakeholders workshop, was carried out to assess factors influencing capacity of organizations to effectively perform their role and to contribute to collective learning and innovation. The primary method employed for collecting data was a series of semi-structured interviews with key actors/organizations in the dairy and forage innovation system using pre-tested checklists. The paper is a result of a research dictated by the innovation systems perspective, expecting a holistic framework for understanding the system functioning, going beyond technologies and acknowledging the importance of institutions; habits, practices and incentives and; policy and enabling environment.

The study looked into actors and their roles, pattern of interaction, habits, practices and incentives conditioning interactive relationships, and the policy environment. Finally, conclusion and practical and policy recommendations are provided. The paper, even though looked more in to policy gaps and innovative systems especially the small holder dairy value chain, gives a unique analysis in to the Ethiopian dairy sector with pragmatic recommendations. The study finds out that There are many and diverse actors in the dairy systems; with the public actors playing the dominant role and autonomous private services’ scope and role being constrained by lack of knowledge, resources, and adequate public support. Public actors have weak knowledge linkages with NGOs and policymakers; and their response capacity is limited by role ambiguity, rigid mandate, and ineffective incentives and accountability systems.

Available evidence indicates that habits, practices and competencies of the public actors are not sufficiently reconfigured in response to changing context. Further, although increasing efforts geared toward innovation are visible, no functional mechanisms are in place for facilitating collective learning and for scaling out and up successful experiences to achieve wider impact. These factors and the lack of actionable strategy (roadmap) to translate policy intentions into actions have contributed to limited impacts of policy and development interventions. The innovative capacity of the Ethiopian dairy sector and its major challenges described in this paper can indicate the corrective measures needed in dairy value chain to improve productivity and marketing in line with PRIME’s objective.

IV. ANIMAL FEED



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Alemeayehu Mengistu (2008). Policy Considerations on Feed Supplementation in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. In: Commercialization of Livestock Agriculture in Ethiopia, Tamrat Degefa & Fekede Feyissa (Eds.), Proceedings of the 16th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, October 8 to 10, 2008, Part II Technical Session, ESAP, Addis Ababa, pp: 3-8.

Feed supplementation during emergencies in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia aims to protect the assets of the affected households until the natural resource base can recover and normal management practices can be resuming. During emergency phase of drought survival feeding is the approach most commonly used. Strategic feed supplementation has not been widely used during emergencies due largely to a lack of knowledge regarding the implementation of this intervention. In common with other complementary livestock services (such as- provision of animal health services, provision of water, destocking and marketing of livestock and livestock products) future strategies for supplementary feeding need to take account of long term development polices consideration in improving animal nutrition in normal periods and increasing the supply of feed during drought. The result of this study can used by PRIME for creating awareness of pastoral community on the negative effect of using soil licks and other licks on the productivity of cattle.

Amha Kassahun (2006). Characterization of Rangeland Resources and Dynamics of the Pastoral Production Systems in the Somali Region of Eastern Ethiopia, PhD thesis, University of the Free State, BLOEMFONTEIN. www.suanet.ac.tz/ccaa/downloads/crEthiopia.doc

The dissertation by Amha documented a study conducted in the Somali region of eastern Ethiopia, with an arid to semi-arid climate. The study aimed at the characterization of the rangeland resources, assessing the conditions of the rangeland, understanding pastoral perceptions on rangeland degradation and developing drought feeding strategies for livestock. The study employed a participatory approach (survey) and experimental investigation. The results of the study confirmed the existence of severe rangeland degradation that occurred since 1944 and which was aggravated after the 1974 drought. This contributed to an increase in the number of poor households. The average livestock holding per household declined from 809 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) before 1974 to 483 TLU after 1974. Livestock holding shifted from a predominance of cattle to small ruminants, which are able to utilize the degraded rangeland more effectively. Camels are now the most important livestock species in terms of milk and meat production, mainly due to their ability to tolerate drought. Rangeland condition was observed to significantly influence the grazing behaviour of livestock in terms of plant species selection, grazing intensity and intake per animal. When forage sources were adequately available, animals selected fever plant species. As forage resources declined the animals spend more time grazing and more species selected, including less palatable species. Acacia nubica and

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A. mellifera were identified as aggressive encroaching species in the area. The study on the soil seed bank of soil collected along the various degradation gradients showed a high abundance of plant seed present in the soil, confirming the potential of the area for rangeland restoration.

However, the authors argued that drought must be accepted as part of the pastoral life and there should be an adequate early warning system regarding livestock feed availability and strategies of appropriate mitigation strategies. More realistic stocking rates is the obvious solution to the avoidance of stock losses during droughts, but in view of the well-established culture of the pastoralists it is highly doubtful if they will be willing to reduce their animal numbers The Author concluded that the experimental results indicated the existence of genetic variability among the various Somali livestock breeds regarding the tolerance to feed shortages and in rates of compensatory growth. This demonstrates the opportunity for improving the genetic composition of the Somali herds through selection. In general, the study described in this paper was done in pastoral part of Ethiopia hence basic information on the rangeland available and their conditions as well as their use as a potential livestock feed resource can be drawn from this paper to understand and utilize the rangeland resource information for future research, development activities, policy makings and for the purpose of academia.

Anderson, F.M. (undated). Farmer Circumstances in Ethiopia and the Improvement of Animal Feed Resources, FAO, Italy, ROME, http://www.fao.orgwairdocsilrix5548ex5548e0k.htm#TopOfPage.pdf

This paper highlights issues concerned with research on the improvement of animal feed resources for Ethiopia’s livestock smallholders. Farmers' circumstances directly influence the acceptance and adoption of new technologies and are stressed here as necessary and desirable influences on forage-related research if the research is to produce relevant results. The paper gives an overview of important smallholder feeding systems in Ethiopia with special reference to the farmers' objectives in managing these systems. The problems confronting farmers in achieving these objectives are emphasized. The penultimate section relates research needs to farmers' forage production problems and opportunities. Finally, this is followed by a summary and conclusions including research on ways and means of profitably integrating fodder legumes into Ethiopian farming systems is a high priority; most importantly, effective research on the crop-legume complex will require multidisciplinary research. Future studies can challenge its research priorities in light of this paper although the paper is more relevant to the highlanders. The adoption of technologies with regard to improvement of animal feed resource can be contextualized and cascaded to agro-pastoral part of Ethiopia.

Azage Tegegn, Zewdu Ayele & Hoekstra, D. (2011).Farmer Innovations in Livestock Feeding and Management in Semi-arid Areas of Ethiopia, Tropentag, October 5-7, 2011, Bonn, “Development on the margin”.

This paper documents innovation practices in a semi-arid agro-ecology of Mieso Woreda (district) as part and parcel of the rural community’s agile endeavors and presents the lessons to

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producers in other similar ecologies. In this study, representative households and communities from the pastoral, agro-pastoral and crop-livestock production systems were selected and their innovations in livestock feeding and management practices documented through structured questionnaire, observations and group discussions with key informants.

The authors found out that key factors that stimulate local innovative practices include economic incentives, recurrent drought and cyclical household food insecurity, availability of local genetic materials, strong social bond and agile community asset. Shortage of water, lack of appropriate credit, sporadic conflict over water and feed resources among pastoralists and agro-pastoralists are some of the problem in livestock production in the area. Poor reproductive performance and high pre weaning mortality due to various environmental factors are critical problems in improving productivity. The authors concluded that, to enhance sustainability of local fodder innovations, rangeland rehabilitation, control of noxious invasive weeds like Prosopis juliflora, responsive extension system, partnerships with research and institutionalized monitoring and learning mechanisms are essential and critical. They also recommend that determination of the community to learn to innovate and internalize innovativeness is superb quality and these innovative behaviors serve as a spring board in adapting, sustaining and transforming the livelihoods of the rural community. Those factors identified key stimulators of local innovations that can be used by pastoral related activities to make interventions more sustainable, hence the paper is highly invaluable.

Berhanu Gebremedhin, Adane Hirpa & Kahsay Berhe (2009). Feed Marketing in Ethiopia: Results of Rapid Market Appraisal. Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers Project, Working Paper 15, ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya.www.ipms-ethiopia.org

This study is aimed at assessing the feed marketing system in Ethiopia to generate a general understanding of the feed supply and demand characteristics, feed marketing, feed prices, market places, market actors, and market institutions. In this study, representative households and communities from the pastoral, agro-pastoral and crop-livestock production systems were selected and their innovations in livestock feeding and management practices documented through structured questionnaire, observations and group discussions with key informants. The types of fodder supplied in the country differ from place to place depending on the type of crops grown as conditioned by the agro-climatic conditions. Buyers and sellers have various perceptions about the quality of the fodder supplied to the market. There are competing uses of crop residues and hay in Ethiopia. Crop residues and hay is transported in a variety of ways. Most of the crop residues are retailed in the open market. Hay is mostly sold in situ. Agro-industrial by-products from flour and edible oil mills, grind mills and local brewery are sold in all of the study areas.

There are about15 feed mixers and millers in the country as observed during the study period. However, only five of them are manufacturing purely for sale; others produce for own consumption and to sell surpluses. Feed prices are rising sharply. Available price data indicated



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that there are significant price differences between farm gate and wholesale prices of crop residues and hay. Among the crop residues teff straw is most expensive. Among agro-industrial by-products, linseed cake is most expensive, followed by cotton seed cake. Most of the feed trading is informal. Implications to improve the feed marketing system are drawn. The stronger side of this research is that it has unveiled the basic fodder demand and supply chain and the marketing aspect which can be used by development workers and researchers in the sector to strengthen fodder assessment findings through literatures. The weak side of this manuscript is that it focuses on the demand supply chain of fodder in the most highland and central part of Ethiopia and doesn’t include the pastoral areas. But from the marketing perspective, the value chain approach followed in the study is quite helpful.

Desalew Tesfaye, Azage Tegegn, Lisanework Nigatu & Worku Teka (2010). Rangeland Condition and Feed Resources in Metema District, North Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Working Paper 59. www.eap.gov.et.

This working paper presents the results of the study conducted in 2006/07 in Metema district, North Gondar Zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia, with the objectives to characterize the existing rangeland and to determine the feed resources utilization practices, to assess the natural grazing land condition based on herbaceous, woody and soil condition and to evaluate the chemical composition of major livestock feed resources of the area. A single-visit formal survey, group discussions and visual observations are used to collect the primary information and secondary sources are also used in livestock feed resources assessment of the district. A total of 140 respondents from 7 kebeles were selected for interviewing by stratified random sampling techniques. To assess the range conditions, the samples were collected by classifying the district into cotton–livestock and sesame–livestock farming systems.

The authors concluded, in general, that there is low feed resources conservation and utilization and very poor traditional grazing land management system in Metema. The abundant feed resources in the wet season are wasted. In the dry season, grasses are turned to ash by wild and man-made fire in the process of forest honey harvesting and crop land cleaning. As a result, the livestock populations seriously suffer from the critical feed shortage during the long dry season. The rangeland, species composition and biomass production are also affected by human, livestock and natural factors (biotic and abiotic factors). The human population of the district has increased due to settlement programs; investments induced settlers, expanding crop cultivation and have increased the pressure on the rangelands and natural grazing areas. Bush encroachment and overgrazing are also serious problems. Shifting cultivation practice is also contributing to the increased bush encroachment. The seasonal movement and transhumant livestock production by highlanders in adjacent districts also increases the grazing intensity. Absence of adequate baseline information about the rangeland resources, unsynchronized seasonal availability of feed resources and cropland encroachment to the rangeland are some of the main constraints of the district, and studies on rangeland management systems and improved livestock production should be initiated. The paper is typically a field and laboratory experiments done in the northern

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highland part of Ethiopia. Although the paper can contribute insignificant data to the pastoral context, the methodologies and approaches used are quite universal to any file analysis of rangeland management.

Kabaija, E. (1989). Non-conventional Indigenous Mineral Supplements Used for Cattle Feeding in the Pastoral Rangelands of Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 21(4):256-62.

This is a research article which reports the composition and quality analysis results of salt licks, soil licks and well waters from various parts of Ethiopia used by pastoral nomads for cattle feeding. Most of the licks were alkaline and had low solubility both in water and acid. The authors found out that all the salt licks and some of the soil licks contained a considerable amount of sodium and these could constitute a reasonable and cheap source of the element. Except for iron which had a concentration in most of the supplements much in excess of requirements the rest of the essential elements assayed occurred in the licks in quantities too small to satisfy estimated requirements of cattle. This particularly applied to phosphorus and copper which are below critical ranges in the pastures of the region. The excessive amount of Iron (Fe) could have an antagonistic effect on P and Cu. The well waters contained elements in safe limits but water from Medecho contained total soluble salts exceeding safe limits. Except as sources of sodium (Na,) the licks especially soil licks can be considered unsatisfactory sources of other essential minerals. The widespread use of soil licks in the region should be discouraged until thorough assessment has been done since these licks may have deleterious direct and indirect effects on performance of cattle. The result of this study can be argued and further researched for creating awareness of pastoral community on the negative effect of using soil licks and other licks on the productivity of cattle and other species of animal.

Malede Birhan (2013). Livestock Resource Potential and Constraints in Somali Regional State, Ethiopia, Global Veterinaria, 10(4): 432-438. www.idoi.org/

This is a very recent review paper of the potential and the constraints in Somali regional state located in the South East part of Ethiopia and it is the second largest region among the nine regions that are found in the country. The paper takes into consideration of physical features of Somali Region, demographic characteristics and economic consideration, and social and infrastructures services. Furthermore, it included the issue of livestock mortality, apiculture resource in Somali Region and the poor Animal feed availability etc. Furthermore, the paper pointed out that numerous problems and constraints that are manifested by natural, human as well as topographic factors are the bottle neck for livestock development in the region. With regard to the animal feed situation the paper reviewed specifically the ruminant feed. The paper identified ruminant feed to be one of major factors that contribute to low productivity of local animals. Feed resources provide crucially required nutrient such as energy, protein, vitamins and minerals for all classes of animals in order to fulfill maintenance production requirements.

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No study has been conducted on the productivity of natural grazing lands in this region as well as at national level, the major focus being on high and mid altitude pasture land only. The proportion of unsuitable land for forage production in the region is 23.05% or about 7,382,000 ha. Shinile zone is the most affected area with 86.4% followed by 40.4% in Afder and 19.1% Degehabur, while Jijiga is the least affected zone by 0.5%. The reviewer highlighted that the existing amount of feed couldn’t satisfy the requirement of animals particularly during the long dry season. However, most of dry forage and roughage from rangeland is less than 62gCP/kg DM of the diet which is much less than the required amount. The paper concluded that rainfall and forage production tends to decrease to the South and Southeast part of the region; hence, the area is characterized by; erratic rainfall, over grazing, over stocking, mismanagement and all these result in reduction of desirable plant species in the region, thereby decreasing animal productivity that depend on such a seasonal growing plant species. The paper only reviewed the animal feed condition of ruminants in Eastern part of Ethiopia. Nonetheless, the paper has provided relevant information on the animal feed situation in the Somali Region. Especially, future research could consider the gap mentioned by this paper, that is, “no study has been conducted on the productivity of natural grazing lands in this region as well as at national level”.

Skinner, D. (2010). Rangeland Management for Improved Pastoralist Livelihoods: the Borana of Southern Ethiopia, MA thesis, Oxford Brookes University.

This dissertation begins by examining the factors causing vulnerability amongst the Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia with specific emphasis on factors affecting the integrity of the rangeland management system. The analysis in this paper begs the question of what can be done to revitalize the degraded rangelands of Borana. The author deeply analyses the key rangeland management techniques being employed by NGOs to rejuvenate this natural resource base and assesses their strengths and weaknesses in order to recommend a way forward. The paper suggests that indigenous knowledge and skills can serve as a useful guide for managing the rangelands while at the same time enabling the Borana pastoralist community to engage with and take ownership of this development assistance and support. The livelihoods approach used in the paper is important to assess the significance of healthy rangelands for building assets and sustainable pastoralist livelihood in pastoral setting.

Terefe Admasu, Ebro Abule & Zewdu Tessema (2010). Livestock-Rangeland Management Practices and Community Perceptions towards Rangeland Degradation in South Omo Zone of Southern Ethiopia, Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22 (1).

This paper presents the result of a survey conducted in Hamer and Benna-Tsemay districts of the South Omo zone of Ethiopia, with the objectives of assessing the range-livestock management practices and perceptions of the different pastoral groups (Hamer, Benna, and Tsemay) towards rangeland degradation. This information is considered to be vital to future pastoral development planning and interventions. The information was gathered through group discussions, personal observations, and using a structured questionnaire where each household was taken as a unit of


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analysis. The authors observed that the major livestock production constraints were drought, feed and water shortage and animal health problems.

The different pastoral groups have the opinion that the condition of the rangeland is poor, mainly due to overgrazing, drought and increase in human population. Furthermore, there was also a problem of bush encroachment which is an indicator of rangeland degradation. There are no range improvement practices undertaken to improve the condition of the rangelands. Mobility is the first measure taken to solve shortage of livestock feed and water but many of the pastoralists replied that they face many problems during migrations. Because of the unfavorable climatic condition for cultivation, most of the respondents of Hamer and Tsemay pastoralists and about 35% from Benna still prefer communal land tenure, where resources are shared. In conclusion, the indigenous knowledge of the pastoralists about range-livestock management and their environment should be incorporated while planning range-livestock development projects for the study districts. The finding of this survey has come up with very invaluable information with regard to the importance of inclusion of traditional or indigenous knowledge of pastoralists about range-livestock management while planning range-livestock development projects, which will help implementer to take this as a lesson for effective and sustainable impact in its interventions and apply the “DO NO HARM” principle.

Teshome Abate, Abule Ebro & Lissanework Nigatu (2010). Traditional Rangeland Resource Utilization Practices and Pastoralists’ Perceptions on Land Degradation in South-east Ethiopia. Tropical Grasslands, 44: 202–212.

The study was conducted to examine range land resource utilization practices of pastoralists and range land degradation in Rayitu district, south east Ethiopia. A single-visit survey method was used to gather data through a structured questionnaire (90 households), group discussion and direct observation. The researchers found out that free grazing of communal land (100%), use of enclosures (89%), and division of herds based on species and class of animal (59%), migration (79%) and seasonal assessments of the condition of rangeland were the basic traditional rangeland management practices. The assessment in this paper indicated that about 91% of pastoralists indicated that the condition of their rangelands was poor. Moreover, the most dominant use for woody plants was for construction (91%), followed by browse (68%) and medicinal purposes (25%). Additionally, more than 86% of the respondents considered that their grazing lands now carried more bushes and shrubs than they did 30 years ago. The prominent finding in the study was that feed and water shortages and drought were identified as current challenges for pastoralists, with migration the main coping strategy, in spite of the hardships it entails. The authors recommended that rejuvenating the existing rangelands requires the development of a rangeland management strategy involving pastoralists and other stakeholders, with all participants fully committed to a successful outcome. A reduction in livestock numbers must be an essential component of any future strategy. The finding of the study was deterred by the use of descriptive investigation. However, the methodologies in this study could be adopted


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and the recommendations put forward by the authors could be used for future in-depth research in the different pastoral parts of Ethiopia.

Thairu, D.M. and Tessema, S. (2013). Research on Animal Feed Resources: Medium Potential Area of Kenya. National Dry Land Farming Research Station, Katumani, Machakos, Kenya. http://www.fao.org/wair docs/ilri/

The research gives detailed information and data base about the animal-feed resources at the Katumani research station which have shown that the problem of continuity of feed supply natural pastures, the production of pasture grasses and fodder crops and the increased use of crop residues in combination with legumes fodder such as Leuceana. The research was expected to briefly describe why forage grass and fodder should be the best possibilities for improving live products per animal and per land unit. Additionally, the paper doesn’t compare the feed resource in Katumani with other area of Kenya but it is expected from the paper to discuss about the medium potential area of feed resources found in Kenya.

Since feed resources in pastoral part of Ethiopia is in close similar situation with that of Kenya pastoralists, the problem indicated, i.e. feed shortage, can be improved through designing an integrated feeding system that includes the improvement of natural pastures, the production of pasture grasses and fodder crops and the increased use of crop residues in combination with legumes fodder such as Leuceana. Researches, interventions and other studies around feed can take the pertinent recommendation of the research discussed in this paper the way forward in Ethiopia.

V. ANIMAL HEALTH, SERVICES AND PROBLEMS

Abraham G., Sintayehu A., Libeau G., Albina, E., Roger, F., Laekemariam Y. et al. (2004). Antibody Seroprevalences against Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Virus in Camels, Cattle, Goats and Sheep in Ethiopia. National Animal Health and Disease Investigation center. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

This paper summarizes the assessment result of National Animal Health Research Centre based on the occurrence of a notorious health problem namely, Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) based on questionnaire-survey and seroprevalence determination in the laboratory from blood samples taken from camels, cattle, goats and sheep in different parts of Ethiopia. The investigators found out that 26% of 276 farmers reported the presence of respiratory disease in their herds in 2001. The incidence was perceived as ‘‘high’’ in small ruminants and camels, but as ‘‘low’’ in cattle. Simultaneously, 2815 serum samples from camels (n= 628), cattle (n= 910), goats (n= 442) and sheep (n= 835) were tested. The peste des petits ruminants (PPR) antibody seroprevalence was 3% in camels, 9% in cattle, 9% in goats and 13% in sheep. The highest locality-specific seroprevalences were: camels 10%, cattle 16%, goats 22% and sheep 23%. The animals had not been vaccinated against rinderpest or PPR.

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The paper concluded that the antibody seroprevalences detected in camels, cattle, goats and sheep confirmed natural transmission of PPR virus under field conditions and it recommended further study to determine the presence of natural transmission of respiratory diseases under field conditions. Since the study was conducted in different parts of Ethiopia including Afar, Somalia and Borena, it can provide information on the distribution of one of the killer disease in the pastoral part of Ethiopia. However, the paper fails to investigate the risk factors such as age, body condition and environmental factors. Moreover, the paper didn’t try to compare the essential environmental determinants such as agroecology and climate variables.

African Union/Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (2003). Private Veterinary Practice in Pastoralist Areas of Eastern Africa: Report of a Regional Workshop Held in Nakuru, Kenya. African Union/Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources: Nairobi, Kenya.

The objective of the workshop was to provide an opportunity for the private practitioners to show AU/IBAR how it can assist them and others like them to establish and run successful animal health businesses in marginal areas of Africa. In return, AU/IBAR undertook to provide the participants with some training during the workshop and to follow up any needs identified. The workshop participants identified several areas in which private practitioners need help to establish and operate a successful practice in a pastoralist region. These fell into seven broad categories: policy, capital, financial and business management, training (both received and given), enabling environment, interest, commitment and perseverance of the practitioner and networking. This is exemplary paper that helped the participant and others to develop their practice. Additionally, it provides advocacy for an enabling environment and supportive policies and legislation that will promote privatization of veterinary services. Regarding PRIME focus area, it was conducted in the pastoralist area of East Africa, and hence suitable for reference purpose in the area of privatization of veterinary practice in pastoralist area.

Ahuja, V. & Redmond, E. (2001). Economic and Policy Issues in Livestock Service Delivery to the Poor. Background Paper for the FAO Project Memorandum “Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative: Fostering the Policy Dialogue in Support of Equitable, Safe and Clean Livestock Farming”.

This paper reviews the economic framework and the context for livestock service delivery and raises some issues for efficient delivery of these services to the poor. The paper argues that the "livestock revolution" is likely to result in a rapid increase in demand for these services and further presents that the ability of the poor to participate in this revolution is linked critically to the availability of good services both on the input and output side. So Ahuja & Redmond recommend governments, therefore, to have a commitment to supply the necessary public goods (including the institutions and legal framework) and the market infrastructure for facilitating the emergence of efficient markets for livestock services. The paper further argues that public policy dynamics in developing countries are much more complex than the simple application of economic logic. It is the larger political economy that often dictates policy choices. It is therefore


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important to integrate political economy and governance issues in the economic debate on livestock service delivery.

The paper also reviews the context in which the markets for livestock services will need to function. Different countries are facing very different sets of issues, and identification of possible interventions in livestock service markets would require careful field research and analysis. The paper identifies some broad issues in the three regions—South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, and Sub-Saharan Africa—which should be part of the research agenda for the next few years. This paper analyzes the economic aspects of animal health service delivery mechanisms and policy issues with their respective constraints and opportunities which can help to improve the animal health service delivery in line with PRIME’s Intermediate result.

Allport, R., Mosha R., Bahari, M., Swai, E. & Catley, A. (2005). The use of community-based animal health workers to strengthen disease surveillance systems in Tanzania. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 24 (3), 921-932.

This article by Allport and his associates reported about an 18 month trial that was conducted in three districts of Arusha region, northern Tanzania, to assess the use of community-based animal health workers (CAHWs) in an official disease surveillance system. Disease reports provided by CAHWs were assessed using six indicators for effective disease surveillance, i.e. sensitivity, specificity, timeliness, representativeness, simplicity and acceptability. To assess sustainability issues and determine the incentives required by CAHWs to report disease, three different incentive models were tested in the trial. None of the incentive models involved direct payments to CAHWs.

Before involving CAHWs in disease surveillance in the three trial districts, disease case reports as a proportion of cattle population were 0.13%, 0.20% and 0.12%. During the trial, disease case reports as a proportion of cattle population increased to 5.0%, 5.6% and 6.3%. The CAHWs also improved the spatial and temporal coverage of the disease surveillance system and provided timely reports. During the trial, national-level disease reporting in Tanzania increased by 17% owing to the sensitisation and support activities of the Pan African Programme for the Control of Epizootics in Tanzania. In Arusha region, disease reporting increased by 118%, and 49% of this improvement was attributable to increased reporting in the three trial districts. Reporting from these districts far exceeded that from any other district in Tanzania. Veterinarians confirmed the CAHWs’ clinical diagnosis in 88% of the 170 clinical cases examined. The increase in disease reporting resulting from CAHW activities was sufficient to enable the national epidemiology unit to achieve its target in relation to World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) guidelines.

The authors conclude that the use of CAHWs should be promoted in the national strategy for disease reporting. Additionally, CAHWs must be brought under the control of the Tanzanian veterinary authorities, a process that will include appropriate legislative reform. This article clearly bring out the role of CAHWs in effective reporting, disease surveillance that will definitely improve animal health service delivery and also enhance disease control and


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prevention endeavor of a country with poor infrastructure and less access to animal health service like the case of pastoralist part of Ethiopia.

Armbruster, W.J. (2005). Economic Impacts of Animal Disease management and Policy. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review. 8(1): 20-22. http://www.ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/8174/1/0801ar01.pdf

Ambuster reviewed several papers that deal with the effect of globalization in the agricultural sector in that it increases the potential for animal disease introductions, a form of invasive species increasingly critical for the livestock sector. Further the paper reveals that understanding how animal disease will impact the productivity of the animal product sector and the food chain is a complex, multidisciplinary problem. The author also included in the review the potential economic impacts from an animal disease outbreak go well beyond the farm gate to meat processors, wholesalers, retailers and related input and marketing industries, as well as to consumers. While the primary thrust of this set of papers is to look at public policy implications, there are many lessons for private sector management strategies. Both business and academic audiences will find these papers highly informative.

Awale, M.M., Dudhatra, G.B., Kumar, A., Chauhan, B.N., Kamani, D.R. et al. (2012), Bovine Mastitis: A Threat to Economy. doi:10.4172/scientificreports.295.

This paper described that bovine mastitis is the most complex disease condition mainly because of multiple causative agents, poor understanding of the early immune response and complexities associated with mammary epithelial cell damage by both the agents and the host factors. Decreased milk production accounts for approximately 70% of the total cost of mastitis. The authors agree that though, India is the largest milk producer but per capita production is less than half of the world average. Additionally, the poor understanding of the underlying phenomenon in subclinical state of the infection complicates the therapeutic interventions. It is one of the important production diseases of dairy animals which directly or indirectly affect the economy of the farmers and ultimately affect the economy of the country. However, mastitis is a global problem as it adversely affects animal health, quality of milk and economics of milk production and every country including developed ones suffer huge financial losses. The pattern of mastitis occurrence is also significantly increasing in both cattle and buffaloes which is a major challenge for field veterinarians and researchers. This is a recent paper which described mastitis as the global major cause of decreased milk production, even in India, the world number one producer of milk and that it is a vital subject of researchers, veterinarian and milk producers. The paper has a paramount lesson to offer for development workers and economists working in livestock productivity.

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Bedada B.A. & Hiko Adem. (2011). Mastitis and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test at Asella, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 3(9): 228-232.

This paper by Bedada and Hiko describes the findings of prevalence study, bacterial isolation and antimicrobial susceptibility test that was conducted on milk originated from Arsi cross Holstein breeds dairy cow in and around Asella town, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. The study employed methods including clinical examination, California mastitis tests (CMT), microbial isolation and in-vitro antibiotic susceptibility test using antimicrobial disc diffusion method. These authors found out that from 233 lactating cows, 154 (66.1%) were mastitis positive of which 24 (10.3%) were clinical and 130 (55.8%) were subclinical type. Microbiological examination of sample of milk from 154 positive cows showed, 144/154 (93.5%) were positive for at least one aerobic bacteria with 146 isolates. Highest prevalence were Staphylococcus aureus91/233 (39.1%) followed by Micrococcus species (5.6%) and Bacillus cereus (3.4%). Pathogenic bacteria were isolated from all (100%) of clinical and 122 (93.8%) of subclinical cases. Out of eight in-vitro antimicrobials used in the present study, chloramphenicol, gentamycin and ciprofloxacin were effective in inhibiting the growth of most bacteria isolated from present study cases but showed resistance to penicillin and tetracycline which are drugs currently in use for mastitis therapy in the study area. Prevalence of mastitis, particularly the subclinical ones, resulted in economic loss in dairy cow without notice and relation to milk production, suckling calves and dam health.

The paper gives a needed attention to increase the awareness of health management in the area with proper dosage and frequency in administration of antibiotic treatment. The lessons that can be drawn from this paper including resistance of bacterial agents against the most commonly used antibiotics in Ethiopian context namely, penicillin and tetracycline, hence the output of this paper can be used to recommend animal health input suppliers as well as CAHWs to be aware of drug resistance issues.

Bekele Megersa (2010). An Epidemiological Study of Major Camel Diseases in the Borana Lowland, Southern Ethiopia. DCG Report No. 58.

This report by Bekele describes the seasonal occurrences of major camel diseases along with participatory investigations of constraints and potentials of camel production in the Borana lowland areas. Much emphasis was given to the seasonal occurrences of major camel diseases, causes of calf morbidity and mortality. Comparative indigenous knowledge of camel pastoralism between Gabra and Borana herders is also discussed. The study was also dealt with traditional management practices (herd movement, foraging, watering, salt supplementations and breeding), health care, morbidity and mortality in camel herds. Classical disease investigation methods; herd health investigation and clinical examinations of individual animals, sample collection and laboratory examination as well as participatory epidemiological study, questionnaire survey, secondary data and literature review were carried out. In the result and discussion part, the research findings were illustrated with logical explanations and in-depth literature information.


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The findings of this research including, high prevalence of parasitic, bacterial and protozoal problems, have been presented in a national workshop arranged for awareness creation, experience sharing and drawing attention of different stakeholder participants. Since little is known about the health problem of Ethiopian camels, this research plays a magnificent role in filling the knowledge gap and drawing attention towards the improvement of health care and management practices with subsequent enhancement of production performances. This may substantially contribute to food security and human welfare particularly in vulnerable households of arid and semi-arid areas practicing camel pastoralism. The research output may avail information and optimize the knowledge on camel diseases, which contributes to the improvement of health care. This leads to boost up milk production and increase income generation of pastoral households. Since the diseases of camel are poorly researched, the paper is highly relevant to understand the epidemiology of camel disease in pastoralist production system and hence find suitable prevention and control recommendations.

Bekele Megersa, Demelash Biffa, Fufa Abunna, Alemayehu Regassa, Godfroid, J. & Skjerve, E. (2010). Tropical Animal Health and Production. DOI 10.1007/s11250-010-9748-2.

Bekele and others studied the involvement of Brucella infection in causing abortion was investigated in a breeding female subpopulation of 283 cattle, 756 camels, and 757 goats. Serum samples were serially tested using the Rose Bengal test and complement fixation test. The study showed that anti-Brucella antibodies were prevalent in 10.6% (95% confidence interval (CI), 7.4, 14.9), 2.2% (95%CI, 1.4, 3.7), and 1.9% (95%CI, 1.1, 3.2) of cattle, camel, and goats, respectively. Abortion was more commonly reported in camels (23.4%) than cattle (13.8%) and goats (12.4%). The results of this study suggested that Brucella infections contribute significantly to abortion in cattle (odds ratio (OR),=4.7; 95%CI, 2.0, 10.8) and goats (OR=6.9; 95%CI, 2.2, 21.7) but not in camels. The number of young animals produced by breeding females seems to be apparently reduced in seropositive groups.

Keeping more than two animal species at household level was found to be the risk factor for cattle (OR=3.1; 95%CI, 1.2, 7.9) and camel (OR=5.3; 95%CI, 1.2–23.5) seropositivity to Brucella infection when compared to those animals from households that keep only two animal species. This may suggest a possibility of cross species transmission of Brucella infection under such mixed herding. Wet season (OR=4.8; 95%CI, 1.3, 18.1) was found to be associated with seropositivity in goats, linked to a coincidence of increased deliveries in flocks with possible excretion of Brucella organisms. The study results suggest that Brucella infection is the likely cause of abortion in cattle and goats while other causes largely outweigh brucellosis as a cause of abortion in camels in Borana, hence, contributing to reproductive loss. Therefore, special attention has to be given to this disease in pastoral part of Ethiopia especially in illegal cross-border animal trade.


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Byarugaba, D.K, Nakavuma, J.L., Vaarst, M. & Laker, C. (2008). Mastitis Occurrence and Constraints to Mastitis Control in Smallholder Dairy Farming Systems in Uganda. Livestock Research for Rural Development 20 (1).

The paper by Byarugaba and his colleagues explored the pattern of mastitis including the occurrence of antibiotic resistant mastitis pathogens and to understand the constraints that limit effective control of mastitis in smallholder dairy farming systems in the district of Jinja in Uganda. A questionnaire was administered to 60 farmers to collect data regarding their farm circumstances and management of their farms and the risk factors to mastitis. Quarter milk samples were collected from the milking cows and screened for mastitis using the California Mastitis Test (CMT). The milk samples were cultured for isolation of pathogens and assessment of their susceptibility to commonly used antibiotics. A total of 172 milking cows were sampled corresponding to 688-quarter milk samples. The prevalence of CMT-positive cows was 61.3%, of which sub-clinical mastitis was 60.7%. The levels of hygiene in most of the farms were very low. Farmers had no knowledge on sub-clinical mastitis. Staphylococcus species were the most common isolates and more than 50% of the isolates were resistant to the commonly used antibiotics penicillin and tetracycline. Although this research was reported from Uganda, the major constraints underlined in this paper in the control of mastitis in small holder dairy farms can be used by PRIME as a means to intervene to strengthen the dairy value chain and increase the productivity thereof.

Dego, O.K. & Tareke F. (2003). Bovine mastitis in selected areas of southern Ethiopia, Tropical Animal Health Production, 35(3):197-205.

This paper by Dego and Tareke is a study on bovine mastitis, designed to determine the causal agents, prevalence of infection and impact of risk factors in three cattle breeds, was conducted in selected areas of southern Ethiopia. A total of 307 lactating and non-lactating cows, of which 162 were indigenous Zebu, 85 Jersey and 60 Holstein-Friesian were examined by clinical examination and the California mastitis test (CMT). Of these, 40.4% were positive by CMT and bacteriology for clinical or subclinical mastitis, with prevalence rates of 37.1% and 62.9%, respectively. Out of 1133 quarters examined, 212 (18.7%) were found to be infected, 83 (39.21%) clinically and 129 (60.8%) sub-clinically. The prevalence of mastitis was significantly higher in Holstein-Friesian than in indigenous Zebu, in non-lactating cows than in lactating cows, in the early lactation stage than in the mid-lactation stage, in cows with lesions and/or tick infestation on skin of udder and/or teats than in cows without this factor, and in the wet season than in the dry season. Mastitis increased with parity number (R = 0.9). Of 248 CMT and clinically positive udder quarter samples analyzed microbiologically, 212 were culturally positive for known mastitis pathogens and 36 were negative. Of the 199 positive samples, Staphylococcus accounted for 39.2%, Streptococcus for 23.6%, coliforms for 14.1%, Micrococcus and Bacillus species for 8.0% each and Actinomyces or Arcanobacterium (Corynebacterium) for 7.0%.


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It was concluded that there was a high prevalence of clinical and subclinical mastitis, mainly caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and Escherichia coli, in this study area. The manuscript gives essential information on risk analysis related to the concurrence of S. aureusas associated mastitis which can potentially reduce milk production. PRIME could use those risk factors identified in this study as a basis for the introduction of awareness against milk contaminant. Although the research was done on southern part of Ethiopia, it can be well contextualized to pastoral context.

Department of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University (2001, Septemeber). Animal Health Service Delivery in Pastoralist Areas. www.eldis.org/fulltext/cape_new/Makerere_University_Workshop.pdf

The paper compiles the discussion and recommendations resulted from workshop organized by the Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, Kampala, on 'Animal Health Service Delivery in Pastoral Areas' in Soroti, Uganda with the objectives to review animal health service delivery in pastoralist areas, to define principles of service delivery, and initiate action plans for continued improvement of animal health service delivery in pastoral areas. The results of veterinary privatization were described and some problems resulting from inadequate policy adoption and implementation in Uganda are explained by the authors. The paper emphasizes the viability of Community Based Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) in the pastoral area of Uganda. The Strength of the paper is that it has clearly indicated the role of CAHWs and policy issues related with the quality of service rendered by them. The paper, although it has given few examples on the role of CAHWs in the pastoral areas of Sudan, Kenya and Ethiopia, it only discussed the issues around CAHWs in these countries lightly.

Desalegn GebreMedhin, Merga Bekana, Azage Tegegne & Kelay Belihu (2009) Status of Artificial Insemination Service in Ethiopia. In Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) (2009). Climate change, livestock and people: Challenges, opportunities, and the way forward. Zelalem Yilma and Aynalem Haile (Eds). Proceedings of the 17th Annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, September 24 to 26, 2009. ESAP, Addis Ababa, pp. 87–104.

A study on reproductive performance of 18 artificial inseminations (AI) bulls, which were in semen production during the study period and on the efficiency of AI operations were conducted at the National Artificial Insemination Center (NAIC) and in ten purposively selected areas of five regional states. The study was further conducted to assess problems and constraints associated with the AI service in Ethiopia. Evaluations of number of services per conception and conception rates to first insemination were carried out. Pregnancy diagnosis was performed on 375 cows in the selected areas. Besides, 114 straws of semen comprising of 61 from regions and 53 from NAIC were checked for semen motility to see if there were any differences in motility due to handling between the center and the regions. Moreover, fifty two high-level professionals

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who have stakes directly or indirectly in the area of AI service have participated in the focus group discussions in the five regions.

Desalegn and his colleagues revealed the serious concern of the AI service challenges including morphological defects of semen, health problems of bulls, very low conception rate, and repeat breeding. The overall results of the assessment via questionnaire surveys and focus group discussions at large have indicated that artificial insemination is not doing well in all the regions and at national level at large. It is inferred, therefore, that artificial insemination operation in Ethiopia is not a success and hence requires urgent corrective measures. PRIME can benefit from the results from this paper to understand the major input supply for the dairy sector and hence to imply possible solutions and strategies for leverage.

Food and Agriculture Organization/FAO (2011). A Value Chain Approach to Animal Diseases Risk Management - Technical Foundations and Practical Framework for Field Application. Animal Production and Health Guidelines, No. 4, Rome, Italy.

This guide is based on earlier practical field applications of approaches contained in a FAO working paper (Taylor et al., 2010). The purpose of this guide is to show how elements of value chain analysis and risk analysis can be combined to form a practical and useful approach to planning for disease prevention and control measures. This approach should be risk-based and people-centered. Value chain mapping and analysis provides a systematic framework for determining how people manage domestic livestock populations and their products. Risk analysis provides a system for assessing disease risk within the livestock population. Together they provide a basis for studying disease risk and risk mitigation in livestock value chains. Primarily this guide sets out the technical foundations of the value chain approach to management of disease risk. More detailed material on the key methods is presented as annexes.

Part two of the guide describes a practical approach for combining risk analysis with descriptive value chain mapping. The approach could be used successfully with expert consultations and/or working group input. The importance of value chain analysis in assessment of risk factors and potential socio-economic impacts of risk mitigation measures is also discussed. Moreover it provides information on the key steps and components to be included in a complete analysis and planning process. It includes suggestions for field techniques, often based on experience of the authors and others. Further detailed field tools are presented as annexes. This outcome is an anticipated intermediate result (i.e., to increase the productivity and competitiveness of in the livestock and livestock product marketing especially by improved animal health services) of PRIME project. The value chain method in analyzing and averting animal diseases in livestock production systems which is followed in this paper is similar to the method intended to be employed in PRIME.


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Fufa Dawo (2010). Mysterious Mortality in Camels (Camelusdromedarius) in Borana, Ethiopia: Evidence of its Association with Reproductive Age Groups. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 29 (3), 621-628.

The paper is a result of epidemiological study for understanding of the sudden camel mortality observed in the southern pastoral area, Borana, Ethiopia in May and June of 2007. The survey used questionnaire to find out the pastoralist observation on the clinical picture and risk factor distribution of the camel sudden death. Fufa revealed that the sudden death affected reproductive age groups of both male and female camels, and also pregnant females more significantly than the non-pregnant females. Absence of rigor mortis and absence of blood clotting, together with the death of pregnant and lactating camels, were common findings during different outbreaks, but the author argued that no aetiological agent such as Bacillus anthracis was isolated. The estimated average value of the dead camels was 2377.6 birr (~US$264) besides the loss of milk in lactating camels and loss of the calf in pregnant individuals. A multifactorial cause of mortality is hypothesized.

The paper finally recommends intervention, with increased input of financial resources and time, is required urgently so that the cause of the problem can be discovered and the disease can be controlled. Based on the nature of the disease which also affected the camels in Afar and Somali, the paper is highly relevant to understand the disease and hence find suitable prevention and control recommendation in pastoral context particularly in PRIME intervention areas.

Holden, S., Ashley, S. & Bazeley, P. (1996). Livestock in Development: Improving the Delivery of Animal Health Services in Developing Countries: a Literature Review. A Report to the Overseas Development Administration of the United Kingdom.

The report describes alternative approaches to the delivery of veterinary services. It considers institutional reform measures to improve the performance of the public sector and reviews the potential role of the ‘third sector’, i.e. membership organizations (MOs), such as producers’ associations, and non-membership organizations (NMOs), in providing services that might otherwise be considered the preserve of the state. Institutional reform measures designed to enhance the capacity of the state are compared and contrasted with the quality of services provided by the sector. The paper reviews literature suggesting that MOs and NMOs can provide a range of ‘public good’ veterinary services, including the control of some diseases with externalities, research and extension services. They are also able to provide clinical veterinary health care, drugs, vaccines and diagnostic services to small-scale producers in rural areas where, due to economies of scale, such services are not provided by the ‘market-dependent’ private sector. The authors argued that even though a number of public-sector reform measures, including the introduction of cost-recovery measures, the subcontracting of government funded programmes to the private sector and decentralization, have been used to improve the performance, it is difficult to compare the relative effectiveness of these measures against alternative options for delivery presented by MOs and NMOs.


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The paper justifies that the state is likely to retain these important regulatory functions. The review concludes that there is no panacea for the improvement of service delivery in the livestock sector. The relative capacity of the public and third sectors to deliver varies widely according to circumstance and environment. The authors suggest that there are some areas that have received relatively little attention but that possibly represent important barriers to change. A lack of empirical evidence of the success of alternative service delivery systems, and the heavily regulated environment in which veterinary services operate, have inhibited moves towards a more liberal approach to veterinary service delivery. There is also a need to understand better the multiple priorities of the institutions and individuals that determine national veterinary policies before advocating policies for change. This paper analyzes the economic aspects of animal health service delivery mechanisms which can help to improve the animal health service delivery benefiting the poor in PRIME policy interventions.

Holden, S., Bazeley, K., Ashley, S. & Bazeley, P. (1995). An Approach to Designing and Implementing Herd Health and Production Programmes in Developing Countries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Animal Production and Health Division, Rome. www.fao.org/docrep/x0256e/x0256e04.htm/

This report provides an overview of Herd Health and Production Programmes (HHPPs) and distils key lessons that have emerged from the use of such systems. On the basis of the experience gained from others, a strategy for implementation is proposed which avoids the pitfalls associated with HHPPs and makes the best use of their strengths. Holden and the co-authors highlighted that veterinary services are undergoing many changes. Fiscal pressures are leading to programmes of privatization and greater cost-efficiency in the public sector. At the same time new technologies such as heat-stable vaccines are enabling farmers to take greater responsibility for solving their own production constraints. Farmers are now demanding a different and broader range of services from their veterinary service providers. The livestock services face a difficult challenge: not only must they improve the effectiveness of existing disease control programmes and increase the range of services they offer to farmers, but they must do so with less support from the state. New models of service delivery are needed to help meet this task.

The module is intended to introduce new model of and a framework for improving the delivery of livestock services through HHPPs. It is an approach to decentralised, participatory planning that makes minimal demands on physical and technical resources. The authors finally concluded that Herd health and production programmes fulfill many different purposes and make use of a range of methods to collect and analyse data and to respond to problems identified. Herd health and production programmes have been most effective when the objectives have been clearly defined at the onset of the programme and when they have made use of existing resources for data collection and analysis using a decision tree method to help select an appropriate HHPP. Many programmes require sophisticated technology that may not be available. The Animal Health and Production Improvement Module has therefore been developed as an approach to

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implementing herd health and production programmes in situations where financial and technical resources are limited and where participatory, decentralised planning is the objective. The document also included an annotated bibliography of over fifty HHPPs following the main text. It is useful for any production system via contextualizing the programmes.

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) (2011). Animal Health Component: Background Proposals for the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish. http://cgspace.cgiar.org

The study determined the level of adoption of animal health services among poor and women livestock keepers and the factors (economic, social, policy, institutional) driving the adoption and continued use of these services. The paper identified and develops interventions which are amenable to technology modifications or improvements in delivery systems and, with key partners, assess different delivery systems for their potential to increase access. The approach consists of two interdependent activities. First, examination of the value chain and the constraints to productivity imposed by infectious diseases were identified. This involved disease mapping to identify the prevalent infections (East Coast fever, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia, African swine fever, Porcine cysticercosis, Peste de petits ruminants and Rift Valley fever), an assessment of the magnitude of the constraint imposed by the disease and technology scanning.

The second activity was built on current research activities to deliver practical solutions in already identified disease constraints. The proposal was good at identifying the technology modification and assessment of different delivery system which is applicable for the poor and women livestock keepers, but it was unable to describe the specific practical tools should be applied. It also failed to describe (identify) the area in which the research going to be conducted. The key technological modification in animal health delivery systems described in this paper vis-à-vis the approaches used to increase access to the same can be useful for PRIME to inform its plans on Animal health Service Interventions.

Leyland, T. & Akabwai, D.M.O. (1999). Delivery of Private Veterinarian Supervised Community based Animal Health Services to Pastoralist Areas of the Greater Horn of Africa. http://www.vetwork.org.uk/tl‐horn.htm.

Within the context of restructuring of government veterinary services and the liberalization of pharmaceutical supplies, various models using participatory techniques are being developed to establish fully privatized pastoral veterinary practices. The paper describes and discusses the various approaches being used to establish such private practices. Major lessons learnt in delivering community‐based animal health services (CAHS) and key issues to address in order to make such services sustainable are highlighted. Diagrammatic models of the delivery systems used are described. The paper discusses methods in which these relatively new, privatized and CAHS might best and most rapidly be adopted, by various levels of decision‐makers.

The paper concludes that private pastoral veterinary practices could be both economically viable and provide needed services if national governments put in place specified policy and legal

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frameworks that create an enabling environment for them to operate within. The paper have favored and esteemed the privatized pastoral veterinary service and also CAHS; however, it didn’t mention the drawbacks related to the same. Nonetheless, PRIME can take up the lessons learned with regard to CAHS in the pastoral area integrate it with its animal health related interventions to make a viable and working recommendations that can potentially influence policies and regulations around the CAHS to create an enabling environment that foster sustainable Animal health delivery in the Ethiopian pastoralist areas.

Leyland, T. & Catley, A. (2002).OAU/IBAR PACE Programme.

This paper uses evidence from various authors and discusses how CAHWs can make a useful contribution to improving veterinary services. The paper states that ‘To make the best use of CAHWs they need to be brought under the control, responsibility and guidance of the veterinary authorities both at regional and national level. To achieve this, authorities need to define the roles of the various cadres of ‘Para‐veterinarian’ in revised legislation’ and concludes that ‘developing countries chances of attaining quality veterinary services as guided by the OIE are enhanced by the adoption of well-planned and regulated CAHW systems’.

The paper is an interesting one in that it highlighted the basics of attaining quality veterinary service through making appropriate control over the activities of CAHWs by putting in place proper standards and guidelines. However, the paper failed to put forward those standards and guidelines to regulate CAHWs system. PRIME can make its best contribution towards achieving the greater scale of quality veterinary service in pastoral area of Ethiopia based on demand driven new and refresher CAHWs training in collaboration with and guidance of veterinary authorities.

Leyland, T., Akabwai, D. & Mutungi, P. (1998). Delivery of Private Vererinarian Supervised Community Based Animal Health Services to Arid and Semi-arid Pastoralist Areas – Are they a Viable and Sustainable Option? Vet-aid Conference, Tanzania 1998. http://www.vetaid.org/publications/arusha98/index.htm

Within the context of restructuring of government veterinary services and the liberalisation of pharmaceutical supplies various animal health delivery systems, using participatory techniques, are being developed to establish fully privatised pastoral veterinary practices. The paper describes and discusses the various approaches being used to establish such private practices. Major lessons learnt in delivering community-based animal health services and key issues to address in order to make such services sustainable are highlighted. Diagrammatic models of the delivery systems used are described. The paper included case studies of community-based animal health services (CAHSs). Case studies are used to show the impact, viability and sustainability of these community-based animal health delivery systems. The paper concludes that private pastoral veterinary practices are economically viable if national governments put in place policy and legal frameworks that create an enabling environment.

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Marsh, T., Wahl, T. & Suyambulingam, T. (2005). Animal Disease Outbreaks and Trade Bans, World Trade Organization Impacts on U.S. Farm Policy. Southern Regional Trade Research Committee, World Trade Center New Orleans, pp. 1-33.

This paper is a collection of reviews of selected historical outbreak data for livestock across the world, an examination of rule-based trade policies, and an analysis of a simple game theory model focusing trade bans in the event of disease outbreaks with perceived risk. The data exhibit that temporal trends or skewedness are important characteristics of disease outbreaks. Moreover, disease outbreaks can be spatially concentrated and clustered regionally around the world. The authors emphasized that specific model outcome that perceived risks are critical to the likelihood of a trade ban. Marsh and his associates highlighted that effective border monitoring of adjacent countries, border buffer zones, or regionalizing the outbreak are essential for a trade ban to be successful and generic rules for trade are not optimal even when focusing on trade bans.

Furthermore, because risks are often based on public perception it is vital to have effective risk communication strategies. General recommendations forwarded by the authors greatly exclaimed on the need for public policies to be mixed with innovative market-based mechanisms and private incentives to control disease outbreaks. The study is important because it includes historical outbreaks happened through the world, trade policies and trade bans. The drawback of the paper is that it does not describe trade ban deeply rather trade bans were very briefly compared to similar papers. Since cross-border trading in pastoral part of Ethiopia, is almost the common way of livestock trading, the reviews included I this paper might help the way to approach trade ban at times of disease outbreak through strong disease monitoring through integrated approach.

Martina, M., Mathias, E. & McCorkle, C. (2001). Ethno-veterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography of Community Animal Healthcare. ITDG Publishing

This volume contains some 700 abstracts from around the world relating to peoples animal healthcare, otherwise known as ethno-veterinary medicine. Each abstract, many of them substantial, contains where possible detail of the livestock disease, the name of the treatment, its method of preparation and administration. The abstracts cover the treatment of animals in 115 countries. The bibliography is aimed at all involved or interested in ethno-veterinary medicine: botanists, animal production professionals, veterinarians, anthropologists, social scientists, rural development professionals and anyone interested in Indigenous Knowledge. This paper is quite comprehensive review of indigenous knowledge in the treatment and prevention of animal disease and PRIME can incorporate this knowledge in the Animal Health Education Material it planned to produce.


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McLeod, A. & Wilsmore, A. (2002). The delivery of animal health services to the poor: a review. In: investing in animal health research to alleviate poverty. http://ilri.org/infoserv/Webpub/fulldocs/InvestAnim/Book1/media/PDF_Appendix/Appendix11.pdf.

The McLeod and Wilsmore review the delivery of animal health services in detail with analysis of incidence, delivery costs and impact, by looking at elements that might be expected to impact on them. The framework for the discussion includes demand and supply elements. It is based closely on a framework originally proposed by Heffernan and Sidahmed (1998) and developed by Heffernan and Misturelli (2000).The paper examines criteria on the demand side such as accessibility, affordability and acceptability. Accessibility relates both to the willingness of providers to supply a service and the time taken to find a health care provider when needed; it is affected by distance, travel conditions, and the available means of communication. Affordability relates both to the actual cost of a treatment and the ability and willingness of producers to pay for it. Acceptability relates to both the form and the manner in which a treatment is presented.

To cover the supply side, a fourth criterion of sustainability, i.e. financial and institutional is added. Financial sustainability is affected by demand for the service and therefore related to the other three factors, but is also affected by the management capability of the health care provider and the willingness of producers to pay for health services. Institutional sustainability relates to the legal framework and local rules of the game under which animal health care providers work, dictating the way in which they can best deliver services. This paper analyzes the different animal health service delivery mechanisms and policy reforms with their respective constraints and opportunities which can help to improve the animal health service delivery in prime operational area context.

Otte, M.J., Nugent, R. & McLeod, A. (2004). Transboundary Animal Diseases: Assessment of socio-economic impacts and institutional responses. Food and Agricultural Organization, Livestock Information and Policy Branch. AGAL. Livestock policy discussion paper No.9.

Otte and his associates emphasize that transboundary diseases (TADs) are a permanent threat for livestock keepers. They have major economic implications – both through the private and public costs of the outbreak, and through the costs of the measures taken at individual, collective and international levels in order to prevent or control infection and disease outbreaks. The paper argues the economic rationale for public intervention, based on the public good nature of many control efforts. The need for public intervention frequently extends to the international level and calls for international and regional co-operation, without which in many cases control efforts cannot be expected to be effective. One problem is that the paucity of accurate data and information on the costs of both transboundary animal diseases and of control efforts make decisions difficult on the most cost-effective interventions. It can also be difficult to ensure the necessary collective action, particularly at the international level, as involved parties and countries may have quite different incentives to participate in control efforts.

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Closely related to this is the question of the proper sharing of costs of controlling transboundary animal diseases. The technical ability to control old problems has greatly advanced and improved information exchange has facilitated reaction to the emergence of transboundary animal diseases. At the same time, however, increased movements of people and goods have facilitated the spreading of many transboundary animal diseases, while a number of new forms of diseases have appeared – the emergence and spreading of BSE in Europe and SARS in East Asia being notable examples. These developments strengthen the case for collective action at the regional and international level.

The authors also identified and forwarded recommendations with regard to TBAD. Firstly, improve the economic evaluation of the costs of transboundary animal diseases and of various control efforts. Secondly, strengthen international and regional co-operation. Lastly the authors suggested that enhancing the capacity of developing countries both for national action and for participation in collective efforts; not all countries can by themselves face the cost of prevention and reaction to transboundary animal diseases. The paper lacks the specific control against specific TADs in specific agro-ecology and socio-cultural conditions. The study gives detailed rationale on socio-economic impacts and institutional response and it is well organized and can give basic information for similar investigations/assessments in pastoral area where there are several threats of TADs.

Paarlberg, P.L., Seitzinger, A.H, Lee, J.H. & Mathews, K.H. (2008). Economic Impacts of Foreign Animal Disease. Economic Research Report No. 57. Retrieved from: www.ers.usda.gov

The paper by Paarlberg and colleagues address economic modeling of livestock disease outbreaks from a methodological perspective. The paper addresses several different aspects of livestock disease impacts. It focuses on import barriers to prevent livestock disease risk from materializing in the form of an incident within a country. The extent of use of such barriers depends on the potential impact on the total economic welfare of a country from a disease outbreak. The authors also provide explanation on estimating economic impacts using a model of the U.S. agricultural sector to examine the importance of lost exports and consumer response.

They point out that it is necessary to look at the impact of foreign animal disease on producers whose animals cannot be marketed because of an outbreak vs. those whose animals are still saleable. In the case of consumers, it is necessary to examine where significant and ongoing, or structural, changes occur in demand following an outbreak, and those consumers whose preferences for the product are unchanged. It may appeal particularly to academic readers, but there are important lessons for industry readers, as well. Since the authors identify important topics for future research to include better incorporation of epidemiological research, improved inclusion of trade impacts, extension of impact to the non-agricultural sectors, and better knowledge of consumer response to disease outbreaks, future studies in pastoral areas could consider these points and recommendations in its implementation plan.

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Perry, B.D, Randolph, T.F., McDermott, J.J., Sones, K.R. & Thornton, P.K. (2002). Animal Diseases and Their Impact on The Poor, In: Investing in Animal Health Research to Alleviate Poverty. http://ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/InvestAnim/Book1/media/PDF_chapters/Book1_Contents.pdf

The paper describes animal diseases as continuing constraint in livestock productivity, agricultural development, human well-being and poverty alleviation in many regions of the developing world in a variety of ways. It also identifies some diseases that affect all regions of the world and all sectors of the community, and those some that are of particular importance, individually and collectively, to the very poor. These are diseases that affect the particular species of animals that have special importance to poor societies such as security, financial capital and social capital, machines for cultivation, fertilizer, and of course, nourishment as the paper depicts. They include diseases that affect the human populations of these poor societies themselves, causing death, disability and suffering, and so creating a barrier to escape from poverty.

Rather than reviewing the importance of species per farming system based on the traditional conception, the paper views animal diseases through a special poverty lens in which the wide variety of ways in which animal diseases affect the poor are reviewed. By looking at the impacts of animal disease through a poverty lens with the help of the livelihoods approach, a new way of grouping the impacts of diseases begins to emerge. Three general categories are proposed. The boundaries between the categories are certainly not distinct, and there is an inevitable degree of overlap. Nonetheless, the three categories provide a useful framework for organizing appropriate R&D efforts. These are major pathways by which animal disease can thwart efforts to alleviate poverty, thus condemning the poor to remain poor.

The first set of diseases includes those that threaten and degrade the asset base of the poor household under current conditions of use of livestock within the household. The second set of diseases refers to those that restrict the poor from exploiting market opportunities for their livestock and livestock products. The first two categories have concentrated on the current livestock production activities undertaken by the poor, regardless of their relative importance within the household economy, even if it refers to the scavenging chicken kept in the backyard. The third category of diseases and their impacts turns the focus to those livestock activities that would require a specific effort and investment to be taken on by the poor because they involve upgrading an existing activity through a more productive management technique or adopting a wholly new, more-productive livestock activity. The paper gives a comprehensive assessment of the impact of disease in order to design strategies in reducing vulnerability to animal disease especially in pastoral context

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Perry, B.D., Randolph, T.F., McDermott, J.J., Sones, K.R. & Thornton, P.K. (2003). Animal Health Research Priorities to Target Poverty Reduction in the Developing World. Paper presented at the 10th International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, Nairobi, Kenya. www.sciquest.org.nz/

This paper describes a study to determine the priority areas in animal health research that will have the objective of reducing poverty in Africa and Asia. The study used both a ranking of disease constraints to the livestock species of the poor in these regions, and an analysis of research opportunities and capacity to address them. The methodology of the study involved seven component processes which are not mutually exclusive. The first two component process were to describe and quantify the distribution and extent of poverty in South East Asia, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and determine the association of poverty with different agricultural production systems that involve livestock; thirdly, determine the priority species to the poor in each region and production system using literature review and stakeholder workshop; fourthly, to identify and quantify the disease constraints to these species, and rank them through stakeholders workshop; fifthly, to review published literature on the impact of livestock diseases and of their control in the target regions, this was achieved by commissioned review; fifth was to identify research opportunities to alleviate these constraints for this first, research needs were identified from the end users’ perspectives by participants in the regional workshops. Second, research opportunities were identified from the upstream perspective by international experts specialising in different diseases. The sixth was to synthesise the disease impacts on the poor with research needed to reduce them and identify priority research opportunities for this a conceptual frame work matrix was developed.

The study identified livestock species of importance to the poor in the pastoral systems, whereas several livestock species play an important role, but within these, sheep and goats are the most important, often playing a more important role than cattle. In the agro-pastoral (mixed) systems, cattle predominate, except in West Africa where sheep and goats are again the priority species to the poor. Moreover, the study revealed total of 76 syndromes, general diseases and specific disease entities were identified as having impact on the poor using disease ranking method. This study is seen as the start of a process to apply greater emphasis to the impacts that research in animal health has on poverty reduction, rather than simply on national agricultural development.

Rich, K.M., Baker, D. & Perry, D.B. (2010, Decmber) Value Chain Analysis and Animal Health Economics: Opportunities and Caveats, Workshop on Animal Health Economics, London. www.rvc.ac.uk/Meetings/AHE/documents/833_Baker_Rich.pdf

The paper discussed the role of motivation for animal health economics particularly in the developing countries. It also revised animal disease impacts focusing on the need for system approaches. The authors provide an overview of value chain analysis (what is it? How can it be used?, and opportunities and caveats). The paper also put forward the next steps. The paper gives a brief account of the need for integrating economics in animal health research and the strength of the paper is that it reflected in indicating the interaction between and within different systems

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actors, and different institution in the developing country settings through the value chain approach.

Sojal, L. (2010). Bovine Mastitis Caused by Escherichia coli – Clinical, Bacteriological and Therapeutic Aspects. PhD Dissertation, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki.

This is a thesis the aims of which were to investigate host response to E. coli mastitis in terms of characteristics of bacteria, effect of antimicrobial and non-antimicrobial treatment, and prophylactic effect of recombinant human lactoferrin expressed in milk. The paper described that bovine mastitis which is caused by Escherichia coli remains a problem in many countries despite improvements in managing and housing of dairy cattle. Cows with compromised immune systems, especially those in early lactation, are particularly susceptible to E. coli intramammary infection. Mastitis caused by E. coli varies from mild, with local signs only, to severe systemic. The severe form of E. coli mastitis is associated with loss of milk production and can result in death of the cow. Intramammary infection caused by E. coli is often eliminated spontaneously as the defense mechanisms of the cow are able to clear the bacteria from the udder. Although the research is of experimental nature and is done outside of Ethiopia, E.coli is an environmental pathogen and can be found anywhere in the world, hence, the thesis can be useful in terms of qualitative analysis of milk (microbiological aspect) and common antibiotic residues in milk. Therefore, the paper can be used as the basis for milk quality evaluation in the dairy value chain in the PRIME Project area.

Sumner, D.A., Bervejillo, J.E. & Jarvis, L.S. (2005). Public Policy, Invasive Species and Animal Disease Management. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 8(1): 78-97. http://www.ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/8181/1/0801su01.pdf

This paper shows that the basic criteria of public goods: non-rivalry and non-excludability, apply directly to animal disease border measures and eradication services, with some caveats. It is also argued that public policy should assess disease control and eradication on grounds of biology, national economic interests, and international cooperation. Animal disease management has played a central role in the expanding literature on the economics of exotic pests, diseases or invasive species. Government activities related to invasive species are pervasive and important. Such activities include restricting the movements of products and people across internal and external borders, destroying crops and livestock, requiring vaccination or pesticide treatments on a wide scale, regulating inputs (as in the use of mammalian nutrients for cattle) and research and development on how to control harmful species. These activities often have significant direct budget costs and even larger economic impacts in the markets affected.

Given the importance of invasive species, economic research that attempts to model and measure the benefits of exclusion or eradication is still relatively underdeveloped. Some aspects of the problem clearly demand much more investigation. Despite a rapid expansion of the literature related to invasive species, including work on risk analysis and the International Sanitary and

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Phytosanitary (SPS) agreement (WTO), much remains to be done. Other types of agricultural policies have received much more attention from economists and other analysts. This paper reviewed the public good aspects of control of animal diseases, focusing on efforts to eradicate and exclude, and discuss the general rationale for active public policy in this area. It emphasizes that specific regulations and programs must be evaluated on the basis of cost benefit principles. The paper gives current insight in that successful disease eradication campaigns for highly contagious animal diseases require a combined private and public sector effort. However, the paper didn’t detail out and recommended biological and economic grounds for disease control.

Thomson, G.R. (2009). Currently Important Animal Disease Management Issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 76:129–134

The article by Thomson deals with present international approaches to the management of trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) especially those which constrained international trade like Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) taking the case of Sub-Saharan Africa especially South Africa. The paper describes that although eradication of most TADs is impossible for the foreseeable future for a variety of technical, financial and logistical reasons compounded by the present basis for access to international markets, products derived from animals requires that the area of origin (country or zone) is free from trade-influencing TADs, however, it is argued that this problem could be overcome by a combination between (1) implementation of a commodity-based approach to trade in products derived from animals and (2) amendment of the international standards for notorious TADs such as FMD (i.e. in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)). This would overcome a presently intractable constraint to market access for southern African countries and enable conservation and livestock production to be more effectively integrated, to the benefit of both. The manuscript essentially compares the traditional and current animal disease management of economic importance in perspective; thereby international trade is not impeded. This model can inform intervention options in the management of TADs to professional and government bodies involved in the control of TADs and also trade.

Viguier, C., Arora, S., Gilmartin, N., Welbeck, K. & O’Kennedy, R. (2009). Mastitis detection: current trends and future perspectives. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2009.05.004, 486-493.

Bovine mastitis, the most significant disease of dairy herds, has huge effects on farm economics due to reduction in milk production and treatment costs. Traditionally, methods of detection have included estimation of somatic cell counts, an indication of inflammation, measurement of biomarkers associated with the onset of the disease (e.g. the enzymes N-acetyl-b-Dglucosaminidase and lactate dehydrogenase) and identification of the causative microorganisms, which often involves culturing methods. These methods have their limitations and there is a need for new rapid, sensitive and reliable assays. Recently, significant advances in the identification of nucleic acid markers and other novel biomarkers and the development of


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sensor-based platforms have taken place. These novel strategies have shown promise, and their advantages over the conventional tests are discussed.

The paper essentially deals with the different diagnostic methods of mastitis both traditional and modern. The modern tests describe in this paper is available in most advanced laboratories in cities of Ethiopia, however, no single test of modern type is available outside of the cities, hence the paper may not be relevant for pastoralist context. The strength of the paper is that the methods can be adapted to labs at regional level for improved diagnostic service especially to the most livestock wealthy pastoralist areas.

Ward, D., Otte, J. & Cheneau, Y. (2000) International Experiences with Commercialization/Privatization of Veterinary, Artificial Insemination and Other Livestock Services. www.hubrural.org/IMG/pdf/agridoc-fao_anglais.pdf,

Over the last 25 years, the animal health services in FAO and the World Bank’s technical policy groups have agitated for a more balanced delivery of veterinary services in both the private and the public sectors. This article attempts to highlight some of the lessons learned from reform processes toward commercialization or privatization of these services. The paper also concludes that private and public sectors, along with membership organizations of producers, all have a partnership role to play in the efficient, equitable and effective delivery of veterinary, artificial insemination and other livestock services. The paper tried to collate the role of government and private animal health service delivery and highlighted the policy issues around the same. The summary of lesson learned in this paper can be contextualized for Ethiopia in the road toward privatization of animal health service delivery.

Wolf, C. (2005). Producer Livestock Disease Management Incentives and Decisions, International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 8(1): 46-61. http://www.ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/8179/1/0801wo01.pdf

The paper by Wolf examines producer livestock disease management incentives and decisions. The focus of this paper was that the economics of farm decisions to prevent and control infectious livestock disease helps to understand farm decision making and its implications for livestock disease prevention and control through public policies and industry strategies. According to the author, it may be rational for individual producers to tolerate some level of disease from the economic perspective. Government or industry policies can change producer behavior by changing price incentives or the cost of treatment. The implication of this paper is that “agribusiness economists and epidemiologists need to work together to achieve more efficient/effective disease management.” It also implies that the private and public sectors must cooperate closely. The paper thus augment PRIME’s objective of privatized veterinary services.

VI. ENERGY SECTOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE PASTORALIST AREAS

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Aklilu Dalelo. (2002?) Rural electrification in Ethiopia: Opportunities and bottlenecks. Working Paper Series. Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. Available at http://www.science.gov/topicpages/e/energy-based+rural+electrification.html

In this working paper Aklilu assesses the problems and opportunities available for the country particularly for the rural Ethiopia, the place where grid electrification is considered as a luxury to expand energy access. The aim of this study is exploring the opportunities and bottlenecks to rural electrification through stand alone or self-contained system. The main approach used to collect data was investigating a wide range of secondary sources of information on natural resource base relating to energy; and government policies, which could either encourage or hinder the utilization of the natural resources for rural electrification. The study is confined to the rural population who has a very limited access to energy as compared to their urban counter part.

From the investigation, it has been concluded that rural areas in Ethiopia are characterized by either low-density settlement with relatively large distances between households, or villages with fewer inhabitants. This has hindered the use of modern sources of energy. Leaving rural inhabitants, to continue on the course of the current use pattern of traditional energy sources, is bound to have highly negative consequences for the rural economy at large, as well as the environment and the ecosystem balance. Fortunately, the natural resource base for the generation of modern sources of energy is plenty. There are also favorable economic, environmental and energy policies.

Bizuayehu Tesfaye. (2011). Improved sustainable power supply for Dagahabur and Kebridahar town of Somalia region in Ethiopia. Master thesis, Reyjavik University, Iceland.

In this thesis Bizuayehu investigate alternative power supply options to replace the existing diesel-only power system for remotely located towns, viz Dagahabur and Kebridahar which is detached from the main electricity grid in Ethiopia with a hybrid Photovoltaic (PV)–wind–battery power systems to meet energy consumption of commercial and residential building (with total annual electrical energy demand of 3,291,920kWh) consumers. The objective of the thesis was to investigate alternative power supply options for the two towns to improve the sustainable power supply by replacing existing conventional diesel powered electric supply remotely located towns detached from the main electricity grid in Ethiopia. To this end the study used wind speed, solar isolation and clearness index for a year long period was obtaining from NASA Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy (SMSE) database as well as Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) and Ethiopia Electric Power Corporation (EEPCO) data sources. For the hybrid energy systems comparison the study used HOMER software for optimization of alternative energy source mixes. The scope of this study was to assess the technical and economical feasibility to replace the existing diesel generator of detached towns from national grid in Ethiopia. The study only focuses on solar energy and wind energy resource assessment among different renewable energy resource in the towns.

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The costs of energy of hybrid system would be lower than the cost of diesel-only system. Though the optimum system configuration changes under different diesel price assumptions, the hybrid system remains most economically feasible solution than the existing arrangements (diesel-only), under all scenarios considered so the selected hybrid energy system with 100% renewable energy contribution eliminating the need for conventional diesel generator. The grid extension of energy cost for Dagahabur and Kebridahar towns are 1.172 and 0.869 $/kWh respectively. The grid connected option according to the given circumstances was found to be not economically feasible solution the power supplied for the two towns.

Breyer, C., Gerlach, A., Hlusiak, M., Peters, C., Adelmann, P., Winiecki, J. & Gashie, W. (2009). Electrifying the poor: Highly economic off-grid PV systems in Ethiopia – A basis for sustainable rural development. Paper presented at the 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference (pp.3852-3860). Hamburg, Germany.

In this article, Breyer et al. presented a detailed analysis of economics for off-grid installations of photovoltaic (PV) in Ethiopia, key factors for successful PV diffusion, a solar dissemination roadmap adapted to Ethiopian needs and the fundamental impact of rural electrification with PV on sustainable rural development. The aim of the study was to analyze the economic efficiency of small off-grid PV solar home systems with that of the conventional energy use (kerosene lamp) and diesel generator independently. For this end, the study used a simple financial tool for comparing alternative options which is the calculation of payback periods. Knowing all cash flows for investment, spare parts, service, financing cost and available budgets for energy needs, one can derive the payback period in which the investment pays off. If the lifetime of an investment is longer than the payback period, a financial benefit will be generated. All necessary data are available in local currency; therefore, the calculation is performed in Ethiopian Birr (ETB).

After the detail analysis the study come up with the conclusions that indicate Ethiopia is an example that off-grid PV is a highly attractive source of electricity for rural population in developing countries. Very short payback periods for small PV systems offer high financial savings which can be spent for other needs like education. A fast and successful dissemination strategy has to include local availability of PV systems, training of solar experts, local solar businesses, exchange of information about end users’ needs and manufacturers, which might be achieved by local solar production, adapted appliances, financing schemes and model projects. Beneficial economics of PV in Ethiopia could generate additional purchasing power and PV service jobs in rural regions.

The study confined to analyze the economic efficiency of solar home system and other alternative energy sources for the rural poor with the conventional energy use and diesel generator. Since the pastoral communities have reach potential in solar radiation, such kind of economic efficiency analysis for this energy source will contribute a lot through provision of information that can be used for economic decision making.


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Getachew Bekele. (2011). Feasibility Study of Solar-Wind Based Standalone Hybrid System for Application in Ethiopia. World Renewable Energy Congress: Energy End Use Efficiency Issue (EEE) (pp. 826-833). Stockholm, Sweden. (Unpublished)

In this study Getachew assess the feasibility of adopting Solar-Wind Based Standalone Hybrid System for Ethiopia by taking Debrezeit town as a sample site. The aim of this was to study the feasibility by taking into account the demand and supply gap which arises from the sole power producer in the country, Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCo) for a country with a population of about 80 million. This clearly shows as to what the shortage would look like. The study investigates the possibility of providing electricity from solar/wind based hybrid standalone system for remotely located people detached off the main grid line. Within the hybrid system setup photovoltaic (PV) panels, wind turbines, a bank of batteries and for a backup diesel generator is included. To this end a model community of 200 families, comprising of approximately 1000 to 1200 people in total is considered for the study. A community school together with a health post was also included. The electric load comprises of lighting, water pumps and other small appliances. For the techno-economic analysis in the feasibility study of the hybrid system, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL) HOMER software is used. The study scope was confined only to assess the applicability of solar wind hybrid system for Ethiopia context.

Given all the necessary inputs to the software, the results showed a list of feasible electric supply systems, sorted according to their total net present cost (NPC). Cost of energy (COE in $/kW), penetration level into the renewable resources (renewable fraction), the number of liters of diesel oil used by the generator and also the generator working hours was also given out in the results. The results of this study can be considered as applicable to a significant size of the regions in the country having similar climatic conditions. Regarding the solar energy it is definitively conclusive that there is abundant resource. The feasibility study, which is based on the findings of the two potential showed a list of possible feasible set-ups according to their Net Present Cost (NPC). The choice as to which feasible system to pick from the list is linked to the choice of whether to consider the renewable resource or the net present cost. This decision is left to the policy makers of the country. The limitation of the study was that it took in to account only one agro climatic zone that cannot represent the whole country’s agro climatic condition. The inductive conclusion from the study cannot be equally applicable across the board.

Köhlin, G., Sills, E. O., Pattanayak, S. K. & Wilfong, C. (2011). Energy, gender and development: What are the linkages? Where is the evidence? The World Development Report 2012 on Gender Equality and Development working paper 125/11. The World Bank, Washington D.C.

In this working paper Köhlin et al. review different academic literature to interlink gender and energy in the context of development. The objective of the report was to review the worldwide academic literature on the links between energy access, welfare, and gender in order to provide evidence on where gender considerations in the energy sector matter and how they might be


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addressed. Prepared as a background document for the 2012 World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development, as well as a part of the Social Development Department’s ongoing work on gender and infrastructure, the report describes and evaluates the evidence on the links between gender and energy focusing on the following areas: increased access to wood fuel through planting of trees and forest management; improved cooking technologies; and access to electricity and motive energy. The report is intended to complement ongoing efforts to formulate a gender business plan for the Sustainable Development Network of the World Bank. It focuses on reviewing the academic evidence and does not aim to offer specific operational recommendations which are better left for the gender business plan and other documents that follow up on the 2012 World Development Report.

The main finding of this review is that energy interventions can have significant gender benefits which can be realized via careful design and targeting of interventions based on a context-specific understanding of energy scarcity and household decision-making.

The impact of interventions designed to promote energy access depends on household decision making, and, in particular, how women’s preferences, opportunity cost of time, and welfare are reflected in those decisions. There are several reasons to expect that the determinants and rates of adoption of new cooking technology and electricity may be different for female-headed vs. male-headed households: in some places, female-headed households are more likely to be poor and thus less able to afford the up-front cost of new stoves or electricity connections. And, in many places, the legal and cultural constraints on women may also place households that they head at a disadvantage, limiting their opportunities even conditional on household income. Finally, one would expect decisions by female heads of households to more closely reflect women’s preferences, welfare, and opportunity cost of time. All of this raises the possibility that female-headed households may be more responsive to interventions to improve access to new cooking technology and electricity.

It has been also found that female access to energy can be improved through access to wood fuel through tree plantation and forest management, improve cook stoves efficiency, access to electricity and motive power. Since gender is one of the concern of PRIME the relevancy of this working paper for the intervention decision making is vital for sustaining solar energy improvement plans in pastoral areas, because the impact of interventions designed to promote energy access depends on household decision making, and, in particular, how women’s preferences, opportunity cost of time, and welfare are reflected in those decisions.

Power, M., Melessaw Shanko, Hankins, M., Saini, A., & Kirai, P. (Eds.). (2009). Target Market Analysis: Ethiopia’s Solar Energy Market. Project Development Programme East Africa. Gtz, Germany. Retrieved from www.renewables-made-in-germany.com.

In this assessment, Power et al. (2009) analyzed the solar market status quo and the available market option for this sector in Ethiopian energy market. The aim of the study was to understand the market status quo and possible market intervention area of the solar photovoltaic (PV) market

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and the solar water eating market from the perspective of Off-grid household and small-scale business electrification, off-grid community systems and Tourism. For this secondary data and descriptive analysis were used to assess the market.

At the end, the assessment came up with the conclusion that indicates the Ethiopian solar market is still at an early development stage with an estimated installed capacity of 5 MWp (Megawatt peak). Growth during the 1990s was under 5% but has reached 15-20% during the last few years, primarily driven by the telecom market that constitutes 70% of installed capacity. Five or six companies supply 90% of the market and some lack a specialist focus on solar PV. The market potential is estimated at 52 MW, the majority within the solar home systems (SHS) market and continued expansion in telecom sector. SHS has the greatest annual growth rate of 20% with few suppliers and driven by the extension of low-cost housing and real estate developments. In the longer term, the growing inverter charger backup market combined with a feed-in tariff law under revision could constitute a stepping stone to grid-connected PV. For the foreseeable future, larger and in particular grid connected PV systems will face stiff competition from smaller hydro power systems, including small and micro hydro power. Donor support, the establishment of the Renewable Energy Fund (REF) and projects such as those backed by UNEP/GEF (United Nations Environment Programme/ Global Environment Facility) have brought opportunities for solar PV and micro-hydro, and should continue to be a driving force behind commercial demand for institutional and household PV systems as well as for solar hybrid PV and village mini-grids. The political environment already turned into positive. Since 14th December 2009, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) lifted the import duty fees on PV modules and balance of system (BOS), which is one of the opportunities to lift up the capacity of the society at an individual level and at community level to consume the product of the sector. The livelihood improvement options through rural solar power supply could be realized as the Pastoralist areas of Ethiopia have huge potential in solar radiation.

UNIDO. (2010). Study on Local Manufacturing of Renewable Energy Technology Components in East Africa. Working Paper, Vienna, Australia.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) in this pre-feasibility report assessed the renewable energy technology in East Africa. This pre-feasibility study aims to assess the potential of local manufacturing of technology components of two renewable energy technology applications viz. biomass gases for heating applications and solar photovoltaic technology applications. The two East African countries that have been selected for the study were Uganda and Ethiopia. This is because Uganda is supposed to have biomass resources and Ethiopia has solar potential on the other hand. With this background, the pre-feasibility study aims to assess the potential of local manufacturing of technology components for biomass gasifies in heating and thermal applications and for solar photovoltaic technology in various sectoral applications. To this end, the data collected and presented in this pre-feasibility report are based on primary survey data which are dependent on individual stakeholder responses during the time of the interview. The study concludes that the PV market in Ethiopia is in a


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growing stage. Demand for PV systems exists for communication, lighting, entertainment, vaccine refrigeration. During 1990s, early 2000s the demand was mostly for solar home systems (SHS) by NGOs. From mid 2000s, the demand for solar home systems has grown amongst the business and household community. Currently a major part of the SHS demand has been stemming from telecom sector. Additionally, demand has originated from small scale business, household and community. Demand from the household and commercial sector has been growing rapidly with the major part of it coming for lighting; TV set powering and mobile phone charging. Demand for solar home systems has been coming from government, NGOs, church organizations. Solar is a secondary business for most of the equipment dealers.

As of now, there is a supply constraint of raw material for production of solar modules owing to hard currency problem. Seal Maintenance Free (SMF) lead acid battery production can be initiated in the medium to long term in Ethiopia which can meet the demands of these products in Ethiopia and in neighboring country markets like Sudan. Semi automated production line for solar lanterns can be more feasible option for Ethiopia and on an average a 5MW solar PV module assembly line can lead to a direct employment of 40 – 50 skilled persons. Thus in the short to medium term, solar module, lantern assembly line can be established. Additionally, in the long run, existing battery unit can be strengthened and more battery manufacturing units can be set up.

VII. FINANCIAL SERVICES FOR PASTORALIST AREAS: RURAL FINANCING AND MICRO-FINANCIAL SERVICES

Abdi Ahmed (2004). Micro-finance and Pastoralism, Paper presented at the Third National Conference on Pastoral Development in Ethiopia in Yonas Admasu (edn), Pastoral Development in Ethiopia, Pastoral Forum Ethiopia. Retrieved from: http://www.pfe-ethiopia.org/pub_files/third.pdf/

This paper is about the benefits microfinance institutes can offer to pastoralist particularly in providing them with better living conditions. It also oversees the different microfinance institutions available to pastoralist and their strength. Primarily, the paper gives a general overview of the existing conventional financial systems involvement in providing micro-finance service to the pastoralist. The study specifically stipulates the downside, prospect and constraints of the micro-finance institutions operating in pastoral regions.

As per the study, none of the banks operating in Ethiopia are involved in micro-finance operation in pastoral areas mainly because of lack of collaterals and high transaction cost. Though, not particularly operating in pastoral regions Development Bank of Ethiopia and Commercial Bank of Ethiopia are involved in the provision of agricultural credits. However, due to the strict and strong terms of lending, banking and lending policies pastoralists are hindered from benefiting from the services provided by the banks. Although there are NGOs currently engaged in micro-financing none of them operates in pastoral areas. Thus pastoralists are gaining financial support

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only from informal financial sectors. However as these sectors are outside the framework of national account little is known about them.

As per the study, strengthening the availability of micro-finance institutions and designing their framework in a way that address the constraints of the pastoralists would guarantee a better living condition to pastoralists. The study provides two micro-finance practices provided by NGOs. The first is implemented by the Pastoralist Concern Association Ethiopia (PCAE) at the Liban and Afder zones of Somali Regional State in 1999. Having 500 clients and covering 4 woredas with a loan size of 3,000 birr, the project operated on the basis of the Islamic banking system. The second one is implemented by Action for Development at Borena Zone of Yabelo starting from 1999. It serves 4,815 clients and adopted the Grameen banking system. Although there are efforts being made to provide micro-finance services to pastoralist, most of them, including the above examples, are generally fragmented and unsustainable as per the study.

Though NGOs cannot offer micro-finance services under the current legal framework, the study can provide PRIME with brief insight on existed micro-finance institution operated in pastoral areas. It also gives particulars that should be considered while designing to implement a micro-finance institution in pastoral regions.

Abdul-Rahman, Y. (2010). The Art of Islamic Banking and Finance: Tools and Techniques for Community-Based Banking. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

The book describes faith-based aspects of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic value systems that prohibits ribit/riba (interest); discusses the principle of marking to the market (the principle that dictates bankers to take into account the real market price of rent to determine viability and the monthly payment for financing deal in lieu of the straight rental of money at a cost called interest rate) which disciplines RF bankers (RF - riba-free to mean interest-free) to evaluate every financing and lending operations as investment; analyzed the difference between RF banking and conventional riba-based banking; discusses the goals defined by two groups of Islamic bankers-shari’a complaint and /shari’a based approaches; analyzes Islamic shari’a complaint techniques and methods used in Islamic financing (like the cost-plus model, the lease-to-own models and the experience of the Al Baraka Bank of London shari’a complaint Model and The South Asian Diminishing Musharaka Shari’a - Complaint Model); and describes the operation of RF bank in the United States that is consistent with the country’s banking regulations.

The documents can be used in PRIME in adding various shari’a complaint Islamic microfinance products and services during its efforts to scale-up the experience gained from the establishment of the first microfinance institution in Somali Regional State. The principles and varieties of shari’a - complaint financial products and services and the various products and services and the mechanisms by which they can be operated without violating the banking regulation are explained. These can be used in the implementation of PRIME’s plan to improve access to financial services.


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Asutay, M. (2007). Conceptualization of the Second Best Solution in Overcoming the Social Failure of Islamic Banking and Finance: Examining the Overpowering of Homoislamicus. Journal of Economics and Management 15(2), 167-195.

This paper aims to highlight the tension areas between Islamic economics and Islamic Banking & Finance (IBF), by particularly making reference to its participants, namely, homoislamicus and homoeconomicus through normative assumptions. More clearly, it focuses on each participant institution’s constructs of their respective political economies in regards to their normative principles and the outcomes of both paradigms. The paper uses discourse analysis as a methodology to highlight how each of these two paradigms is being constructed. The paper suggests that Islamic economics has a great potential to create an ethical Islamic financial system that is not only relegated to the elimination of riba or interest.

Rather than being part of the Islamic political economy, IBF has been pursuing policies away from the theoretical underpinnings and systemic understanding of Islamic economics and has located a surrogate financial framework in neo-classical economics. The paper argues that the next step in the evolution of IBF should be social banking, in order to revive its initial purpose of social justice, poverty alleviation and prevention of exploitation. The paper shows, despite the above theoretical frameworks of Islamic economics within which the IBF expected to work in, how, in reality, the contemporary IBF have developed a working framework located within the neo-classical paradigm. It argues despite the unprecedented growth of IBFs in 1970’s, a closer scrutiny of their financing show that the social dimension is limited to zaka’h and other charitable activities, which, nonetheless, ignores systematic economic development and social justice action. It provides many reasons for this deviation: a deviation away from the normative aspirations of Islamic economics to the realistic positivistic attitude of neo-classical economics.

Barr, M. S (2005). Microfinance and Financial Development. University of Michigan Law School Program in Law and Economics Working Paper Archive: 2003-2009, Paper 46.

This article is an extensive discussion on the link between microfinance and development. Based on theoretical and empirical grounds, it argues that microfinance can play an important role in financial development, and that by focusing on microfinance, development policy can strengthen the links between financial development, economic growth, and poverty alleviation.

The paper takes financial sustainability seriously and strongly argues to change the current government and/or donor driven microfinance development into private driven and integral part of the broader financial development and hence this is an important input for PRIME. It emphasizes the role of financial self-sustainability for long-term development of financial market and to contribute for poverty alleviation and development of the countries. It further suggests, in developing countries with weak governance, the emphasis on financial development may be more successful by focusing, at least initially, on a strategy of financial growth that relies on microfinance institutions. It also shows how microfinance contributes for the development of the banking and help to advance domestic reforms.


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Bienen, D., Gebrehiwot Ageba, Haftu Berihun & Million Habte (2009, October). Ethiopian Microfinance Ownership and Governance. AEMFI Occasional Paper No. 27, Ethiopia.

The research examines ownership and governance of Ethiopian MFIs and recommended solutions for effective and efficient governance of the same. It made use of review of literature and international MFI ownership and governance best practices. It incorporates original data obtained through stakeholders’ interviews (such as MFI management, board members and shareholders) as well. It analyses the Ethiopian legal and regulatory framework for ownership and governance of MFIs. The research employed the identification of the key stakeholders for ownership and governance, their functioning and their relations with each other as a basis for analysis. It stated that even though it is impossible for foreign nationals and organizations to own MFI in Ethiopia, they can assist the latter with prior approval of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) through providing/granting funds for the purpose of on-lending and capitalization. It also identifies that nominal share ownership in MFIs violates transparency, one of the most basic principles of MFI governance since the shareholders do not have a real stake in the MFIs.

It calls for the identification of alternatives for MFIs to raise additional funds, introduction of deposit insurance that covers all deposit taking MFIs to attract depositors, creation of strong Government-NGO partnership in the establishment and expansion of MFIs, permission for participation of foreign social investors, the increase in the size of board members so that the creation of board committees for effective monitoring and governance of MFIs will be facilitated, the inclusion of independent board members in MFI boards to improve their performance with respect to both social and financial objectives, delivery of compulsory training in financial analysis and microfinance for board members without a related degree, and limitation on the term of office of board members.

It is very important for PRIME since it identifies the possible areas of intervention in its efforts to strengthen MFIs in Afar, Somali and Borana. It also identifies areas where NGOs could work with existing MFIs and governments to support its services.

Ebisa Deribie, Getachew Nigussie & Fikadu Mitiku (2013). Filling the breach: Microfinance. Journal of Business and Economic Management 1(1): 10-17.

The objective of this paper was to assess the financial sustainability, performance and trend of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) of Ethiopia. It used secondary record data, descriptive statistics and linear regression methods to analyze the data. It reviews the historical origin and development of MFIs in Ethiopia and describes the legal frameworks within which the MFIs are working in. Based on preliminary assessments, it describes the rapid growth of MFIs in Ethiopia in terms of number of MFIs and their outreach. It also notes that three largest institutions (Amhara (ACSI), Dedebit (DECSI) and Oromia (OCSSCO) Credit and Savings Institutions) account for 65% of the market share in terms of borrowing clients, and 74% by loan provision.


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The paper finds that the Ethiopian microfinance sector is characterized by its rapid growth, an aggressive drive to achieve scale, a broad geographic coverage, a dominance of government backed Microfinance Institutions (MFIs), an emphasis on rural households, the promotion of both credit and savings products, a strong focus on sustainability and by the fact that the sector is Ethiopian owned and driven. The paper also identify key problems that are negatively affecting self-financial sustainability and limiting outreach of MFIs as: inaccessibility for foreign capitals which may foster their loan portfolio; lack of clarity in ownership structures and the resulting inefficiencies in the management; lack of skilled personnel exacerbated by high turnover; traditional and manual accounting system; illegal way of doing the micro financing business from the side of the government, NGOs and other agencies; macroeconomic instability like rapid inflation; and weak governance and management capacities. The paper could be a useful input for PRIME to direct where intervention is needed to accelerate micro financial services of the existing actors in such market.

El-Gamal, M. A. (2008). Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

The book provides extensive discussions of the various aspects surrounding Islamic economics in general and Islamic finance more specifically. It provides qualitative overview of the practices of Islamic finance and the historical roots that define its modern operations. It primarily aims to analyze the religious aspirations that provided Islamic finance the legal grounds and discuss the implications on the realities of economic life of the Muslim society on the ground.

The book contains the argument that the classical jurisprudence in that survey aimed mainly to enhance fairness and economic efficiency, subject to the legal and regulatory constraints of pre-modern societies. As a result, the book argues that Islamic finance depart from serving two legal objectives that defined the classical Islamic jurisprudence: by attempting to replicate the substance of contemporary financial practice using pre-modern contract forms, Islamic finance has arguably failed to serve the objectives of Islamic Law (maqasid al-Shari’a) - leading to avoidable efficiency losses, thus violating one of the main legal objectives that defined classical Islamic jurisprudence; and conversely, by focusing on Islam city of contract forms rather than substance (in part to justify efficiency losses), Islamic finance has often failed to serve the economic purpose for which certain pre-modern contract structures were codified in classical jurisprudence.

The author proposes refocusing Islamic finance on substance rather than form that would entail abandoning the paradigm of “Islamization” of every financial practice and reorienting the brand name of Islamic finance to emphasize issues of community banking, microfinance, socially responsible investment, and the like. The books also provide a good list of glossary of Arabic technical terms commonly used in financial transactions and contracts. It compares the various aspects of different financial services and institutions in the sphere of Islamic finance with their counterpart conventional finance. It also provide a good picture of the divergence in organizational, operational and legal structure of Islamic finance in different countries of the


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‘Islamic economies’ and other countries. The book finally identifies the challenges surrounding Islamic finance and suggests important recommendations. The book gives a balanced insight of pros and cons of Islamic financial products and recommended for reference before designing financial credit and loan systems for Muslim communities.

El-Zoghbi, M. & Tarazi, M. (2013, March). Trends in Sharia-Complaint Financial Inclusion, CGPA Focus Note, No. 84, Washington, D.C.: CGAP.

The research analyses the trends in the inclusion of Sharia-complaint financial products and services in microfinance institutions and Islamic finance. It describes the characteristics of Sharia-complaint financial services (the fact that it prohibits interest and encourages wealth creation through equity participation in business activities, which requires risk-sharing risk sharing by financial service providers that does not guarantee returns) and the Islamic rationale behind this. It examines the number and kind of the Islamic microfinance service providers and the types of products they provide and the number of clients and the extent of the demand for Sharia-complaint financial services and finally concludes its findings with recommendations.

The research identifies two dominant products- murabaha and Qard-Hassan loans. The former is a kind of loan arrangement by which the client demands a purchase of particular commodity (usually a certain good which is needed as a working capital), which the financier procures directly from the market and subsequently resells to the client after adding a fixed “mark-up” for the service provided. The latter is used usually for consumption smoothing, not to enterprise financing or asset building (it is more of charity that loan). There are also Islamic microfinance products called salam (an advance payment against future delivery- often used in agricultural context whereby farmers undertake to affect future delivery of crop against current financing of production), musharaka (which is equity participation in a business venture, in which the parties share the profits or losses according to a predetermined ration), and mudaraba, a kind of trustee financing in which one party acts as a financier by providing the funds, while the other party provides the managerial expertise in executing the project. In the latter case, profits are shared according to predetermined ratio but any financial losses are borne exclusively by the financier. The research indicates that the latter three varieties of Islamic products are the most encouraged among the sharia scholars and PRIME can make use of them in new enterprise development by looking deep into their advantages and disadvantages. The research is important for PRIME since it provides the varieties of Islamic microfinance products that are consistent with the principles of Sharia.

Gebrehiwot Ageba, Assefa Admassie & Habteselassie Hagos (2011, March). Assessment of the Financial Products of Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) & Multipurpose Cooperatives in Ethiopia. AEMFI, Occasional Paper No.29, Ethiopia.

The research investigates the legal and regulatory framework within which Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) and Multi-purpose Cooperatives operate and its shortcomings & appraise the existing financial products and services of financial cooperatives and the major challenges and constraints they face. In doing so the research discusses the types of SACCOs


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financial products & their attributes, the extent of their use by members, the level of customer satisfaction, alternative sources of financial services and their strengths and limitations, measures to be taken to alleviate the limitation and product development and revision process. Literatures and experiences of various countries (Brazil, Sirilanka, Kenya, Burkinafaso & Honduras) are reviewed. Data is also collected from six regions of Ethiopia (Oromia, Amhara, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples, Tigrai, Benishangul Gumuz & Addis Ababa) to evaluate the current state of SACCOs’ financial products. The research identifies four basic challenges facing SACCOs: low membership base, poor savings culture, lack of separate regulation based on the understanding that they are financial institutions, and lack of demand driven and diversified financial services.

It recommends the relaxation of the legal limit on membership base that confine the same only to persons living in the same area; amending the one member one vote rule or creating a mechanism by which SACCOs may be permitted to issue additional shares with special set of rights so that the interest of members contributing more than others will be protected; developing enabling legislation and regulation; and recognition of SACCOs as financial institutions and formulating a special legislation that addresses the financial nature thereof. After thorough review of best practices, it advises for expansion of membership to include diverse groups instead of concentrating on specific income groups such as poor; attraction and retention of financial cooperative experts and staff through, among others, training and attractive remuneration, development of the quality and competitiveness of the product or service provision of SACCOs so that demand driven products will be available and viable financial institutions will be built.

Under PRIME, SACCOs (specific attention being given to Rural Savings & Credit Cooperatives) & VSLA are identified as a safe place to save, small manageable loans and as an entry point for skills development. This research will provide valuable inputs for PRIME’s effort in strengthening specifically Rural Saving and Credit Cooperatives.

Hoff, K. & Joseph E. Stieglitz (1990). Introduction: Imperfect Information and Rural Credit Markets-Puzzles and Policy Perspectives. The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 4(3), 235-250.

The paper is written by Karla Hoff and Nobel Prize winner Joseph E. Stiglitz and introduces one of the critical aspects of financial markets – imperfect information. The study was made based on careful understanding of working of informal credit markets and on the lessons drawn from past attempts (since 1950s) of governments of developing countries to supply cheap credits to rural farmers. It explains how information asymmetry in the credit markets determines the development of the financial market. It explains how past attempts of governments of developing countries to supply cheap credits to farmers failed to improve rural credit markets. It shows how the governments’ interventions by providing cheap credits failed to drive traditional money lenders, which charge very high interest rate (which can exceed 75% per year) from markets. It


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attributes the high default rates, the burden it creates on government budget and the attempt to resolve this through credit-rationing to the failure of the interventions.

It also explain how the artificially-set low interest rate fail short of covering the various lending costs: the cost of delaying consumption (costs of loan fund), costs to insure default risk, the transaction costs of acquiring information regarding the characteristics of loan applicants and the actions of borrowers, and enforcing agreements. It discusses the possible mechanisms that can be used to reduce the three basic costs: screening, incentives, and enforcement. They suggest institutional innovation to reduce the transaction costs, which are endemic to developing countries. The study was found to be pertinent for PRIME hence it informs the role of providing market information to beneficiaries in the credit markets so as to effectively benefit from rural financial market.

Kejela Gemtessa, Mengistu Nigussie, Melaku Jirata & Fekadu Gudeta (2008, January). Financial Services Delivery and Demand for Microfinance Services in Pastoral communities in Afar and Somalia Regions of Ethiopia. AEMFI, Occasional Paper No.22, Ethiopia.

The research examines the nature, magnitude and demand for microfinance in Afar and Somali regions and recommends appropriate financial services compatible to the pastoral communities. It made use of purposive and random sampling and interviews a total of 503 households while investigating the issues. It was conducted in 24 Pastoralist Associations selected from four Woredas of each Region. These are the major findings: supply of financial services falls short of demand in the approximate amount of 31 million birr and 40 million birr in Afar and Somali Regions respectively; the supply of loans couldn’t match the high demand in both regions; around 57% of households in Afar and 78% in Somali regions need loan for agricultural production including livestock rearing; production of maize, sesame, vegetables, sheep and goat, livestock and petty trading are the major economic activities in the regions; there is no licensed MFI that provides financial services in both regions. It calls for the use of existing community social structure, clan leaders and community elders for effective financial service delivery, identification of beneficiaries, formation of groups and enforcement of repayment and scheduling. By examining the existing social reality of the community, the research identifies the best lending methods - the group model/Grameen for Afar and individual model for Somali. Since the populations of both regions are predominantly Muslims, the research recommends the use of the term ‘service charge’ in place of ‘interest’.

Even though the solution for the non-existence of shari’a complaint financial services in both areas (i.e., the use of the term “service charge” instead of “interest”) is supported by practice, recommending it as a single and sustainable solution is the shortcoming of the research. It seems unreasonable to believe that religious observant community members will be satisfied only by a change in term unless the very nature of the service is in line with their religious principles. However, the research is very important for PRIME because, among others, it provides the varieties of lending methods which are friendly and acceptable to the social and psychological makeup of the Somali and Afar people.


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Khawari, A. (2004). Microfinance: Does it hold its promises? A survey of recent literature. Hamburg Institute of International Economics, Discussion Paper 276.

This discussion paper begins by providing overview of the meaning, key objectives of microfinance and briefly discusses the triangle of microfinance, i.e. financial sustainability, outreach and impact. It also makes review of the pioneer microfinance institutions: the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh, the BancoSol of Bolivia, the Bank Rakyat of Indonesia, the Bank KreditDesa of Indonesia and the Village Banks (FINCA). These reviews show the contributions of these pioneer microfinance institutions for the rapid growth of microfinance in the past few decades in most developing countries. Most importantly, based on the reviews of these pioneer microfinance institutions, the paper draws two important debates that surround microfinance: explaining joint liability group lending and its implications for reducing information asymmetries, and the trade-off between the financial sustainability and outreach of microfinance programs.

The paper also discuss the key elements characterizing the success of microfinance institutions: peer selection, peer monitoring, dynamic incentive, regular repayment schedule and other collateral substitute. The paper shows that most of the five pioneer institutions, in one or another way and at different degree and approach, use these five mechanisms to expand their outreach (especially to the poor), to minimize risks of default and to reduce transactions costs. The study then raises the two most pressing questions: the effectiveness of group lending in reducing information asymmetry and the other trade-off between the goal of achieving sustainability and outreach. It finds certain trade-off between the two goals (sustainability and outreach) but also draws the innovative approaches used by some financial institutions to increase outreach to the poor without seriously damaging their future financial sustainability. The study is an important input for a comprehensive understanding of the role micro financial institutions in poverty alleviations in developing countries.

Khandker, S. R. (1996). Grameen Bank: Impact, Costs, and Program Sustainability. Asian Development Review, 14 (1), 65-85.

The objective of the paper was to assess program effects on household outcomes (such as consumption, asset accumulation, and poverty reduction) and individual outcomes (such as employment and education); to identify whether a credit program designed for women raises the welfare of a woman and her family and, if so, how?; and the third objective is to examine whether it is self-sustainable by assessing the cost structures of the Bank. The study used large data sets combining time series and cross-sectional and primary and secondary data as well. The secondary data was collected from the aggregate-level records of the Grameen Bank that span from 1985 to 1994 and disaggregated branch-level records that span from 1985 to 1991 was collected from 118 randomly drawn branches. In addition to the above record-based (secondary) data, the study also used primary data collected from 1,798 households that were randomly drawn from 87 villages of Bangladesh.


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The paper provides the innovative approaches the bank introduced to reach the poor by addressing the two critical problems in credit markets, which arise from information asymmetry: adverse selection and moral hazard problems. It contends that the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh is known worldwide for its innovative credit delivery to the rural poor. It suggests that the introduction of group-based lending, mandatory savings and insurance, repayment, rescheduling in case of disasters and similar other schemes, it has been able to minimize both behavioral and material risks of lending. It also witnesses the noticeable economic and social impacts on beneficiaries (94% of whom are women) and its economic and poverty effects on the wider local community.

The study also shows the higher costs of operations that could constrain the sustainable growth of the Bank and recommend diversifying its loan portfolio with more growth-oriented activities. It also underscores the importance of sound macroeconomic policies from the government. It finally suggest that replication of Grameen’s financial model is possible with necessary modifications as long as it is social-conscience-driven and its operations are transparent. The paper could be significant to PRIME as it shares experiences of how innovatively to introduce microfinance to rural community development.

Kloeppinger, R. T. & Sharma, M. (2010). Innovations in Rural and Agriculture Finance: Overview. 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment, Focus 18 Brief 1.

The paper provides an overview of the set of policy briefs published under the theme ‘Innovations in Rural and Agriculture Finance’ published by 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment. The objective of the policy brief is to explore how rural and agricultural finance can be profitable, without high levels of government subsidies, by examining a selection of successful interventions—out of the many being implemented in the developing world—and highlighting the lessons learned. It begins by briefly summarizing the failures of attempts made in developing country in the 1980s and early 1990s. It then provides the following main reasons for the lack of interest of financial institutions in agriculture finance:

First, many agricultural households were located in remote parts of the country and were often so widely dispersed that financial institutions found it challenging to provide cost-effective and affordable services. Second, big swaths of the agricultural population were subject to the same weather and climate risks, making it hard for providers of financial services to hedge risks or operate profitable insurance pools. Third, service providers, mainly urban-based, simply did not know enough about the business of agriculture to devise profitable financial products. Fourth, most small agricultural producers in developing countries had little education and little knowledge of how modern banking institutions work.’

It then briefly summarizes the innovative approaches developed to financing agriculture since the early 2000s. The brief provides overview of the important lessons drawn from the studies: addressing the business reality of small farmers in developing countries, using modern communication technology to overcome the tyranny of distance and information bottlenecks,


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managing risks at the farm and household level, and bundling financial services with non-financial services to address the multiple constraints faced by most small farmers. Based on lessons in these areas, it underscores the role of improving the institutional environment and legal framework in reducing transaction costs and risks and increasing competition and as a result for the innovative initiatives to be sustainable. Reviewing the detail policy briefs published under these four themes is important for designing innovative interventions in the area. PRIME can benefit from the experiences of how rural and agricultural finance can be profitable, without high e of government subsidies, by examining a selection of successful interventions

Pearce, D., Davis, J., Onumah, G. & Butterworth, R. (2004). Making Rural Finance Count for the Poor. Department for International Development (DFID) and the Natural Resources Institute.

This paper is intended to stimulate public discussion on how to make rural finance count for the poor. The paper examines past evidences and efforts in developing countries to improve rural financial intermediations. It begins by discussing the roles of rural finance in economic development. It then discusses about the known challenges of rural financial intermediation such as information asymmetry, lack of suitable collateral, and enforcement problem, the high operating costs, the formal banking procedures and physical access difficulties, the weak institutional capacities, undesirable policy environment and the high risk associated with agricultural production and marketing. It also discuss the paradigm shifts the supply-led rural finance to a ‘rural financial system’ approach, which views rural finance as an integral part of the wider rural finance market and focuses on creating enabling institutional environments and the subsequent reforms and innovations made. It also discusses the roles of the diverse forms of informal sub-sector in the development of the rural finance market.

It provides alternative tools such as mitigating risk through micro-insurance, creating collateral through warehouse receipt and broadening the range of financial services offered by market intermediaries for managing and reducing risk. In addition, it highlight the roles of proving term finance, capitalizing remittances, using technology to promote rural finance and making use of the existing institutional infrastructure including banks in providing integrating rural finance. It finally suggest for further evidence based innovation to make rural finance count for the poor.

Solomon Abay (2011). Financial Market Development, Policy and Regulation: The International Experience and Ethiopia’s Need for Further Reform. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Faculty of Law, 2007.

The dissertation examines a wide range of laws and institutions in various financial markets such as the regulation of banking, insurance, and microfinance markets, securities market, private pensions, and the design of means of enforcement of regulation. Policies, laws and institutions concerning the aforementioned fields are investigated under the research.

It reviews available studies and analyses the existing policies and laws of the financial market of Ethiopia. It systematically analyses these issues by making using of data from official reports


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and unpublished records of the financial institutions, the regulators and related institutions; conducting field study of the financial market practices in Ethiopia through visits and discussions with relevant personnel; reviewing literature and consulting laws and regulatory practices in other countries; analyzing the principles, standards and works of the international organizations (e.g. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, International Association of Insurance Supervisors, Financial Task Force on Money Laundering, World Trade Organization, Global Corporate Governance Forum); and conducting comparative analysis of the Ethiopian policies, laws and practices with the policies, laws, practices and recommendations in international experience. Even though the study is basically qualitative, it also uses quantitative data to substantiate conclusions. The research indicates that microfinance regulations are employed in Asia, Latin America and Africa to encourage expansion of service, enhance financial inclusion of the poor, promote commercial business approach, mitigate the risk of the microfinance institutions, protect consumers, and create the conditions for economic development.

The study identifies the following major anomalies in the regulation of banks, insurance and microfinance institutions in Ethiopia: the concentration of microfinance institutions on short-term deposit taking and lending with very small section of the society despite their extensive authorization to stimulate the development of micro and small scale operations; absence of formal securities market and private pensions (please note that the latter is introduced in Ethiopia recently after the publication of this research); non-existence of comprehensive financial regulatory policy which defines and prioritizes between the specific objectives of the banking, insurance and microfinance regulations; and lack of dependable domestic long-term finance due to the concentration on short-term financial services in Ethiopian banks, insurance companies and microfinance institutions.

It provides alternative policy and regulatory recommendations in the prudential, competition, market conduct and systemic stability related requirements applicable on banks, insurance and microfinance institutions. It is very important for PRIME since it explains the financial system of Ethiopia in a holistic manner by critically looking into the policy, laws and institutions under which financial institutions operate.

Wolday Amha (2005, October). Prudential Regulation of the Microfinance Industry: Lessons from Ethiopia. Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions (AEMFI) Occasional Paper, No. 15, Ethiopia.

The research analyses the legal framework for the prudential regulation of microfinance in Ethiopia focusing on Proc No. 40/1996 - A Proclamation to provide for the Licensing and Supervision of the Business of Microfinance Institutions. Prudential regulation is defined as a regulation which is aimed at protecting the financial system as a whole as well as protecting the safety of small deposits in individual institutions. The research enumerates the key principles for effective supervision and regulation of microfinance institutions (MFIs) and examines the Ethiopian legal framework based on these principles. The parameters used to evaluate the effectiveness of the legal system include minimum capital required of new entrants, ownership,


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board structure and re-registration of MFIs, financial products that MFIs can deliver, operational modality, interest rates, reporting requirements, external audit, minimum liquidity requirement and supervision of MFIs. It also describes the sanctions imposed when MFIs violates the prudential regulation. The research identifies the positive effects of the prudential regulation such as, reducing market distortions, promoting entry into the industry, encouraging saving mobilization, and improving the performance of MFIs. Over regulation/restrictive regulation and absence of regulatory framework for saving and credit cooperatives are among the major shortcomings of the regulatory framework.

The research contains very relevant legal documents (Proc No. 40/1996 and directives issued by the National Bank of Ethiopia) as Annexes which are helpful to understand the whole picture of the regulatory standards applicable to MFIs. The limitation in the research is that it bases its analysis on Proc. No. 40/1996 which is already repealed by Micro-financing Business Proc. No. 626/2009. However, its importance cannot be overlooked since the theoretical discussions and recommendations may have contributed towards the evolution of new regulatory framework. The ownership and board structure and collateral requirements of MFIs, and the legal lacuna in the regulation of saving and credit cooperatives should be noticed when PRIME implements its Innovation and Investment Fund (IIF), part of which is provided in the form of loan guarantees, access to financial services and strengthening rural saving and credit cooperatives (RuSaCCos).

Wolday Amha (2007, January). Managing Growth of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs): Balancing Sustainability and Reaching Large Number of Clients in Ethiopia. AEMFI, Occasional Paper No.18, Ethiopia.

The research tries to identify the challenges for rapid expansion of MFIs, factors that determine the growth of MFIs, and the relationship between growth, productivity, sustainability, efficiency and portfolio quality. The research discusses the development of microfinance industry in Ethiopia, analyzes the relationship between growth of outreach and financial viability, efficiency and portfolio quality indicators. Institutional capacity of MFIs, developing demand driven financial products and methodologies, mobilizing loanable funds, enabling policy, legal and regulatory environment, and donor support as basic factors that can determine the growth or outreach of MFIs. It makes use of the data collected from the Performance Monitoring Unit of the Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions (AEMFI). It also utilizes secondary information collected from research reports and surveys.

It calls for the improvement of the institutional capacity of the MFIs by implementing an efficient organizational structure with appropriate staff incentive and reward system, improvement of the skill of human resource, good governance, introduction of innovative financial products, and the increase of geographic expansion; creation of an enabling legal, regulatory and policy environment; improvement of access to capital; enhancement of selective government and donor support; and advancement of the demand side of the financial service delivery.


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It is PRIME’s basic objective to increase access to finance for the pastoralists. This includes the availability of financial service providers like MFIs in the geographic areas inhibited by target populations/beneficiaries. The research is of great help since it provides ways by which PRIME can facilitate access to financial services through helping MFIs increase their outreach without compromising the sustainability of the services they provide to the poor.

Wolday Amha (2008, September). Corporate Governance of the Deposit Taking Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Ethiopia, AEMFI Occasional Paper, No.23, Ethiopia.

The researcher examines the structure of MFIs’ board and ownership and whether it is designed to enable them effectively implement the regulatory framework of NBE and develop systems and procedures which provide proper governance and adequate mitigation of risk. It examines the licensing and minimum capital requirements, capital adequacy rules, fiduciary responsibilities and standards regarding owners (e.g. public sector entities, local NGOs, and individuals), directors and executive managers of MFIs, and guidelines on risk management and related policies as per Proc No. 40/1996 and associated directives issued by NBE. The following are the anomalies associated with MFIs that are identified in the research: lack of clear ownership; lack of skilled and experienced board members who can balance the financial and social objectives (i.e., alleviating poverty without compromising the sustainability of MFIs); inadequate incentives of board members to conduct regular meetings and deal with the core risks of MFIs; absence of clearly articulated performance indicators; absence of succession plans; absence of board committees to support the activities of the board and management; and the limited capacity of the regulators to implement the microfinance law and the directives of NBE.

Although the analysis is base on an already repealed law, it is important in a sense that it will provide PRIME with the factors to be taken note of while choosing MFIs that can be partners in the implementation of the project, specifically in facilitating access to finance for target households.

Wolday Amha (2012, April). The Development of Deposit-taking Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Ethiopia: Performance, Growth Challenges and the Way Forward. AEMFI Occasional Paper, No. 32, Ethiopia.

The researcher examines the involvement of NGOs in the delivery of financial services. It explained the merits and demerits of NGOs-backed financial services. With a view to establish a sustainable financial services through microfinance institutions, a microfinance law was promulgated (Proc No. 40/1996 and subsequently 20 directives was issued by the National Bank of Ethiopia) that called for mobilizing of savings, charging reasonable interest rates on loans sufficient to cover operational costs, applying strict financial discipline through strict loan recovery procedures and loan follow-up, developing proper lending methodologies, reducing transaction costs and increasing outreach. According to the research, one of the purposes of the proclamation was prohibiting the NGOs and other actors, which mix charity and delivery of financial services, from delivering such services. The research stated that the prudential regulation is enabling.


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The issuance of a new law in 2009 (and the efforts undertaken by the National Bank of Ethiopia to modify the existing directives) that amended the earlier proclamation is also covered under the research. The researcher explained that the new law allows MFIs to involve in the provision of insurance services. The relevant regulatory challenges that the research identified are the limited capacity of NBE to enforce the prudential regulation which is explained by the fact that some NGOs & government institutions are continuing to provide credit as a grant or on a subsidized lending interest rate on a limited scale and the prohibition of participation of international NGOs as shareholders in MFIs that may limit MFIs access to a huge inflow of foreign capital. In addition, the research discusses issues of outreaches and financial performances, social responsibilities and growth challenges of MFIs. Howerver, it lacks adequate coverage of the contents & features of the currently applicable law (Proc No. 626/2009) and directives.

Yaron, J., Benjamin, M. & Piprek, G. (1997). Rural Finance: Issues Design and Best Practices. World Bank, Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Studies and Monographs Series 14.

The paper provides the theoretical background of providing state- or donor- supported concessional credit to finance rural and agricultural investment activities that ranges from small-scale adoption of technologies and purchase of inputs such as fertilizer, improved seed and pesticide to establishments of large scale agricultural farms such as poultry, beef, dairy, crop, etc. farms. It also discusses the special features that make small farmers unattractive to formal financial institutions and that drive their loan portfolio away from small-scale agricultural investments activities. It identifies the special features that characterize small-scale farming and rural financing such as high production and price risks, small and geographically dispersed clients, the weak legal institutions and the ineffective enforcement arrangements, the frequent lack of secure land tenure, leading to the absence of collateral or reduced foreclosure capability of clients. It also discuss how these features raise the transaction costs of financing and makes small-scale farmers unattractive to formal financial institutions.

It also attempts to identify the factors that generated a discrepancy between social and private costs and benefits of providing rural credits and that justified interventions of one form or another in the rural credit markets. It discusses the crucial issues that limited the success of such interventions to improve rural finances. Based on past experiences of many developing countries, it identifies two classes of factors that limited the effectiveness of the interventions. The problems related to the supply-led credit approach are the wrongly perceived shortage of credit and the fungibility of money and the problems related to the credit delivery system are lack of savings mobilization and misguided performance criteria, the high lending and borrowing costs, the negative effects of controls on interest rates, and the poor loan collection performance.


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Zeller, M. & Sharma. M. (2000). The Demand for Financial Services by the Rural Poor: Rural Financial Policies for Food Security of the Poor. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Policy Brief No. 1.

This paper is one of the successive policy briefs published by IFPRI under the theme of ‘Financial Policies for Food Security of the Poor’. The lessons are derived from detailed household surveys conducted in nine countries of Asia and Africa: Bangladesh, Cameroon, China, Egypt, Ghana, Madagascar, Malawi, Nepal, and Pakistan. It contends that the conventional beliefs that the poor are not creditworthy, able to save and able to afford insurance against the risks they face all lack empirical foundation and are myths which are held based on the threshold income level used to operationally define poor (below one dollar a day). Contrary to this myth, the authors hold that poor households are indeed willing to pay market rates for reliable and continued access to different types of financial services, including insurance. It also attributes past failures in the rural financial markets to this faulty perception.

Based on the evidences of past studies and examining the myriad informal financial institutions, it draws policy conclusion that the poor are creditworthy, can save, and pay for insurance if appropriate institutional arrangements are made and innovative products are offered. The paper is meant to contribute to PRIME as it gives the insight that poor households are willing to pay market rates for reliable and continued access to different types of financial services, including insurance.

VIII. CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN PASTORAL AREAS OF ETHIOPIA

Abdurahman Mohammed, Alebachew Adem, Assefa Biru, Belayhun Hailu, Berhanu Terefe, Biru Eshete et al. (2010). Afar National Regional State Program of Plan on Adaptation to Climate Change. Environmental Protection of Authority of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Semera.

This paper is a strategic adaptation plan of the Afar regional state to manage climate change impacts in pastoral livelihood. Afar pastoralists live in a geographically exposed semi-arid and arid environment and depend on livestock-livelihood which is sensitive to climate change. The scale and intensity of climate change-induced hazards is growing fast and the magnitude of damages from climatic and natural hazards continue to rise. Hence, regions should have strategic adaptation plan to counteract the impacts of climate change. The aim of the study is thus to identify climate change impacts, vulnerability of major sectors, their adaptive capacity, possible response measures, best practices and technologies to adapt to climate change and suggest future adaptation measures. The study used an intensive review of available research reports, online sources and informal discussion with experts and representatives of relevant civil society and government offices as important sources of information. The study identified drought, extreme heat, flood, pest and disease prevalence, and bush encroachment as major climate hazards in Afar. The common impacts are decreased crop and livestock production and productivity, loss of institutions and infrastructures, human and livestock death, natural resources degradation, and


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migration.

The authors recommended the following adaptation measures and strategies: integrated disaster risk reduction and early warning system; discourage unsustainable livelihood and mismanagement of resources; improve access to information, education and socio-economic services; increased investments in tree planting, promote water harvesting and drought and disease tolerant crop; paying particular attention to regeneration of degraded pastures and related mitigation actions; develop irrigation and water harvesting schemes; support environment and climate friendly development initiatives; control and management of diseases; asset protection and livelihood enhancement/diversification; target and empower pastoral women and other vulnerable groups; maintain the current political good will and institutional capacity; and build local level capacity. The authors also recommended further studies on the nexus between the various vulnerable social groups and the specific climate adaptation strategy they tend to choose, determinates of adaptation options, cost-benefit analysis of adaptation options, institutional assistance received, and factors that influence the livelihoods of the communities other than climatic change. PRIME should consider the recommended adaptations while implementing adaptation strategies in Afar region, conduct studies on the knowledge gaps identified for evidence based interventions, and assist or initiate similar studies in Somalia and Oromia regions.

Abebech Belayneh, Stevens, E., Etsehiwot Wondimu, & Kebadu Simachew. (2009). Camel Distribution in Response to Climate Change: Case Studies from Moyale District, Dhas, and Arero Districts. Retrieved from http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/techBrief_camel restocking.pdf

This paper assesses the impact of camel distribution to pastoral livelihood improvement in the face of climate change. As climate change drastically alters the African landscape, raising camels could replace crops and other livestock in the hardest hit arid areas of the continent that are no longer suitable for agriculture. The potential of camels in arid and semi-arid areas is huge as they able to digest alien bush species that are rapidly invading pastoral farm land, camels are suitably adapted to the lowlands of Ethiopia and can therefore contribute very constructively to the food security of pastoralist households. Also suitable for the conflict-induced migration that Ethiopian pastoralist often faces. The objective of this assessment is to identify the impact camel distribution brings on the livelihood of communities. Camel distribution was carried out in the Dhas and Arero Districts of Oromia Regional State and in Moyale district of Somali Regional State, the aim being to improve the livelihoods of the respective communities and to restore their hope in food security.

Needs assessments were undertaken before restocking activities were begun. Some of the indicators took in to account the conditions of the three districts in relation to climate change, such as ever-shortening rainy seasons, encroachment of invasive thorny bushes, pastoralists’ modes of living, and the socio- economic value of camels. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

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were held with community elders, during which beneficiaries were selected, and a cost- sharing strategy for the project, involving contributions of some animals, was negotiated. Beneficiaries have reported a significant increase in milk availability following restocking, as their shoats have given birth to offspring. Some of the distributed camels will be a larger resource of milk for the children of each beneficiary household, and increased consumption overall. In addition to positive hopes for the future brought by this increase in milk, beneficiaries also say that owning camels has greatly improved their social status in the community. Furthermore, while shoats, which are fast-breeding animals, allow households to build assets quickly, camels are recognized as providing longer-term security to beneficiaries in terms of milk production and improved social status. In an effort to revive tradition, Save the Children US distributed camels, sheep and goats to destitute communities and ex- pastoralists. There stocking project was implemented in collaboration with local government officials, customary institutions and other key partners, the aim being to target the beneficiaries through discussions and planning meetings. PRIME should consider camel distribution as one tested viable adaptation option for drought affected areas.

Abera Bekele & Aklilu Amsalu. (2012). Effects of Drought on Pastoral Household in Fentale Woreda of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing World, Vol 4, No.3.

In this article the authors identified the effects of drought on pastoral communities of Ethiopia. The authors believed that adverse effects of drought is more aggravated due to lack of the contextual understanding and information about the patterns of drought and lack of well identified, appropriate and relevant local level response mechanisms. The objective of this research is to investigate the effects of drought on the pastoral households of Fentale Woreda of Oromia Region in Ethiopia. The design of the study is survey. Purposive sampling technique was used to select all the research subjects.

Findings indicated that Karrayu pastoral households (HHs) have been victims of drought and related adverse effects. Especially drought cycle is shortened and the severity of drought on lives and livelihoods of pastoral HHs' is extremely increased bizarrely due to global climate change. The drought distracts socio-cultural fabrics of the pastoral households, reduce the availability and accessibility of water points, and declines of livestock body condition and this in turn has resulted in fall of livestock price and rise of grain price in the market. The study recommends contextual understanding of the patterns of recent severe drought is the prerequisite task for any development intervention; since monitoring of rainfall pattern is a useful indicator of early warning of drought, continuous forecasting and monitoring of climatic conditions are the prior issues that need attention through using both indigenous knowledge and scientific methods; disseminating of timely information to reduce the adverse effects of drought on the households; identifying more viable and productive pastoral and non-pastoral activities that are well suited to the agro-ecological condition of the area is the decisive factors to reduce vulnerability of the households to drought; and Mobility and herd diversifications are among the pastoral activities that requires due attention to minimize adverse effects of drought on pastoral households. In addition, perseverance has to be made to make use of


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unexploited local wealth potentials of non-pastoral activities in responses that are undertaken to drought. Furthermore, due attention and priority is required from natural and social science research institution to find drought tolerant and drought escaping forage, livestock and crop variety to strengthen pastoralists' adaptation to recent severe drought/climate change. In general, the authors recommend holistic development approach that comprise both pastoral and non-pastoral activities to undertake sustainable responses to drought instead of only giving blue print development approach (sedentary agriculture) as a final option to adverse effects of drought.

Aklilu Amsalu, Desalegn Wana, Mesfin Kassa & Negash Teklu. (2013). Climate Change Impacts on Pastoral Women in Ethiopia: Some Evidences From the Southern Lowlands. PHE Ethiopia Consortium, PHILMON PRESS.

This article analyzes the gender dimension of climate change assuming that the impacts of climate change are not equally distributed among different gender groups. Climate change has a gendered dimension and women tend to be highly vulnerable to climate change related disasters and food insecurities. Data used in this study is collected by employing qualitative techniques which include key informant interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) and expert interviews. The findings of this assessment indicate that women have limited access to and control over productive resources such as land, livestock and household income.

The assessment indicated that the existing socio-cultural situations of the pastoral community has put women in a disadvantaged position mainly because of the asymmetrical power relationship between men and women over control of resources and decisions related to the utilization of household resources. In addition, climate change has compounded an already existing burden on pastoral women through increased distance of fetching water, fire wood collection, fodder for livestock, and other related productive and reproductive roles. Future interventions need to consider raising awareness in the areas of population planning and reproductive health, girl’s education, women empowerment, alternative livelihood and the impacts of harmful traditional practices which complicate the impacts of climate change. PRIME should mainstream gender in any of its activities and should empower women as they are more vulnerable to climate change.

Beruk Yemane. (2008). Natural Resource and Environmental Management Considerations and Climate Healing Steps in Ethiopia. In Proceeding of the Fourth National Conference on Pastoral Development of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia.

This paper highlights environmental and climate change considerations for better pastoral livelihood in Ethiopia. Pastoral are considered to be rich and valuable in different types of resources and manage the resources and the environment, however, there are constraints affecting them. Major constraints are related to expansion of sedentary agriculture, large- scale agricultural projects, wildlife parks and sanctuaries. In addition, rapid expansion of unwanted plant species, conflict over key rangeland resources have aggravated the vulnerability of pastoral communities due to natural resource degradation, risks of drought and conflict to the extent of threatening the livelihood system. Above all, weakening of the indigenous institutions with the


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modern government structure has contributed to the misuse of the natural and environmental resources and exposing them to the effect of climate change.

The country has adopted and ratified relevant international conventions and agreements and developed its own federal and regional policy, strategy and guideline documents related to environment. With the aim of coordinating, implementing and monitoring the different policy, strategy and programs/projects many government ministries and agencies have been established and mandated with different roles and responsibilities. Practical measures such as population stabilization and promoting sustainable development, improving the energy sector, mitigation measure to reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector, Land Use Change and Forestry (LUCF), reducing Methane emissions from enteric fermentation. The review fails to clearly indicate the objectives of the review and the methodology used in the review process. This document is relevant to PRIME in identifying potential partner institutions working in the area of natural resources management and climate change, and guide intervention areas to mitigate and adapt climate change.

CARE International & Save the Children UK. (2009). Policy Brief to Climate Related Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity in Ethiopia’s Somalia and Borana Communities. Retrieved from http://www.careclimatechange.org/files/reports/Ethiopia_Pastoralists_Policy_Brief.pdf

This brief pointed out key issues related with climate change vulnerability and adaptive capacity in pastoral communities of Ethiopia for policy consideration. The unprecedented magnitude and rate of current climate change, combined with additional environmental, social and political issues, are making many traditional coping strategies ineffective and/or unsustainable, amplifying environmental degradation and food insecurity, and forcing communities to rapidly find new livelihood strategies. The objective of the brief is to inform policy-makers critical issues that need new policies or amendments to better adapt pastoralism to climate change. The brief indicated that pastoralists’ ability to adapt is constrained by many factors including increasing land degradation; conflict over scarce resources, which limit movement and destroy assets that are key for adaptation; limited access to information (including that on weather, climate change, markets, as well as pest and disease outbreaks); limited education, skills and access to financial services and markets required to diversity their livelihoods; inadequate government policies, capacities and coordination; demographic pressures; and social and gender inequalities and marginalization, which reduce the voice and adaptive capacity of the most vulnerable. Enhancing the adaptive capacity of pastoralists in the face of climate change will require community-based and community-led interventions, but will also require tailored support from NGOs, donors and governments.

Based on the findings of this study, the authors have devised the following set of recommendations for three target groups, the Government of Ethiopia, civil society, and international donors. The Government operating at the national and sub-national levels should aim to address the underlying drivers of climate-related vulnerability. Practitioners should take into account current climate variability, projected climate change impacts and climate change vulnerability and adaptation when

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developing programmes and projects. Donors should allow enough funding flexibility to enable practitioners to adjust interventions (include funds for emergencies and contingencies, promote the integration of climate change adaptation consideration into development programs, projects and policies) and support all the four pillars of community based adaptation, namely, building resilient livelihoods, disaster risk reduction, capacity building and addressing the underlying causes of vulnerability. PRIME should support the government in addressing underline causes of vulnerability; take into account climate issues when designating programmes or projects and support community managed adaptation; and allow enough funding flexibility to enable practitioners to adjust interventions.

Erettber, S . (2010). Contested Narratives of Pastoral Vulnerability and Risk in Ethiopia’s Afar Region. Pastoralism Vol.1, No. 2.

This article analyzed the effect of perception differences in risk discourse between government and pastoralists in climate change adaptation. In addition to high climate variability and recurrent droughts and floods, pastoral livelihood systems of Ethiopia have been severely constrained by multiple violent conflicts over natural resources and contested political claims, and expansion of irrigation agriculture and sedentarization projects. The author tries to persuade that the interface between external and local risk discourses can be conceived as the arena where conflicting knowledge systems, values and interests meet. Therefore, risk is a political concept, and risks are constantly contested concerning their nature, their control and who is to blame for their creation. This point will be taken up in the paper while contrasting governmental and pastoral risk discourses. This analysis is based on an original empirical case study conducted during several field trips from 2005–2007 among pastoral Afar clans of Baadu. Narrative and biographical interviews, group discussions, selected tools of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and ethno-graphical methods of observation were combined in order to reveal the multiple realities of subjective risk perceptions as well as certain storylines within collective discourses.

This author argued that local agency can only be understood against the background of a highly complex risk scenario, where pastoralists constantly interpret, evaluate and weigh multiple risks in order to take decisions that inform their social practices. In the process of coping and adaptation, risk trade-offs take place, some risks are avoided while others are taken. Local risk management is geared at securing access to pasture resources, income and food as well as to strengthen local institutions. However, the state’s discursive risk construction of ‘pastoral backwardness’ in cultural and economic terms legitimizes authoritarian interventions that intend to transform mobile pastoralists in to sedentarized and urbanized agro-pastoralists and wage laborers. The author concluded that the general failure of governmental interventions for disaster prevention and poverty reduction can be attributed to a lack of understanding of the current risk scenario complexity, especially its political dimension, and the socio-spatial differentiation of risks that Afar pastoralists face in their everyday life. Instead, as a side effect of governmental interventions, new risks are produced that gradually undermine pastoral coping capacities and resilience. The negative costs of modernization and national food security have to be paid by the


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pastoralists. Against this background the pastoralists in Baadu perceive the state as illegitimate and ignorant since its interventions do not reflect their needs and interests.

Marin, A., & Eriksen, S. (2011). Pastoral Pathways: Climate Adaptation Lessons from Ethiopia. Development Fund. Retrieved from http://www.utviklingsfondet.no/files/uf/documents/Rapporter/Pathways_report_web.pdf

This article evaluates the adaptation practices of Ethiopian pastoralists to climate change based on principles that ensure social equity and environmental integrity, and provides lessons learnt. Four normative principles have been developed that can guide policies and interventions towards achieving development pathways that strengthen both social equity and environmental integrity: 1) Recognize the context of vulnerability, including multiple stressors; 2) Acknowledge differing values and interests affecting adaptation outcomes; 3) Integrate local knowledge into adaptation responses; and 4) consider potential feedbacks between local and global processes. This study examines the practical implications of these principles in an Ethiopian pastoralist context. The analysis is based mainly on interview data collected in two sites in Afar as well as insights from past studies in the region as documented in published literature.

The four normative principles of sustainable adaptation have very specific local significance in the context of Ethiopian pastoralism. First, the vulnerability context, although closely connected to climatic events such as drought, flood and perceived climatic changes, is driven by multiple environmental and social processes. Second, there are differentiated interests and strategies within the pastoral communities, between population groups and between pastoralists and the government. Third, local knowledge and customs have been critical in managing environmental variability, though they come under pressure when droughts are severe. Fourth, findings of the current study of the Afar and Somali challenge the way that global–local linkages have been conceptualized so far. While pastoralists contribute little to global environmental or social problems, they are at the receiving end of many global problems. PRIME should align its adaptation approach with these four normative principles if development that meets social equity and environmental integrity is pursued.

Mebratu Kifle & Yohannes Gebre-Michael. (2009). Local Innovation in Climate-Change Adaptation by Ethiopian Pastoralists. PROLINNOVA- Ethiopia and Pastoral Forum for Environment.

This article tries to identify local innovative adaptation strategies employed by Ethiopian pastoralists during climate hazards. The objective of the article is to underline the rationale and competence of pastoral community adaptation to the changing environment (ecological and policy changes) to use as a point of departure for development of more sustainable use of resources. To be able to understand perception of climate change and adaptation processes among pastoralists in Ethiopia, a series of brainstorming sessions were carried out. Three study areas, namely, Gashamo (Somali), Awash Fentale (Afar), and Dasanach (Omo) Districts were selected because of chronic environmental problems.

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According to the authors, the pastoral communities have underlined that their drought-response mechanisms are marginalized with the mentality of modernization. Moreover, existing external interventions underestimate local competence to solve their problems and also create a dependency syndrome, which paralyses local innovativeness. On the other hand, there is a wide range of evidence that the pastoralists have accumulated and continue to accumulate deep-rooted knowledge and experience in adapting to the ever-changing environment. Lastly, a detailed documentation of local innovation in climate adaptation needs to be done prior to the dissemination of the successful practices. PRIME need to continue the Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis (CVCA) assessment of target areas which have not been assessed before, and develop an adaptation menu for successful adaptation.

Oxfam International (2010). The rain doesn’t come on time anymore: Poverty, vulnerability, and climate variability in Ethiopia. Eclipse, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Retrieved fromhttp://www.oxfamblogs.org/eastafrica/wpcontent/uploads/2010/09/rr_climate_change_ethiopia_en_2504101.pdf/

This manuscript analyzes the perception and adaptive capacity of pasotalist and farming communities in Ethiopia. The objectives of the study were to assess the perception of farmers and pastoralists towards weather change and to identify their coping and adaptation strategies to climate change. The study covered Olfa wereda of Southern Tigeray, Adamii Tulluu-Jido Kombolcha and Yabello weredas of Oromiya Regional State, and Wansho wereda of Southern Nation and Nationality People (SNNP). The methodology was both qualitative and quantitative, consisting of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, household surveys, and analysis of rainfall data from meteorological stations.

The study shows that farmers and pastoralists are well aware of the changes in climate. People’s perceptions of climate change and variability are affected by local environmental, social, economic, and psychological factors. These findings suggest that rainfall alone is not a reliable indicator of vulnerability to climate issues. Other environmental, social, economic, and political factors also need to be taken into account. Within households, there are also differences in exposure to climate risks and response capacities. Women and girls are disproportionately affected by climate variability. This study also suggests that pastoralists tend to be more vulnerable to climate change than farmers. The author recommends that the international community and Ethiopian government take the following actions. At the national level, the government could invest in climate research and disseminate information to increase awareness of climate change and its impacts; strengthen cooperation among policymakers, nongovernmental organizations, research institutions, and the media; increase meteorological station density and make climate information available in an accessible format; invest in agricultural research on the use of new crop varieties and livestock species; strengthen the capacity of policymakers and institutions; ensure civil society and community participation in formulating climate change policies and in integrating climate change into development priorities; ensure priorities and investments address the gendered impact of climate change;


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building on the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA); develop a land use policy in harmony with traditional land use systems; provide seasonal precipitation forecasts as part of a revitalized extension package; support agro-ecological practices for adaptation and mitigation; diversify rural livelihoods through the promotion of non-agricultural sectors; address environmental degradation by drawing on community-based experiences and mechanisms; invest in social protection mechanisms; and connect these protection mechanisms to longer-term development actions, in particular; improve access to feed and water for both livestock production and household consumption; and investing in better disaster and conflict management practices to address recurrent drought and conflict.

Shitarek, T. (2012). Ethiopia Country Report. DFID. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/197474/Econ-Res-Ethiopia-Country-Report.pdf

This report tries to quantify the costs incurred for different drought response strategies, and to identify phases at which responses should be implemented for effective outcome. Drought is one of the most probable climate shocks, regularly affecting food production, livestock production and livelihoods of the poor. The objective of this study was to examine and compare the costs of humanitarian response, early response, and resilience building. The evidence for this study was gathered from the literature and field level observation.

The result indicated that even though emergency response, even when delivered late, can save lives, it cannot protect or save livelihoods. A timely and predictable intervention before a crisis occurs can prevent households from using destructive risk-coping strategies, and would reduce the need for a massive emergency response. Government of Ethiopia (GoE) showed its commitment to shift from an ad-hoc assessment based emergency response to designing and implementing disaster risk reduction (DRR), early warning systems and disaster assessment based responses. Governments, donors and nongovernmental organizations agree that more focus is required on interventions that build the capacity of vulnerable households in pastoralist areas. The paradox, however, is that many donors still pay scant attention to increasing the size of funding for resilience interventions and keep the volume of humanitarian aid larger than resilience funding.

Tezera Getahun. (2006). Climate Change Posing Danger to Pastoralist: How to Manage Excess of Its Diversities, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, ESAP Newsletter, Issue No. 13.

The manuscript highlights the diverse impacts of climate change to pastoralists and calls for urgent discussion among past stakeholders to manage the impact. A system of pastoralism that has, over the centuries, been able to cope with unpredictable weather patterns and regular drought has been brought by climate change to a point of utter extinction. While pastoralist systems are resilient because they enable people to cope with unpredictable environments, they are also dependent on maintaining a delicate and constantly changing balance between pasture,

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livestock and people. Pastoralists use a range of strategies to maintain that balance. The author argued that for a long time, lack of understanding and negative perceptions of pastoral systems resulted in unfavorable policies- particularly policies constraining herd mobility. In many parts of the Sehal, mobility is also hindered by agricultural encroachment on livestock tracks as a result of which more pastoralists have become ‘sedentary’ and some have lost their traditional contacts in dry season and refuge areas. Decades of research has challenged the negative perception of pastoralism, however. Herd mobility is now recognized as a rational strategy in unsustainable environment, and some countries have taken step to facilitate it.

The main purpose of this article is merely to open up discussion among pastoral actors on the growing danger of climate change on pastoral livelihood and prompt decision makers to quest for the adverse situation pastoralists are facing. Desk review is the methodology used in this study. The source of the information is various reports and news. Tackling climate change issues require action at local, national, and international levels. Long standing negative perceptions of pastoralism as a backward production system must be replaced by a recognition of the rational of such systems in dry land areas, and, by policies and programs, to support local resilient and adaptive capacity to climate change. The author acknowledge the recommendation made by one senior researcher on the key areas of policy intervention including enabling herd mobility, support pastoral livelihood through better water access and tailored service provision and supporting livelihood diversification, building robust conflict management institutions and effective drought mitigation systems including early warning systems, insurance and safety nets and supporting developing countries for adaptation and mitigation.

Tibebu Solomon (2013). The Rationale and Capacity of Pastoral Community Innovative Adaptation to Climate Change in Ethiopia. African Technology Policy Study Network. http://www.atpsnet.org/publications/research_papers/index.php

This article tries to identify and document innovative local adaptation strategies of the pastoral community so that it will serve as an entry point to strengthen the resilience of local people to climate change. The aim of the paper is to document effective indigenous and innovations for climate change adaptation used by pastoralist in Ethiopia whilst examining the rationale and capacity of pastoral community innovative adaptation to climate change impact in Ethiopia. This study was undertaken in Afar and Somali Regional states. Focus group discussion (FDG), individual interviews and key informant interviews were held in selected areas of the regions.

The study indicated that building the capacity of local institution is crucial in implementation of adaptation strategies and measures. Planned adaptation interventions under rangeland management could build on existing coping capacity and fill gaps where this capacity is being undermined. The management of invasive alien species also has the potential of securing the asset base of pastoral communities. Government and NGOs should focus on enhancing alternative technologies and income generating activities. The conclusion and the recommendation provided in this study are so broad and general that it has no special significance to the area where the study is conducted. PRIME should work with local institution,

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management and control of invasive alien species, and emphasize on planned adaptation for building better community resilience to climate change.

Virtanen, P., Palmujoki, P. & Dereje Terefe. (2011). Global Climate Policies, Local Institutions and Food Security in a Pastoral Society in Ethiopia. Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development. Vol. 5, ISS.1. pp. 96-118.

This research explores how global climate policies are articulated within national policy priorities in Ethiopia. Recent studies have shown that the most effective way of adapting to changing climate conditions in a poor country is to rely on local institutions. The research explores the preparedness of national and local institutions to tackle these issues. The field study was carried out among pastoral and semi-pastoral communities in the Borana Zone and in the lowland areas of the Guji Zone in the Oromia Regional State. The study is based on semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders and secondary material consisting of policy and project documents and research literature.

The result shows that the ownership of Ethiopia's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) is rather weak. The most disturbing aspect of the practically paralyzed program is the low level of civil society and private sector participation in both preparation and envisaged implementation of the selected high-priority projects, which - unfortunately - is not particular to Ethiopia. In practice, the government is tackling climate change adaptation through national initiatives such as the FSP (Food Security Program). The FSP enjoys strong government ownership at the federal and regional level and relatively good coordination between the key donors, but suffers from unequal representation of civil society on the lower administrative levels. The weak and essentially subordinate role given to local CSOs, and even representatives of decentralized state administration, is particularly evident in peripheral pastoral areas such as Borana and Guji. A key finding with respect to both NAPA and FSP is the insignificant role of local institutions and knowledge in the formal adaptation strategies, particularly on the implementation level. This is rather worrying in the LDC context, which is characterized by high dependency on external funding for public service delivery and weak administrative capacity at lower levels. Instead of building on the diversity of local human and material resources, the programmes seek to transform local societies into a homogeneous mass controllable through its dependency from the centre rather the preparedness of national and local institutions to tackle these issues. PRIME can use the findings and the recommendations in this study in supporting and empowering local institutions for sustainable climate change adaptation.

Yohannes Gebre-Michael & Bayer, A. (2011). More than Climate Change: Pressures Leading to Innovation by Pastoralists in Ethiopia and Niger, PROLINNOVA International Secretariat, ETC Agriculture, Netherlands. Retrieved from http://www.oxfamblogs.org/eastafrica/wpcontent/uploads/2010/09/rr_climate_change_ethiopia_en_2504101.pdf

Countries in the tropics that depend primarily on rain fed farming and/or on pastoralism are

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thought to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Pastoral areas in Africa are situated primarily in low-rainfall areas and, as a rule of thumb, the lower the average annual rainfall, the higher and the variability of rainfall and forage availability. Pastoralists in semi-arid areas, therefore, cannot plan with a fixed stocking rate and a long-term grazing plan. They have to adapt to the highly variable climatic and forage conditions. Adaptation strategies such as keeping drought resistant livestock and large herd size, “following the rain’’ within the semiarid areas, seasonal movement between the dry areas, acquisition of land in better endowed areas, and diversification into cropping and trade have been used for centuries and have been discussed in detail in the literature. The above-mentioned strategies are designed to handle climatic variability, but – at times of extreme drought (over several years) – they sometimes do not work and cause high livestock mortality and famine among pastoralists. The study focused specifically on innovation by pastoralists in the face of climate change. These studies were carried out in Ethiopia and Niger to identify innovations by pastoralists in the face of climate change. The study was carried out specifically in Gashamo District in Somali Region, Awash Fentale District in Afar Region and Dasanach District in South Omo Zone in the Southern Region of Ethiopia.

The study teams explored pastoralists’ perceptions of climate change and their responses to what they perceived as climate change. The responses include developing their own cut-and-carry feeding system, settlement around water points, changing herd composition, settlement on islands in dry land lakes, empowerment of traditional institutions, fodder conservation, use of motor vehicle, and diversification of livelihood sources. The authors believed that recognising local innovativeness by pastoralists provides an entry point for a bottom-up approach to supporting adaptation to much more than only climate change.

Yohannes Gebre-Michael, Bayer, A. & Waters-Bayer, A. (2010). Emerging responses to climate change in pastoral system, Rural Development News. Retrieved from http://www.agrideainternational.ch/fileadmin/10_International/PDF/RDN/RDN_2010/7_Emerging_responses_in_pastoralism.pdf

This research explores pastoralists’ emergency responses, which are born out of necessity, to climate variability in Somali, Afar, and Southern People Nations and Nationalities of Ethiopia. The overall objective of the study is to explore the relevance of local adaptation and innovation and the participatory innovative development (PID) approach to climate change adaptation at local level. More specifically, the study tried to systematically document local experimentation processes which come about as a response to a felt need by local people to adapt to climate change; understand local communities’ perceptions of ‘climate change’; stimulate documentation of innovation (processes) at local level; and draw lessons on potential impact/influence of local innovation processes on climate change adaptation policies and programmes. The study was carried out in Gashamo (Somali), Awash Fentale District (Afar) and Dasanech District (South Omo).

The study identified a wide range of emerging responses for what they perceived as climate changes. These responses include development of their own cut and carry system, settlement

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around water points, purchasing with credit, changing herd composition, settlement on islands in lakes, diversification of livelihood sources, fodder conservation, use of motor vehicle, and empowerment of traditional institutions. Local innovation in adaptation to climate change needs to be assessed together with other environmental socio-economic and policy changes. This helps avoid the trap of romanticizing locally developed practices as if they were evidences of deliberate adaptation to climate change. It is important to give attention to local innovations because they are sources of valuable new knowledge based on deep-rooted experience of pastoralists. The focus should be not so much on specific innovations, but rather on documenting local innovation as a process. To be sure, at the local level, pastoralists may be able to benefit from knowing what other pastoralists are doing to cope, and then adapting the innovations and practices to their own situations. Disseminating information about pastoralist innovation could stimulate appropriate adaptation by resource-poor communities, as it would help increase their self-confidence and motivation to adapt. Although documentation of innovation is not an end in itself, it remains important as a symbol of the local capacity to react creatively to local problems. The study is important in highlighting the main emerging responses in pastoralist areas. However, the methodologies used in the research is not specified which definitely lowered the reliability of the information provided. Future projects can use the study in the selection of adaptation options to be implemented in a participatory manner.

IX. EARLY WARNING SYSTEM, EMERGENCY RESPONSES AND DISASTER RISK

REDUCTION

Abdirahman Ali and Matthew, H. (2009). Social Protection in Pastoral Areas, Humanitarian Policy Group, the Regional Livelihoods Advocacy Project (REGLAP) Report 5. www.odi.org.uk/hpg

This paper is the Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG) report that deals with social protection in pastoral areas. The report argues that a coherent social protection framework is a fundamental need for pastoralists in eastern Africa and calls for a tailored approach to social protection for pastoral communities – one which recognizes the context of pastoral livelihoods and views social protection through a livelihoods framework. It proposes the integration of four pillars of social protection (assistance, services, insurance and equity), where equity is paramount at every level of intervention. The paper used reference databases, articles and bibliographies. The authors included many donor, government, international agency and NGO draft materials, evaluation documents and field reports related to the content of this paper. The paper divides social protection providers into two major categories: informal and formal. Informal providers of social protection are communities and external social networks, such as family members, relatives and other social systems outside pastoral systems. Pastoralists have developed strong informal social protection networks based on religious, clan or family affiliations. These have always played a vital role in ensuring pastoralist livelihoods have remained viable through the chronic shocks inherent to pastoral lifestyles, but informal social mechanisms are now under increasing pressure.

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Formal providers of social protection are governments, private sector, humanitarian organizations and local and international donors. As explained in the paper, formal social protection providers concentrate on the provision of assistance and services (originally designed for sedentary populations), whilst social insurance and equity in pastoral communities are non-existent.

The paper gives general recommendations for improving social protection provision for pastoralists are set out according to both informal and formal providers, which includes among others, social protection mechanisms in pastoral areas must be grounded in a thorough understanding of pastoral livelihoods and acknowledge the value and contribution of informal social protection mechanisms and work to develop them wherever possible. In this holistic report specific recommendations are also set out for governments with pastoral populations in eastern Africa, donors, the private sector, non-government/humanitarian agencies and pastoral communities. The paper doesn’t detailed out the perspective of the topic with respect to selected countries in Eastern Africa, so the generalizations made might not be applicable to some pastoralist areas in Ethiopia. However, the paper gives basic understanding of the formal and informal social protection provisions and emphasizes the need for and promotion of social insurance and equity in pastoral communities.

Abdurrahman Ali Issack & Ahmed Yusuf. (2010). Save the Children UK experiences on piloting Community Based Early Warning Systems in 3 districts of Somali and Afar Regions of Ethiopia: What worked and what didn’t, European Commission.

This review provides explanation on the experiences of Save the Children UK (SCUK) and its partner’s on Community Based Early Warning Systems (CBEWS) and Contingency Planning (CP) in Afar and Somali regions. It also highlights best practices, and lesson learnt and pinpoints the challenges that may affect future endeavors. It ends with actionable recommendations that need to be focused for future improvement on similar activities while linking the proposed approach to government policies towards disaster risk reduction. Relevant literature, proposals and reports with regard to CBEWS and CP were reviewed in this report. The review identified the following factors as barriers for the success of the project: ineffective participation, coordination of activities and partnerships across sectors and institutions; lack of proper accountability; inadequate Woreda level institutional capacity, including financial and human resource endowment to provide effective early warning services; lack of clarity of responsibilities among stakeholders; inadequate community awareness of EWS and dominance of scientific and technological dependency; in effective communication of CBEW information to wider communities at district and zonal level; limited long term interest and commitment to continuous development of CBEW services; and limited regional (Afar and Somali) understanding on CBEWS that often lead to inadequate regional commitment to continuously supporting the development and maintenance of CBEWS at districts level.

However, the following issues were noted as some of the best practices for CBEWS: there is general regional initiative to establish new District Early Warning Committees (DEWC) in every


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Woreda and strengthen the existing ones that were established by PILLAR and PCDP projects; initiative of decentralizing development responsibilities to districts, empowered lower level administrative units (Kebeles) to be proactive in participating and contributing to local partners’ activities; and continuation of CBEW data collection in PILLAR project; and Woredas facilitated better understanding of the quantitatively measured indicators in the CBEWS. The authors’ recommendations and lesson learnt can be used for future project, advocacy, and policy formulation.

Betru Nedessa & Wickrema, S. (2010). Disaster Risk Reduction: Experience from MARET Project. In Omamo, S.W., Ugo Gentilini, U. & Susanna Sandström, S. (Eds), Revolution: From Food Aid to Food Assistance – Innovations in Overcoming Hunger (pp.139-157). WFP, Italy, Rome.

This study tries to document the lessons from Managing Environmental Resources Enable Transition (MERET) project to inform disaster risk reduction programming in contexts of recurrent weather-related hazards. As climate change causes increasingly frequent erratic weather in many parts of the world, the disaster risk reduction results of MERET can also be applied to efforts to support adaptation to climate change by reducing the risk of hunger and livelihood damage resulting from weather hazards. This report describes the risk of and vulnerability to food insecurity in Ethiopia; the programmatic evolution of MERET, leading to its current design; a summary of the main results achieved by MERET, including the technological innovations introduced; examines World Food Programs’s (WFP) role in supporting government and community implementation of MERET; the challenges faced by the programme; and a synthesis of major lessons learned at the strategic and programme levels.

At a strategic level, some of the conclusions include communities facing humanitarian crises can achieve development results; project cannot transform a society, and only the society, supported by national government, can resolve its own problems; investing in community management capacity is essential to the sustainability of disaster risk reduction interventions; and in highly food-insecure communities where markets do not function reliably, food is often a preferred transfer, especially when development investments require households to reduce income levels in the short term, through eliminating unsustainable livelihood activities. At program levels the lessons include achieving “quick wins” in livelihood enhancement increases incentives and people’s commitment to continuing with environmental rehabilitation; working with the community as a partner requires community empowerment for decision-making; using learning to effect change requires adequate support to capacities for planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation; technical support among community managers, natural resource experts and extension agents; and technologies should be developed within communities, not at research stations, and disseminated through demonstrations in the field by technical staff. Farmer field visits, where farmers share experiences with each other, are a useful tool. Moreover, it claims that maintaining an effective quality control system with agreed standards across all sites ensures that efforts achieve the


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intended results.

Cabot, C.V., Fitzgibbon, C., Shiterak, T., Coulter, L. & Dooley, O. (2012). The Economics of Early Response and Disaster Resilience: Lessons from Kenya and Ethiopia. London: DFID.

This document explains the economics of early response and disaster resilience based on the studies conducted in Ethiopia and Kenya. The authors mention that it is believed that investment in building the resilience of communities to cope with risk in disaster prone regions is more cost-effective than the ever-mounting humanitarian response. Yet little solid evidence exists to support this claim. The purpose of the work was to support this agenda by providing the first step towards: A solid evidence base on the cost effectiveness of building resilience to disasters as compared with the cost of relief and early response; and identify the types of interventions that can provide the highest “Value for Money” (VfM). Data was collected through extensive consultation, both by phone/skype teleconference, as well as through face-to-face meetings. The data was then analyzed from two perspectives: from bottom-up approach and from top-bottom approach.

The study finds early response is far more cost effective than late humanitarian response though there is a great deal of uncertainty around the cost of building resilience. Nonetheless, the estimates presented here suggest that, while the cost of resilience is comparatively high, the wider benefits of building resilience can significantly outweigh the costs, leading to the conclusion that investment in resilience is the best value for money. Early response and resilience building measures should be the overwhelming priority response to disasters. There are many resilience-building measures that are likely to be ‘value for money’. It states that drought recovery takes longer (or may be impossible) when a community is not resilient; destocking interventions alone are often not sufficient to meet deficit levels faced by in-need households; and other intervention types, such as supplementary feeding interventions, are required to have an impact on animal mortality, conceptions, abortions, births, and milk production rates.

The authors recommended that funding models must be changed to integrate relief and development in a coherent cycle. In the short term, a more cost effective approach would be to prioritize early response measures. Yet adequate resources and capacity must be committed to building resilience. The authors also acknowledged the need for further study on a similar analysis within the context of a complex emergency (e.g. natural hazard and conflict), as well as rapid onset disaster, and the potential reductions in aid that can occur as a result of building resilience.


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Donovan, C., McGlinchy, M., Staatz, J. & Tschirley, D. (2005). Emergency Needs Assessments and the Impact of Food Aid on Local Markets, Strengthening Emergency Needs Assessment Capacity (SENAC), UN-WFP. http://fsg.afre.msu.edu/papers/idwp87.pdf.

This is a desk study which reviews current methods to conduct emergency needs assessment (ENA) with the aim of improving them. While using the World food Program ENA (WFPENA) as the main case to evaluate, the report seeks to be useful for other agencies in their assessments after an emergency. The market component in existing ENA frequently focuses on prices, price changes, and household purchasing power, ignoring the aspects related to market structure that would identify the potential of the market to meet needs. There is an underlying assumption that households without effective demand (purchasing power) will need to receive free food distributions to meet their needs.

The paper tries to address the basic component of ENA framework that to address the market questions, in an emergency, each ENA needs to assess: (a) the basic market structure, conduct, and performance prior to the shock, (b) the impact of the shock on the markets, and (c) the potential of the markets to provide supplies to households if the households had effective demand. This is done through several steps: (1) Market baseline studies in areas of recurrent crises; (2) Identifying market strategies of households; (3) Market visits and trader surveys that go beyond price analysis; (4) Use of market information services not only for price analysis, but all market reconnaissance, knowledge of structure, etc.; (5) Evaluation of regional and national trade and other policies that will affect markets; and (6) Market models, if feasible. Furthermore, the importance of qualitative and quantitative assessments of ENA in that quantitative assessment of the impact of food aid on markets using a market model can be completed in an ENA provided that the information is available and reliable, that the models have already been designed for the context, and that the analysts have the skills and local market expertise to use the models appropriately.

The report concluded that market baseline studies can contribute valuable information that is difficult to collect rapidly in response to an emergency; continued monitoring of markets is critical, for just as food aid programming and implementation is dynamic, markets and policies change; Staffing at WFP and other humanitarian agencies is generally insufficient to address the markets components; Basic “markets and food security” training for all ENA staff is recommended; Support for local MIS involves developing local human resources to respond in an emergency; and Qualitative and quantitative assessments in ENA both can play a role in decision-making. The report is useful to PRIME in assessments after emergency interventions especially in understanding markets as they relate to emergencies.

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Ethiopian Pastoral Research and Development Association (EPaRDA). (2008). Pastoral Early Warning System Field Operation Manual, Pastoral Community Development Project (PCDP).

This manual explains how the Early Warning System (EWS) in Pastoral and Agro-pastoral areas will be carried out in selected woredas of Oromia Region and SNNPR. It describes the main concepts, principles and processes to be followed. This document is a ‘Manual’ to help staff and communities in the selected woredas understand the early warning (EW) issues and procedures for implementation. The manual can be adopted to other projects in the intervention areas by analyzing the contexts. However, in its application, the manual should be linked to a number of other EW documents and risk management program documents especially for harmonization of the different approaches and to have a good complementary effect. The concepts, principles and processes included in this manual can be best adopted by researches and projects focusing on EWS particularly in drought prone areas of Ethiopia just like the intervention areas of PRIME.

Fassil Kebebew, Diress Tsegaye & Synnevåg, G. (2001). Traditional Coping Strategies of the Afar and Borana Pastoralists in Response to Drought, DCG Report No. 17, Drylands Coordination Group.

This study on traditional coping strategies of the Afar and Borana pastoralists must be seen as a follow up wanting to know more about how pastoralists themselves cope with the worsening situation and declining food entitlements at different stages of drought. Understanding and supporting existing indigenous pastoral strategies to cope with drought is an important step in getting humanitarian and development pastoral interventions right. The overall objective of this study was, therefore, to support communities of drought prone areas in rebuilding and strengthening their coping strategies in response to drought. In this study, the authors sought to reflect on the nature of various types of droughts, mild, average and acute, their effects on people’s livelihoods and coping and adopting strategies used by pastoralists/agro-pastoralists to respond to the decline in access to food, caused by the various types of drought. Previous relief, development and EWS efforts and policy issues were also addressed. The authors tried to get first hand impression and information from the local people through focus group discussions in both the study areas. In addition, previous studies done in Afar and Borana were used as references. The report cannot be looked upon as a complete comparative analysis between the two study areas. However, the information compiled in this report will give insight and deeper understanding about how pastoralists themselves observe, express and act in response to food insecurity caused by drought. PRIME can build on the existing traditional coping strategies after conducting cost-benefit analysis of the identified coping strategies, and tailoring them to climate and socio-economic situation of the areas which are temporarily dynamic.


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Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2009), National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management. http://www.elmt-relpa.org/aesito/hoapn?id_cms_doc=58&download_file=on&get_file=1036.

This is a draft document on National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management of the year 2009. The documents embodied essential strategic frameworks and policy issues through its several chapters that include Disasters and Disaster Management Practices in Ethiopia, Existing Disaster Management Policy, Strengthens, Limitations and Challenges, Disaster Risk Management (DRM) Policy Framework, and Directives for the Implementation of the National Policy on DRM. The national policy and strategy on disaster risk management will help donors, aid agencies and related projects including PRIME understand the policy frame work through which they can operate.

Fitzgibbon, C. & Crosskey, A. (2013). Disaster risk reduction management in the drylands in the Horn of Africa. Brief prepared by a Technical Consortium hosted by CGIAR in partnership with the FAO Investment Centre. Technical Consortium Brief 4. Nairobi: International Livestock Research Institute.

This brief highlights disaster risk reduction (DRR) as a valuable approach that can reduce the regular and increasing experience of damages and losses by drought-prone populations in the Horn of Africa. Authors, however, believed that DRR application is highly reduced and there is little evidence of any reduction in disaster risk. Drought is by far the most common disaster in the Horn of Africa and the justification for almost all recent large-scale humanitarian appeals and responses. This brief comprises of important information including current funding mechanism; challenges of climate change on disaster risk reduction; institutional and political challenges to implementing DRR approaches (lack of planned holistic approach, over-reliance on triggering food aid, failure to effectively include communities, poor coordination between ministries, donors and local actors, ineffective information and knowledge management systems, inappropriate and inflexible funding mechanisms); best practices in placing DRR in the mainstream (effective EW systems, improved coordination and management of drought, flexible donor funding, enabling communities to manage drought, timely and targeted cash and food transfers, making livestock-based livelihoods more resilient to drought, drought-resilient access to basic services); and recommendations for placing DRR in the mainstream (appropriate policy and legal framework, identify or create appropriate institutions to coordinate and manage DRR, improved development planning processes at all levels, improve information and knowledge management, improve long- and short-term planning and response, assess impact, identify best practice to inform future policies and programming, improved funding mechanisms, Infrastructure and delivery of basic services).

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Gezu Bekele & Tsehay Abera. (2008). Livelihoods-based Drought Response in Ethiopia: Impact Assessment of Livestock Feed Supplementation, Pastoral Livelihood Initiatives (PLI). http://www.livestock-emergency.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Bekele-and-Tsehay-PIA-Aug-082.pdf.

This impact assessment aimed to measure the impact of an emergency livestock feed supplementation program implemented by Save the Children US during drought in pastoralist communities in Liben district (Guji Zone) and Arero district (Borena Zone), Oromia Region. Essentially, the authors reported the assessment results of the drought that had affected the area from April 2007 through to April 2008, and under the intervention in Borena 6,750 cattle were fed. The objective of the assessment was to assess the impact of the 2007/8 drought on livestock resources; assess the impact of the supplementary feeding intervention on the mortality and post-drought production performance of cattle; and draw lessons to inform future decision making and planning for emergency livestock feed interventions. The overall finding of the assessment was that emergency livestock supplementary feeding during drought of up to 67 days duration could be justified in terms of livelihoods objectives and economic rationale. The report of the assessment can help PRIME’s decision-making process for emergency livestock feed intervention.

Gezu Bekele, Mohamed Abdinoor & Wosen Asfaw. (2008). Analysis of Traditional Drought Indicator and Triggers in the Southern Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. Available at http://www.elmt-relpa.org/aesito/hoapn?id_cms_doc=58&download_file=on&get_file=36.

This article assessed the pastoralists’ traditional drought indicator and triggers in Filtu and Dollo Ado in Somali region of Ethiopia using participatory methods. The article compares the situations in the normal and drought years in detail; the issues covered include rainfalls, pasture and water condition, livestock migration, livestock condition, livestock market supply, prices and livestock mortality. The main objectives of the study were to prioritize drought variables and livestock emergency response; establish threshold values of variables to distinguish a drought stage, and activate livestock emergency responses; develop scenarios for the effect of gu and dayr rain failure on pasture and water resources, livestock production performance and in turn for the livestock emergency responses using the rainfall period analytical framework; and verify the role of drought early warning indicators at different drought stages for the planning and targeting of emergency livestock interventions. In preliminary analysis of the early warning systems the framework combines four sets of information to prioritize the drought indicators: timely, reliable, critical and necessary. The analytical process is made into two steps: the 1st is about the sensitivity and specificity of the indicator. The next step is to see how necessary a given indicator is related to livestock emergency responses.

The result identified that the community used rainfall pattern, pasture and water availability, livestock mobility, and livestock-reproduction as major indicators to separate normal year from bad years. The study identified common indicators, their strength and limitations; predicts livestock emergency assistance demands based on observed pasture-water resources availability

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deficits and livestock prices collapse, and offers bench-marks on issues related to timing and level of drought responses along with priority target livestock classes; and deficit projections that distinguish a drought level and determine when management actions should began and end. Traditional knowledge should be acknowledged and combined with scientific knowledge for better performance and result.

Harvey, P. (2005). Cash and Vouchers in Emergencies. HPG discussion group, 60 pp. www.odi.org.uk/hpg

This discussion paper examines the use of cash and vouchers to provide people with assistance in emergency situations. The first product of an ongoing research project by the Humanitarian Policy group (HPG), it is based on a critical review of existing published and grey literature, initial discussions with aid agency staff and a survey of project documentation from recent and ongoing cash- and voucher-based responses. Proponents of cash- and voucher-based approaches argue that they can be more cost-effective and timely, allow recipients greater choice and dignity, and have beneficial knock-on effects on local economic activity. Skeptics fear that they are often impractical because they incur additional risks of insecurity and corruption, and argue that cash may be more difficult to target than commodities. Even where these approaches are feasible, there are concerns that women may be excluded, that cash maybe misused by recipients and that it may have negative effects on local economies and could fuel conflicts. Others feel that cash- or voucher-based responses sound interesting, but that in practice commodities are what is available, and what relief agencies have the skills and experience to deliver.

Crudely put, this literature review has thrown up two main findings. The first is that cash and voucher approaches remain largely underutilized in the humanitarian sector. The second finding is that there is a growing amount of experience with cash and voucher approaches, and that the absolute dominance of commodity-based approaches is beginning to erode. This growing experience is mirrored in the development sector, where various types of cash transfer have been used in the area of social protection and safety nets. The literature review has captured the different arguments over the use of cash and vouchers during emergency and also opened a door for further review and investigation especially for development workers and humanitarian assistance groups.

Harvey, P. (2007). Cash-based responses in emergencies. Humanitarian policy group (HPG), briefing paper, 25.

This working paper explored that assistance to people in emergencies can sometimes appropriately be provided in the form of cash, enabling people to decide for themselves what they most need and to buy it in local markets. Whenever in-kind assistance is provided, whether it is food aid, shelter materials, seeds or blankets, cash should be considered as a possible alternative. Deciding if cash is the most appropriate response depends on context-specific judgments about markets, about whether people can buy what they need and about whether cash can be delivered and spent more or less safely than in-kind alternatives. The study on which this

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Briefing Paper is based explores the suitability of cash and vouchers in the full range of emergency contexts, from natural disasters to wars, from rich developed countries to poor developing ones. Sometimes, it is assumed that cash provision may be possible in relatively well developed countries with banking systems, but not in less developed contexts, or that cash can be used in peaceful environments, but not in complex emergencies. The reviewers found out that recent experience challenges these assumptions, suggesting that cash or vouchers are a possible response even where states have collapsed, conflict is ongoing or there is no banking system.

The authors raised key issues that arise in comparing cash and in-kind assistance programmes. Typically, questions around cash are presented in terms of its supposed advantages and disadvantages as against commodity approaches. They argue that this is unhelpful: it often presents theoretical drawbacks to cash which may not be borne out in practice, and it tends to suggest that advantages and disadvantages are fixed, rather than context-specific. The authors further avoided this by presenting the issues as open questions, which need to be thought through on a context-specific basis. The paper strongly emphasized that any kind of resource transfer will impact on markets and local economies. A central question around cash transfers is how effectively markets will be able to respond to an injection of cash. Put simply, will people be able to buy what they want at reasonable prices? There is certainly a need for caution in assuming that this will be the case. Markets in developing countries are often weak and poorly integrated, and may be particularly constrained or disrupted in conflicts and during natural disasters. This requires a capacity to analyse markets at local, national and regional levels, both in the assessment process and in ongoing monitoring. Development workers and assistance agencies should always think about and reflect on their cash-based intervention of the pros and cons discussed in this report.

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2013). How Law and Regulation Supports Disaster Risk Reduction, Ethiopia: Country Case Study Report. http://www.ifrc.org/dl.

This report was commissioned by the International Federation for Red Cross (IFRC) and it is one of a series of case studies the IFRC is undertaking with UNDP as part of a global research project to learn about how law and regulation supports disaster risk reduction, particularly at the community level. This paper presents the country case studies as a whole to assist IFRC and UNDP in compiling a Global Synthesis Report on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and legislation. The data will also be used to inform the parallel development of a Checklist for Lawmakers. The synthesis study will be available as a tool for states and international actors, including UNDP and the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, by providing comparative data and examples of good legislative practices and their implementation. The purpose of the present Country Case Study is to provide country level information and analysis for this global project, but also to provide insights into law and disaster risk reduction in Ethiopia. The Laws and regulations can help organizations which work on Disaster to analyze the operating environment and be used to develop other tools as the basis for capacity building in DRR.

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Jackson, E. (2010). The key steps in establishing Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction in South Omo pastoralist areas. FARM-Africa’s field manual to guide practitioners in Ethiopia. FARM-Africa Ethiopia.

This manual describes the key elements in FARM-Africa’s approach to Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) at Kebele and Woreda level, based on its experiences in the South Omo Zone of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR). This approach views disaster management as part of long term development programming, rather than purely in the context of an emergency response. FARM-Africa’s methodology is focused on strengthening community institutions to identify and respond in a timely manner to disasters, as well as to plan longer term prevention and mitigative actions and community natural resource management and development initiatives, which will enable pastoralist communities to diversify their livelihoods and protect their assets. According to the author, the manual can be used as a training manual and field guide. It is aimed at professionals working with communities to develop CMDRR in hazard prone areas. The document is comprehensive and includes the following important information: A clear guide to the components of CMDRR and the steps for disaster risk management; options of early warning institution, their establishment and support; options for community development institutions focused on community development and natural resource management priorities to complement emergency responses; options for technical field methods involved in contingency planning; options for disaster mitigation and preparedness activities through bottom-up approach; templates for key documents in CMDRR, including the hazard assessment format, community contingency plan format, community action plan format, monitoring of the community contingency plan and community action plan.

To establish a CMDRR system, FARM-Africa has developed the following process which is divided into three distinct stages: (1) Establishing/Strengthening Community Institutions – identifying or establishing/strengthening a community group to identify the long term development needs of the community including disaster mitigation and natural resource management activities and community development initiatives; (2) Responding to Major Disaster Risks-this stage comprises of contingency planning, implementing a community based early warning system, and implementing an emergency response; and (3) Strengthening Communities to withstand disasters in the long term- this stage also comprises of participatory community action planning, and implementing community development imitative. PRIME is working in a similar livelihood, pastoralism and can use the field manual to establish CMDRR in the PRIME target areas.

Lautze, S., Yacob Aklilu, Raven-Roberts, A., Young, H., Girma Kebede & Leaning, J. (2003). Risk and Vulnerability in Ethiopia: Learning from the Past, Responding to the Present, Preparing for the Future. A Report for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). www.eldis.org/go/home&id=13559&type=Document

This is a report that was commissioned by USAID/DCHA Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) and the USAID Mission to Ethiopia. The authors describe the systems in

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place that are designed for the early detection of crisis, the nature of humanitarian responses these systems have induced, and the outlook for the coming year. This report focuses on the management of disaster risks and vulnerabilities for a range of reasons. The report is the result of a three-month process of consultations with key stakeholders, government officials and local administrators, reviews of key documents and studies, and travel to crisis affected regions (Tigray, Afar, SNNPR, Somali, Amhara, and Oromia). Due to the recurrent nature of crisis, Ethiopian livelihood systems have evolved to manage diverse disaster hazards, e.g. the migration patterns of pastoralists are designed to optimally manage the impact of drought on pasture and water resources; farmers seek to mitigate covariate risks through diversifying their cropping patterns; families strategically use family members to combine production with wage labor, etc. The paper strongly focuses on household risk and vulnerability management strategies that lead to more effective disaster preparedness, relief, recovery and prevention -- and development– policies and interventions. The different risk and vulnerability management mechanisms, prevention and intervention ways during disaster and crisis; as well as the lessons learned and preparedness strategies forwarded in this paper can greatly help PRIME project interventions and development activities and can inform its plan and activities.

Lindell, M.K. & Perry, R.W. (2004). Communicating Environmental Risk in Multiethnic Communities. USA: Sage Publication, USA.

The research is predominantly a review of literatures on risk communication about natural hazards and the challenges involved in communicating environmental risks to multiethnic communities. It reviews literatures on environmental risk communication and sum up the fundamental theories of communication and decision making; analyzes environmental hazard management and recaps the role of ethnicity in community functioning; assesses literatures on disaster response within the spectrum of people’s reactions to disaster warnings and identify the implication of these findings for the design and implementation of warning systems.

Literatures concerning the adoption and implementation of hazard adjustments (e.g. risk reduction actions consisting of hazard mitigation; actions taken to provide passive protection at the time of hazard impact; emergency preparedness actions taken to support active response after hazard impact; and recovery preparedness actions (e.g. hazard insurance) taken to provide the financial resources needed to recover from disaster impact) are thoroughly examined in the research. Lastly, it sorts out the tasks the environmental hazard managers must undertake, the actions public authorities and local industry are taking to manage these risks, and the actions that households and businesses can take to reduce their vulnerability.

The limitation of the research is that it is highly based on research results which are conducted in communities whose social setup is different from those communities in Ethiopia that PRIME wants to help change their lives. However, it is a very important input if the concepts are contextualized to fit the local economic, cultural, and political situation. PRIME is intending to strengthen the capacity of community based organizations, like Pastoralist Area Disaster Risk


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Management Committees. The research can provide the theoretical framework for disaster risk management and communication of climate change-related risks among target communities.

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (2008). Draft National Guidelines for Livestock Relief Interventions in Pastoralist Areas of Ethiopia (1st edn), National Livestock Policy Forum. http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/National%20Guidelines%20for%20Livestock%20-%20Ethiopia.pdf.

The draft paper argues that it is increasingly recognized that emergency assistance during drought or flood should also aim to protect people’s livelihoods. And also briefed that in pastoral areas, livelihoods-based emergency programming means protection of pastoral livestock in appropriate numbers, and support to the services and markets which are needed to assist rapid recovery. The paper presents detailed guideline livelihood based livestock emergency response. These guidelines are designed to promote best practice in the design, implementation and assessment of emergency livestock interventions in response to natural disasters in pastoral areas of Ethiopia. The guidelines represent a synthesis of experience from practitioners working in government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and research institutes in Ethiopia, plus lessons learned from other countries with substantial pastoral populations. All information was collated by Working Groups under the National Livestock Policy Forum, who conducted literature reviews, consulted pastoralists and professionals, and commissioned research and assessments to determine best practice. The guidelines present best practice as it is currently known in Ethiopia, and will be subject to review and refinement over time.

The guidelines are organized into two main sections: The first section covers principles and issues which are common to all types of livestock-related interventions during natural disasters in pastoral areas of Ethiopia. This section includes guidance on coordination of emergency response, early warning, early response and contingency planning, community participation and gender issues, monitoring and evaluation, outstanding learning and research issues. As these issues are generic for all types of livestock response, this section is relevant to all readers. The second section provides detailed guidance on different types of emergency livestock interventions viz. destocking, including both commercial destocking and slaughter destocking with meat distribution, Livestock feed supplementation, Emergency water supply for livestock Emergency veterinary care Restocking. The guidelines will serve as a general framework for livelihood based livestock emergency response including PRIME’s activities for the same.

Mulugeta Abebe. (2009). Emerging Trends in Disaster Management and the Ethiopian Experience: Genesis, Reform and Transformation. Journal of Business and Administration Studies, 1(2): 60-89.http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jbas.v1i2.57352

This article by Mulugeta aims to suggest policy and institutional mechanisms of reckoning with the prevailing problems of disaster management in Ethiopia. The author claims that while there have been critical issues that merit intellectual attention and resources, very little has so far been

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done in the area. Having drawn from historical and archival documents and the extant literature, the paper seeks to examine and reflect on the tortuous path that Ethiopia has gone through to transform its system of disaster management, chiefly its drought disaster management, since the mid-1970s. It reviews the checkered history of Ethiopian Disaster Management system (EDM) from circa mid-1970s. Having thrown some light on the lessons of experiences from other countries, it indicates the pitfalls EDM has recently faced, and suggests policy and institutional scenarios to overcome them. The way forward included in this document include building a more vibrant and autonomous disaster management system, that should be established upon the active partnership of all relevant actors (integrated approach), a system that should persevere in embracing strategies in prevention (mitigation), preparedness, response and recovery (a comprehensive approach), and a system of DM holistically devoted to both drought and non-drought hazards (all hazards approach) that have potentially been threats to the community and its assets in Ethiopia. The paper is focused on Ethiopian Disaster Management system (EDM) and the policy and /or institutional issues related to that. Pieces of the reviews can be used in strategizing responses and recovery plans during emergencies.

Nkamuhebwa, W., Mubarack, B. & Okiro, S. (2012). Participatory Disaster Risk Assessment Training Pack and Assessment Tools. Emergency Capacity Building (ECB) Project. Available at http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/

This document provides a harmonized participatory disaster risk assessment training pack and assessment tools which integrates ideas from COVACA of World Vision, PVCA of Oxfam, CVCA of Care, VCA of International Federation of Red Cross, CRISTAL of IUCN, PADR of Tearfund, CBDM of AIDTS, CEDRA of Tearfund, Environmental Assessment of Tearfund, IGAD, ACCRA, and IIRR documents. It is hoped that the local community engagement in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation challenges will derive benefit from their efforts and build resilient communities and the entire nation. According to the authors, the document is based on strong guiding principles such as active engagement of the vulnerable communities, focusing on exploring risks and factors contributing to risks, enable the community to understand vulnerability and capacity it possesses to prepare for and respond to disaster, and the end product should be developed and owned by the community. The material is important for facilitating analysis of vulnerability and capacity by members of communities themselves.

This training pack consists of six modules. The first module focuses on preparing the assessment team and the target community. The assessment team is equipped with facilitation skills and participatory tools that would give the community an opportunity to be involved. Module two investigates hazards people face in their local area, their significance, history, frequency and severity. Module three focuses on exploring vulnerabilities and capacities, and damage done to various aspects of life, livelihoods, property and the environment. Module four explores climate change adaptive capacity and options within the community. Module five is to enhance the capacity of Local government structures in contingency planning. Module six engages the target community through the five stages of producing a community level risk management plan owned

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and implemented by the community. PRIME can adopt this manual to conduct disaster risk assessment and to train staff on participatory disaster risk reduction.

Ogato, G. S. (2013). The Human Ecology of Disasters in Ethiopia: The Quest for Participatory Disaster Management and Sustainable Livelihood Improvement of Pastoral Communities. American Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 21-27.

This article capitalizes the need for comprehensive disaster management approaches which deals with responses to disasters and risk management to the disasters to bring sustainable development in pastoral communities of Ethiopia. The objective of the research is to evaluate the disaster management system in Ethiopia from sustainable disaster management system perspective. The paper applies Human Ecological Approach methodology, and literature review. The study identified strengths, treats, weakness, and opportunities in the disaster management systems of Ethiopia. The author recommends strong coordination and collaboration among institutes existing at different levels and equal emphasis to be given to disaster responses. It also mentions that international and bilateral organizations must help generate a framework of incentives that encourage the private sector, academia and civil society to create partnerships with national and local governments to address disaster prevention as an integral part of development policies.

The range of recommendations include: early warning, surveillance and monitoring systems need to capture and analyze a greater range of information than they presently are designed to do; a common framework for identifying and prioritizing disaster response strategies across a range of actors, populations, vulnerabilities and livelihoods systems is needed; the Government’s non-food aid emergency policies should be reviewed and implemented by each of the line ministries, especially Health, Agriculture (including for livestock) and Water Resources; the capacity of Ethiopian institutions to implement a concerted effort to train the disaster relief workers in Ethiopia in the basics of disaster relief and disaster should be strengthened and supported; diversification of livelihood strategies is greatly needed in order to enhance survival and build resilience; and the Government of Ethiopia (GOE) and donors should increase focus on natural resource conservation and watershed management as emergency issues. Lastly it proposes that GOE should consider the creation of a single, empowered entity such as a distinct Ministry of Livestock to oversee livestock sector development, production and marketing, as well as, animal health services.

Pantuliano, S. & Wekesa, M. (2008). Improving Drought Response in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia Somali and Afar Regions and Borena Zone of Oromiya Region, Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute, London. www.odi.org.uk

This study was commissioned by CARE International, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Save the Children UK, Save the Children US and, hereafter referred to as the Core Group. The overall purpose of the study was to provide an overview of the timing, appropriateness and efficacy of interventions in the drought that affected the pastoral lowlands of Ethiopia in 2005/2006. The study also sought to identify mechanisms to initiate more timely and appropriate interventions to protect and support pastoral livelihoods. The study has identified

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mechanisms, systems, capacities and institutions which need to be strengthened in order to trigger more timely and appropriate livelihood-based responses to drought. The study also explored donor interest in resourcing these changes. The study combined participatory approaches with conventional sampling methods. Statistical exercises were not the focus of the study; instead, participatory results from different tools were used to cross-check secondary data. Semi-structured interviews were carried out to cross-check and probe responses.

A comprehensive literature review was also undertaken on drought management in Ethiopia and in the region, including the impact assessments carried out following the 2005/2006 drought. The report is organized into six chapters. The first chapter provides an overview of the study and the purpose of the report, and summarizes the different livelihood systems in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia. Chapter 2 looks at the interventions implemented during the drought, examining their timeliness, appropriateness and efficacy in protecting livelihoods. Chapter 3 looks at the current drought response system in Ethiopia’s pastoralist areas, including early warning mechanisms and contingency planning. Chapter 4 discusses the key issues that need to be addressed in strengthening the response system currently in place. Chapter 5examines the policy environment, while chapter 6presents the study’s conclusions and recommendations. This report will not only contribute to the institutional memory of the2005/2006 drought response in Ethiopia’s pastoral areas, but will also be used by key stakeholders interested in supporting pastoral livelihoods in the Greater Horn of Africa region. The paper is helpful for PRIME to integrate its plans and collaborate with previous implementers in its future intervention plans.

Philpott, J., Asnake Abera & Kassaye Hadgu. (2005). Livelihoods/Emergency Assessment in Afar Region, Oxfam International. http://internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments%20)/D6273FE66774116B802570B7005903D2/$file/Afar+LH-Emer.pdf.

This is a report of the drought assessment in Afar region. The assessment took place in January 2005 for three weeks by the consultants in collaboration with Oxfam partners Action Contre La Faim (ACF) and Afar Pastoral Development Association (APDA). The assessment team visited Zone 1, 3, 4 and 5; discussed with NGO and GO officials (region and woreda level); and drought affected pastoralists and agro pastoralists. This report therefore presents current situation of the drought, analysis of the underlying causes, and outlines short and long term recommendations to alleviate the crisis. The team also finally recommended long term interventions, which are aimed at alleviating the root causes of food insecurity and livelihood deterioration. These include: water development and management, enhancing productivity of the rangeland and livestock, improving livestock marketing, and diversifying source of livelihood. The paper also recommended some cross cutting intervention related with gender and HIV/AIDS prevention. Considering the weak capacity of the government departments and partner NGOs also recommended some capacity building interventions related with organizational development and coordination. The report of the assessment can help in understanding the type of emergencies to be expected in Afar region which is one of PRIME’s intervention areas. Moreover, it will help PRIME make use of the

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recommendation to strategize it intervention as part of its major activity which is, Effective Emergency Response.

Ranjan, R. (2011). Drought Resilient Strategies, Selected Works, in Press. http://works.bepress.com/ram_ranjan/20

This paper talks about strategies for drought resilience, which is defined in this paper as the capacity of farmers to survive a certain number of consecutive droughts. Farmers can enhance their drought resilience through accumulating wealth and through conserving ground water. The paper also argues that a stylized model quantifies drought resilience and analyzes key trade- ‐offs between wealth accumulation and ground water conservation strategies. Findings highlight differing patterns of drought resilient strategies for farmers varying in their endowments and time preferences. The paper assumes that there is a ground water for farmers to conserve in the first place, so the weakness of this paper could be that the strategies mentioned therein might not be applicable to the pastoralist context.

Regional Drought Decision (RDD) (2011?). Putting the Disaster Risk Reduction Elements Together: Lessons Learned from ECHO- Financed Regional Drought Decision (RDD) Projects in Ethiopia. http://www.disasterriskreduction.net

This is a lesson learned document produced as part of the implementation of the Regional Drought Decision (RDD) projects. The paper describes the lessons learned in the pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of Ethiopia in Somali, Oromia, Afar, South Omo and Dire Dawa which are vulnerable to recurrent drought, conflict and demographic changes which result in chronicfood and livelihoods insecurity. The paper documented the results of Regional Drought Decision (RDD projects developed with the objective of “reducing vulnerability and strengthening capacity to withstand drought amongst vulnerable communities in the Greater Horn of Africa”, from 2006 to 2010 that focused on timely response, community‐based drought preparedness, promoting local resilience and strengthening community based early warning systems. In this document, it was argued that the conventional drought response actions that have been carried out over the past few decades have not brought about a significant change in the ability of vulnerable households to cope with and manage drought and its impact. This is mainly due to a lack of proactive mainstreaming of DRR into project frameworks, leading to interventions focused on emergency responses rather than preparedness and addressing root causes of vulnerability.

Key technical areas addressed in this paper included animal health, local capacity building for communities and development agents, information analysis and communication, infrastructure development, natural resource management, livestock feed development and policy advocacy. The paper concluded and recommended that the different interventions in the pastoral and agro‐pastoral areas of Ethiopia should base themselves on indigenous knowledge and local practice and ensuring that communities decide on and manage these interventions themselves provides an opportunity for community managed drought preparedness in the future.

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Hence, future projects in this area also should seek to revitalize and make use of the existing indigenous potential in their intervention options.

Rettberg, S. (2010) Contested narratives of pastoral vulnerability and risk in Ethiopia’s Afar region, Pastoralism Vol. 1 No.2. pp. 248-273. Practical Action Publishing, doi: 10.3362/2041-7136.2010.014.

The study was conducted among pastoral Afar clans of Baadu, a wetland area within the middle of Awash basin. The researcher used case study, narrative and biographical interview, group discussion, selected tools of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and ethnographical methods of observation to conduct the research.

This paper argues that changes in socio-spatial patterns of coping and adaptation need to be linked to underlying motivations, beliefs and perceptions in order to be fully understood. The paper emphasizes the role of local knowledge, risk perceptions and decision patterns in analyzing changing pastoral livelihood strategies. The author argued that the main concern for Afar pastoralists are political risks evolving from recurrent violent conflicts and increasing governmental development interventions, while drought plays only a minor role within local narratives of risk. Special attention is drawn to the strategic instrumentalisation of heterogeneous governmental and pastoral risk narratives and the impact of conflicting narratives on the current pastoral livelihood crisis, shaped by an increasing vulnerability and an ongoing political and economic marginalization of pastoralists in Ethiopia.

This article has argued that local agency can only be understood against the background of a highly complex risk scenario, where pastoralists constantly interpret, evaluate and weigh multiple risks in order to take decisions that inform their social practices. Government intervention for disaster prevention and poverty reduction (urbanization, sedentarization, confiscation of weapons etc), expansion of state or private large scale farming, tribal conflict, provision of food aid, flood, invasive species and drought have all contributed to their risk management and vulnerability analysis. He also argued that it is better to give high attention on the importance of including the broader macro-level perspective in the analysis of local patterns of risk and vulnerability. Political-economic questions that define power relations in pastoral settings need to be considered.

The study is useful for PRIME project as it discuss the risks threatening the pastoralists in the region and the activities that should be done by all stakeholders to avoid such risk especially from the government side. It also provides contextual analysis under which intervention activities should be designed and offer context friendly long-term development services.

Tenna, S. (2011). Economics of Resilience. Ethiopia Country Report. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ethiopia-country-report-2012

This is a report of a baseline survey that has attempted to provide a baseline of data on costs of water and livestock interventions at different stages of response. The paper indicated that Ethiopia has been one of the major humanitarian aid recipient countries among Sub-Saharan

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African Countries. Most of the humanitarian aid for Ethiopia comes from USAID. The majority (70%) of this aid comes mainly in the form of food aid. The report concluded that the evidence gathered from the literature and field level observation suggests that humanitarian intervention saves lives, but it cannot help build the capacity of an affected population to withstand disaster shocks on their own. As a result, governments, donors and nongovernmental organizations agree that more focus is required on interventions that build the capacity of vulnerable households in pastoralist areas. The paradox, however, is that many donors still pay scant attention to increasing the size of funding for resilience interventions and keep the volume of humanitarian aid larger than resilience funding. The paper can help development interventions focus on interventions that build the capacity of vulnerable households in pastoralist areas in economic recovery approach, there by achieving goals with minimum expenditure.

The SEEP Network (2007). Market Development in Crisis-Affected Environments: Emerging Lessons for Achieving Pro-Poor Economic Reconstruction. www.seepnetwork.org

This paper documents, for the first time, practitioners’ experiences and innovations in market development for income generation and livelihood security in crisis and post-crisis settings. War and natural disasters have devastating impacts on people’s ability to generate income and secure a sustainable livelihood that can help protect them from future shocks. Relief initiatives, in their admirable work to meet the basic needs of people affected by crisis, often inadvertently distort private sector markets and unintentionally create vulnerabilities and dependency. Market development (an approach to enterprise development, livelihood security, and pro-poor economic growth) attempts to avoid market distortion, and use the power of markets to move communities more rapidly from relief dependency to independent livelihood security. This practice is in early stages, but experience to date reveals several challenges and these key lessons include among others, 1) Market development approaches can and need to be adapted to post-crisis settings to be effective, and can be a key component of “building it back better.” 2) Donor funding cycles and targeting criteria need to be adjusted to integrate relief and development goals, to be more flexible in implementation strategy, and to reflect the power of indirect targeting—to larger or less-affected enterprises—in order to benefit poor people affected by a crisis.

Market development calls for improved coordination, particularly in large-scale, high-profile disasters and conflicts, but there are ways to develop markets even in a highly subsidized, uncoordinated relief environment. Grant programs need to ensure proper feasibility studies of target enterprises and give greater consideration to the timing of grants and funding: they also need to address risks of market distortion that arise with grant programs and devise strategies to ensure that grant goals and objectives are clearly communicated to recipients. It is critical to take the political economy of markets into account, lest market development programs inadvertently exacerbate inequality, vulnerability, and conflict. When appropriately considered, strategies may emerge that work around, transform, or confront powerful interests and benefit the poor on a sustainable basis. Capacity building of the staffs of implementing agencies and the adaptation of

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market development tools to post-crisis settings are critical in transmitting the knowledge. Donors, implementing agencies, and host governments need to intervene appropriately or contribute effectively. The SEEP report also recommended that further exploration and action research should focus on 1) dissemination of these lessons, 2) ongoing exchange of experience and information, 3) pilot initiatives to spur innovative market-strengthening practices 4) adapting the market development framework to crisis conditions 5) innovative capacity building, and 6) recommendations to donors to adapt their policies and guideline to better support market development in crisis-affected areas.

USAID. (2001). Proceedings from the Workshop on Pastoral Early Warning and Early Response Systems in the Greater Horn of Africa. 13th -15th November, 2001, Mombasa, Kenya.

The proceeding contains three main sections excluding the introduction and the conclusion parts. The first is on ‘Setting the Framework’, achieved through two keynote presentations. The second focuses on ‘Early Warning Systems’, where case studies illustrating examples of current systems are presented. This section then includes three rounds of group work: identifying constraints to early warning systems; defining gaps in information; and then developing proposals for country early warning action plans. The third section, ‘Building Links to Early Response’, is led by a keynote presentation and further case studies, followed by presentation of the action plans for improved response which were developed by the country working groups. The report ends with a ‘Conclusion’ section. The report mentions that there appears to be a general need to strengthen government institutions that are responsible for early warning and response in pastoralist areas - where government exists. The sustainability of EWS emerged as a key concern implying that, as far as possible, EWS set up by international organizations (donors and NGOs) must take this into account when designing and establishing the system. It also mentions that it is not sufficient for EWS practitioners to collect and analyze data, and simply to deliver an early warning message. But they must also be prepared to take on the role of advocates, to lobby decision-makers to respond, particularly where there is little political will and/ or bureaucratic inertia to do so. Contingency planning coupled with capacity and mechanisms to respond – ideally with a contingency fund will help to forge the link between early warning and response. The report also contains country level and regional level recommendations.

Venton, C.C., Shitarek, S., Coulter, L. & Dooley, O. (2013). The Economics of Early Response and Resilience: Lessons from Ethiopia, TEERR: Ethiopia. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67330/Econ-Ear-Rec-Res-Full-Report_20.pdf

This report analyzes available data from Ethiopia, along with data modeled using the Household Economy Approach (HEA), to compare the cost of three scenarios: Late humanitarian response; early annual humanitarian response; and investment in resilience. The report is structured as

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follows: Section 2 provides a very brief overview of the country context. Section 3 assesses the comparative costs from a bottom-up perspective-using disaggregated project and sector level estimates to compare the cost of response. Section 4 assesses the comparative costs from a top-down perspective –using aggregate level costs and losses for the country as a whole. The paper provides information on the recent analysis of the Economics of Early Response and Resilience. It gives a good understanding of responses in the perspective of humanitarian assistance and resilience investment. The lessons learned in Ethiopia with regard to past responses provide an insight to future interventions especially in the most vulnerable part of pastoral Ethiopia. Since early response and resilience is core to the PRIME project, the lessons learned with regard to cost of the same can definitely be helpful in minimizing risk and make the intervention cost effective.

Watson, C. & Catley, A. (2008). Livelihoods, Livestock and Humanitarian Response: The Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards. Commissioned and Published by the Humanitarian Practice Network at Overseas Development Institute, Humanitarian Practice Network. http://www.odihpn.org/

This network paper by Watson and Catley discusses livelihoods-based livestock programming and its role in humanitarian emergency response. It highlights the importance of taking livelihood assets, in particular livestock, into account in responding to emergencies and describes how the Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS) project has been developed to support this process. LEGS aim to promote the use of livelihood-based livestock responses to emergencies, through building the capacity of humanitarian actors to plan and intervene appropriately. LEGS can also be used to assist in the evaluation of emergency responses by providing a framework and benchmark against which interventions can be reviewed. There is much that can and should be done to support people’s livelihoods through livestock-based responses to emergencies. The paper presented case studies including destocking which is the common livestock based emergency response and also supplemental feeding. Watson and Catley mentioned livelihood approach in emergency response, the importance of early warning and early response as key issues in livelihoods-based livestock response in emergencies. LEGS and the growing body of practical experience are an exciting way forward for improving and expanding livestock responses which benefit emergency response capability of PRIME.

World Food Programme (WFP). (2009). Emergency Food Security Assessment Handbook (2nded.) Food Security Analysis Service, United Nations World Food Programme.

This is a book by the World Food Program (WFP) which contains information on the latest progress made to understand how markets impact on household food security, to identify chronic and transitory food insecurity, and measure food insecurity. It integrates food security and nutrition analysis and explores the population’s vulnerability and risks to livelihoods. It also facilitates the analysis of response options, looking at food and non-food options. The hand book provides WFP staff and partners with the most up-to-date and advanced guidance on how to

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conduct accurate, timely and transparent food security assessments. Although the handbook put a great emphasis on food security and nutrition and the risk associated to the livelihood of the vulnerable community, it also provides critical information on the importance of market with regard to securing the household livelihood demands. So market orientation studies and researches can make use of this book to explore and make improvements towards market infrastructures and viability of market especially in fluidly market situation of pastoral part of Ethiopia especially during an emergency crisis.

Yakob Aklilu & Wekesa, M. (2002). Drought, Livestock and Livelihoods: Lessons from the 1999–2001 Emergency Response in the Pastoral Sector in Kenya, Humanitarian Practice Network (HPN). http://mercury.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/96813/ipublicationdocument_singledocument/32a8cc2f-6b1e-4a52-9ace-0e2bd37ae32b/en/networkpaper040.pdf.

This paper documents the experiences and lessons learnt from the livestock interventions in response to the drought. It focuses on the arid and semi-arid districts of Kenya, where the drought's effects were most severe. The first chapter describes the severity and impact of the drought, introduces some of the response activities that were implemented, and underscores the livestock sector's importance to Kenya's economy. The second chapter describes in more detail the range of livestock-related interventions that were implemented, and discusses their broader socio-economic impact. In chapter three, the costs and benefits of the various interventions are laid out. The research involved interviews with donor representatives and the staff of implementing agencies. Group interviews were also conducted with district-level stakeholders, such as District Steering Group committee members and beneficiaries. Field visits were made to Mandera, Garissa, Wajir, Narok, Turkana and Marsabit; in all, ten projects were visited. Finally, a review of related materials was carried out. The paper concludes with the key lessons of the intervention, and offers recommendations and suggestions to guide future work. The paper is the best first in terms of PRIME objectives and activity plans on emergency interventions and the lessons learned can be used by the project. Secondly, the paper deals with intervention lessons in pastoral area of Kenya which does have the same livelihood as that of PRIME’s intervention areas.

Yonas Admassu (eds) (2003) Proceeding of the Round Table on Drought and famine in the Pastoral Region of Ethiopia, Global Hotel, Addis Ababa, December 23-24, 2002, Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia.

This is a proceeding of discussion forum organized by PFE following the famine that hit the country in general, and the pastoral community in particular. The objective of the discussion was to provide the platform, identify causes, suggest solutions and policy options, create synergy among stakeholders pertaining to issues of drought and the impending famine in the pastoral communities. In addition to papers presented, the proceeding contains statements by pastoralist elders on different issues and discussions by the participants which came from development

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partners, government pastoralist offices, researchers, donors and pastoralist representatives which came from different parts of the country.

The proceeding presents papers presented and discussions made on five interrelated themes: magnitude of famine in pastoral areas of Ethiopia; immediate causes for the famine in pastoral areas; structural causes of famine in pastoral areas - the macroeconomic dimension; pastoral drought management - recommendations; and the impact of traditional and modern institutions on the life of pastoralists. The proceeding asserts that more than 50% of the chronic drought-affected population in Ethiopia is from the pastoral areas, which goes to the extent of threatening the pastoralists' livelihood and making them more vulnerable to risks and dependency. In addition, the proceeding asserts that the role of traditional institutions in maintaining peace and stability (e.g. punishing criminals), managing resources, responding to risk and droughts (e.g. sharing dry-season grazing land), and protecting vulnerable groups (e.g. women, children and elders) has been weakened due to many reasons. The experience of peace making process in the southern Omo and the neighboring pastoral community were also presented where the neighboring communities have successfully formed one militia group and a committee of elders, youth and women to maintain peace and discuss issues periodically.

It has been underlined that development partners should go beyond relief service and bring long term development intervention in to their programs. Addressing conflict and partnering with traditional crisis coping mechanisms should as well be get attention for a sustainable pastoralist development. The forum and resulting proceeding clearly confirm that drought, conflict and traditional institutions are interrelated and development programs should address them before, during and after crisis.

Young, H., Jaspars, S., Brown, R., Frize, J & Khogali, H .(2001). Food-security Assessments in Emergencies: A Livelihoods Approach, Humanitarian Practice Network Paper, London. http://www.odihpn.org/documents/networkpaper056.pdf

This paper describes the theory and practice of Oxfam GB’s livelihoods approach to assessing food security in emergencies. A livelihoods approach simply means emergency programming aimed at supporting livelihoods, as well as saving lives. In terms of food-security assessments, a livelihoods approach involves assessing the longer-term risks to livelihoods, as well as short-term nutritional or life-threatening risks. The paper deals with these livelihood approaches in three parts. The first part of the paper describes the key concepts that make up food-security theory, and relates them to a livelihoods approach. The second part of the paper describes how Oxfam assesses food security. The third part of the paper uses case studies to illustrate how Oxfam has applied its livelihoods approach in practice, and how that approach has been adapted depending on the types of livelihood in question, and the nature of the external shock. The paper ends by highlighting the key challenges posed by a livelihoods approach to assessing food security in emergencies.

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The limitation of the paper is that it focuses on the experiences of Oxfam in emergencies; hence the approaches should be argued and contested with other similar documents that embodied the experience of other humanitarian works. Furthermore, the case studies in this paper didn’t clearly toggle out whether the theories and practices of Oxfam can work in pastoral part of Ethiopia, although Kenya is mentioned. The paper, however, can help other projects revise their plans and approach in the emergency situations in light of the livelihood approached depicted herein.

X. NRM, LAND TENURE AND PROPERTY RIGHTS

Ayele Gebre-mariam (1994). Nomadic Peoples: The alienation of land rights among the Afar in Ethiopia, Nomadic Peoples 34/35, pp. 137- 146, Commission on Nomadic People.

The study focuses on the Afar region where life is dependent on multi-species pastoralism (herding camels and goats) because of natural occurrences such as drought and epidemics, it claims. Most of the land which was taken for early development was close to the Awash River, in areas which floods easily and took a long time to drain. Consequently, the pastoralists have lost land which is of greatest importance to them; land which gave good grazing during the driest part of the year.

The changes that have been included in the Afar have been induced by internal dynamics and by external factors which are mainly political in nature. Since the 1960’s external changes which are alien to Afar society, and various dynamics within the system, have lowered the threshold of viability for the Afar as a whole. One of the internal changes inland tenure that has affected the Afar way of life is the acceptance of herding arrangements for Oromo livestock. The external changes include Oromo cattle incursion in Afar rangelands, conflicts with other groups adjacent to the Afars, the damming of the Awash River, depletion of life belt areas in Borkenna valley, depletion of the dry season grazing reserve in the Awash valley, commercial farming since the end of 1992 and the establishment of Awash game park. It also asserts that the law that declares all lands including that of the nomads to be the property of state is at odd with the Afar’s who believe that the land belongs to them only. It is also claims that

At the end he concluded that the global move towards privatization of pasture land is detrimental to the Afar pastoralists and should be discouraged. It is one-sided analysis where arguments from pro state intervention have not been considered. Otherwise, it offers a very good understanding of how social structure and norms should be considered in designing programs, and how tenure rights influence pastoralists’ livelihood.

Bekele Hundie & Padmanabhan, M. (2008, June). The Transformation of Commons in the Afar Region in Ethiopia: State Coercion, Diversification, and Property Rights Change among Pastoralists. CAPRi Working Paper No. 87, (http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/CAPRiWP87). International Food Policy Research Institute.

The study was carried out in Amibara, Awash-fentale and Semu-Robi-Gele’ab districts of the Southern parts of the Afar regional state. To investigate both historical and recent changes in the

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traditional property rights of the Afar pastoralists, the researchers pursued primary data sources such as individual household interview and observation and secondary sources including several unpublished documents.

According to the study, the Afar pastoralists live a mobile way of life by making animal husbandry as a major economic activity and agriculture as an optional activity practiced only in the lowlands of the Afar regional state. It emphasizes on revealing a situation where the traditional land use arrangements in Afar are being transformed due to the introduction of farming. The study also explores how the three governments in Ethiopia used coercive and non- coercive means to change the traditional land holding system in the Afar region. The imperial and the socialist governments introduced large scale agriculture in a coercive manner and the current government used the recurrence of drought in the study areas as a means to subdivide the communal land holding voluntarily for the purpose of farming. The authors also suggested issues that the current policies should take into account including averting possible continuation of state coercion and harmonizing policy emphasis with the potentials of pastoral areas.

This research is useful for PRIME research as it helps us to know the impact of transformation of communal land holding in the region. The main limitation of the research is that it widely focuses on the negative aspect of the transformation of communal land ownership with no or little discussion on its positive aspects.

Bekele Hundie (2006). Property Rights among Afar Pastoralists of Northeastern Ethiopia: Forms, Changes and Conflicts. A Paper presented at the 11th Biennial Conference of the International Association of the Study of Common Property, 19-23 June 2006, Bali Indonesia. Retrieved from www.saga.cornell.edu/saga/ilri0606/35hundie.pdf‎/

With the objective of describing the traditional land use arrangements among pastoralists, explaining changes in pastoral customary rights and resource-based conflicts among various pastoral groups, the research was conducted in three districts of Afar region. The author focuses specifically on the process and consequences of land rights changes among the Afar pastoralists. He also explains how changes in property rights combined with resource pressures and changing socioeconomic conditions spread violence in the areas. According to his study, property rights in Afar are traditionally based on the philosophy that land is a communal resource but it is changing over time and state was the first catalyst toward this change. Moreover, due to the nationalization of land, there is an increasing shortage of pasture and water which led conflicts among different ethnic groups.

The article describes state as the giant actor behind property right changes especially in areas with better resource endowments. The state-driven changes in customary rights have led to increasing conflicts between pastoralists and the state. It also created disparity among clan members in the level of resource use as it facilitated the exclusion of some clan members. In addition to the state, natural as well as socioeconomic challenges are important in explaining the current changes in land use arrangements. It is also evident that, conflicts nurtured by obscurely defined property rights are extensive among pastoral groups causing humanitarian crisis


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(especially of the active labor force), loss of assets (primarily livestock), underutilization of pastoral resources by creating “no go” areas, and underutilization of market opportunities.

Any development program intending to intervene in such areas should appreciate the impact of change of traditional land holding in the Afar people. In addition, it best explains the role of state in brainwashing the land right conceptions of the Afar communities.

Flintan, F., Boku Tache & Abdurahman Eid (2011). Rangeland Fragmentation in Traditional Grazing Areas and its Impact on Drought Resilience of Pastoral Communities: Lessons from Borana, Oromia and Harshin, Somali Regional States, Ethiopia. Regional Learning and Advocacy Program for the Vulnerable Dryland Communities. http://www.disasterriskreduction.net/east-central-africa/reglap/documents/detail/en/c/1960/

This report is a summary of a case study research in Somali and Oromia regions of Ethiopia that was commissioned by Save the Children/UK. The study was conducted in response to the recommendation of a REGLAP (Regional Learning and Advocacy Programme) supported comprehensive literature review of the impacts of land fragmentation in the rangelands, in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda in early 2011. One of the recommendations of the report was that more in-depth case studies needed to be carried out. This report summarizes the findings of this research. A key tool used in the research was community resource mapping. In the case of Borana (Oromia), this was done across the Golboo traditional grazing zone or dheeda. In Somali region this was done across Harshin District following administrative boundaries but incorporating movement that might be required in and out of the District. The mapping was used as a visual starting point for an in-depth discussion over several days on how resource availability and access has changed; how land use has changed as a result; and the causes, processes and impacts of these changes.

The paper is highly relevant in terms of its well defined methodologies and well thought recommendation. Natural Resource affiliated institutions, development workers and research faculties etc can make use of this information for the way forward and to inform its resource mapping activities in a similar agro-climatic condition.

Flintan, F., Solomon Demlie, Mohammed Awol, Zahra Humed, Yemane Belete & Honey Lemma (2008). Study on Women’s Property Rights in Afar and Oromiya Regions, Ethiopia. Retrieved from http://www.elmt-relpa.org/aesito/hoapn?id_cms_doc=58&download_file=on&get_file=127

The study was conducted in Oromia region of Fantale, Yabello and Moyale woredas and in the Afar region of Awash 7 Kilo, Dubti and Elider woredas. The methodologies employed to conduct the research were survey, community dialogue and wealth ranking to facilitate discussion. The research’s main objective was to identify problems of women in the study area and working towards their economic empowerment through various income generation activities. It suggests that women can be empowered through various income generation activities such as

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livestock marketing, animal health, water development, rangelands management and drought cycle management.

The research also discusses federal and regional government policies, legislations, customary laws on women’s property right to achieve the objective mentioned above. It also identifies some of the practical barriers and challenges as well as the knowledge and skill gaps in enforcing women’s property right. According to their finding previous laws, codes and regulations should be updated, laws on the paper should be practiced, raising women and men awareness on the topic, abolishing bride price, strengthening customary institutions and advocating for better regional and local government support are some of the issues that have to be done to practically implement women’s property right in the region. The paper also discusses as to the role of formal and informal institutions in changing the situation.

The recommendations are helpful designing intervention programs that work in favor of creating communities that are safe for women, where women’s property rights are respected, and social equity is enhanced.

Getachew Kassa (2002). An overview of root causes of problems that currently affect Borana Pastoarlists of Southern Ethiopia. In Mustafa Babiker (ed.): Resource Alienation, Militarization and Development: Case Studies from East African Drylands. Addis Ababa: OSSREA, pp. 67-76.

The study was carried out in the Borana Oromo and the Somali pastoralists who inhabit the semi- arid, arid lands and river valleys of the eastern and southern Ethiopia. The paper has four aims to achieve. The first is to highlight the competing and conflicting land claims of these pastoralists with other claimants (and users) in their historical context. The second is to address the “self-defense” measures as a form of adaptation of Borana pastoralists to an increased encroachment on their collective resources by other groups, the government and their own people (farmers). The third is to look into the responses of the national government and others. The fourth is to discuss alternative policy interventions which might be considered to tackle the problems of the pastoralists in the area.

In his paper, the author attempted to identify the common causes of conflict or problem between Borana pastoralists and other pastoralists in the region such as competition over resources such land, water and pasture, and cattle raiding. It presents that the current problems of pastoral Borana and their neighbors were partly shaped by the various administrative and land related policies of the government, which started in the past. It also discusses the practical and policy problems in each of the three consecutive Ethiopian governments starting from the imperial regime. It also mentioned the meaningless efforts made by each government to solve the problems. The article concludes by suggesting alternative policy interventions that might be considered in any effort that aims at solving the problems of Borana and other disadvantaged pastoral and agro-pastoral groups in the dry lands of East Africa.


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The study is important for understanding the root causes as well as the areas of dispute in the region. It is a literature review approach with little empirical data.

Helland, J. (2002). Land alienation in Borana: Some land tenure issues in a Pastoral context in Ethiopia: In Mustafa Babiker (ed.): Resource Alienation, Militarization and Development: Case Studies from East African Drylands. Addis Ababa: OSSREA pp. 47-65.

The study was conducted among the Borena pastoralists in the Oromia regional state. It discusses the land rights of the Borana pastoralists as an example of pastoral land tenure in Ethiopia. The overall goal was to show how pastoral land rights are not given place in the public debate on land tenure issues in Ethiopia. Pastoral tenure rights are usually a simplified version of much more complex tenurial arrangements found in agricultural areas. The pre-eminence of state rights is characteristic of the situation. Pastoral tenure rights usually involve unclear group user rights to the resources, with poor legal protection from pastoral competitors or agricultural expansion into the rangelands.

The author argues that the land base of the Borana pastoralists has been continuously diminished over the last century, partly because of political and military competition, more recently because of developmental approaches which on the one hand encourage alternative forms of land use (agriculture, land grants to ‘investors’) and which on the other hand have ecological repercussions (bush encroachment) which remove large parts of the remaining land resources from Borana pastoralism. The author further states that the Boranas has inadequate protection from the land tenure legislation which does not take the requirements of pastoralism much into account. It also asserts that the Borana are caught between two political processes, which have resulted in severe shrinkage of the area available to them, and ecological processes which has reduced the overall productivity of the remaining rangelands. The article is useful to our research as it helps us to know the alienation in the region. The limitation of the research is that the author did not state the method used to do the research and fails to recommend the possible solution for the problems raised.

Helland, J. (1982). Social Organization and Water Control among the Borana. Development and Change, 13: 239–258. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7660.1982.tb00119.x

The article provides the human and livestock populations, rainfall condition, tradition and water management systems in the Borana pastoral systems. Particularly, it focuses on the traditional water sources and management system. The paper explains that sustained pastoral production in Borana depends on the balanced relationship between pasture, animals and humans. It has tried to show how the availability of water, and the social control mechanisms, which regulate this scarce resource, implies a control over the stocking rates of the Borana range. Other features of Borana social organization imposes strict rules on human reproduction, resulting in a situation where manpower is in short supply in a society that is based on a labor-intensive economy. The major sanction underlying the Borana system of water control is, of course, exclusion from water. Failure to supply labor at the well and failure to participate in the politics of water will soon lead to exclusion from the well. This participation depends on providing labour in


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proportion to the livestock. The basic contention of this paper is that the Borana live in a well-balanced ecological adaptation and that this balance is maintained by a complex social structure which is closely related to the regulation of access to, and utilization of, the critical water resource. Under the traditional circumstances of Borana pastoralism, the organizational forms of Borana society thus constitute an adequate adaptive solution.

The article provides useful analysis of the complexity of social structures and how labor (power) and access to water are interrelated. Accordingly, it offers development programs to consider accommodating existing local control mechanisms, continually monitor the adaptation of communities to innovations and be flexible to respond to conditions. The author is familiar to the Borana communities and gained acceptance through his scholarly works. The article was published again in 2008 two decades after its fist publication.

Hiwot Desta (Undated). Overview on Degradation of Land Due to Overgrazing in Ethiopia, University of de Milano, Milan, Italy. http://www.mi.imati.cnr.it/sara/biodiversita/Overview%20on%20Degradation%20of%20Land%20Due%20to%20Overgrazing%20in%20Ethiopia.pdf.

The paper mainly focuses on the degradation of land use especially due to overgrazing in Ethiopia. The paper begins by giving some back ground information about Ethiopia’s population, total area (45% of it is highland and 80% of the populations live there) and that livestock is the main component of agriculture in which 80% of the citizen work. Relating with Burundi, Rwanda and Kenya, the author discuss the causes of land degradation, including increased human population, over stocking and over grazing and soil erosion. The paper recommended control overstocking /Destocking/ to bring the number down to the carrying capacity of the grazing area, provision of adequate feed and animal nutrition; including crop residues such as wheat straw, Enset (false banana) residue, sweet potato vines, corn stover, and concentrates including but not limited to oilseed cakes, cereals and cereal by-products. The paper gives basic information about causes of land degradation but the paper is too descriptive. Moreover, the paper doesn’t indicate the year of publication so validation of the data is required before making use of it for future information, although pertinent recommendations are provided in the paper.

PFE, IIRR & DF (2010). Pastoralism and Land: Land Tenure, Administration and Use in Pastoral Areas of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Ethiopia.

The study covers all part of the pastoralist area of Ethiopia. Personal observation, case studies and document analysis are the methods of data collection used in the study.

In spite of pastoral areas’ huge resource potential and significant contribution to the national economy, as the study shows, the majority of pastoral communities do not get enough food or basic services. The livestock production system is under serious pressure and is unable to adequately support the livelihood of the majority, particularly the poor and very poor segments of pastoralist society. The study hints, grazing areas are shrinking and becoming less productive, traditional water distribution and utilization systems are being challenged by industrialization

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and modernization, and indigenous coping strategies have suffered a decline. Moreover poor physical infrastructure, uncoordinated development efforts, low levels of pastoralist involvement and lack of appropriate research and extension services contribute to the downward trend. Despite its central role and contribution to society, pastoralism has been attacked as outdated and unproductive. Pastoralists in Ethiopia, according to the study, face not just unfavorable physical and environmental factors but also long years of neglect and the failure of development policies and strategies to satisfactorily reflect their views and interests.

There are however, opportunities here too. Pastoralism is a system that produces meat and milk cheaply on land that is otherwise hard to exploit. There are many ways. The study proposed ways in which the pastoralist production system can be improved: building on the growing interest and concern about pastoralist affairs within government; designing pastoralist policy with full pastoralist involvement; developing land use and administration policies which guarantee communal land security and support pastoral mobility; employing successful early warning and rapid response mechanisms; expanding education for the success of the future generations of pastoralists; strengthening the currently weak traditional institutions; creating effective micro-finance and rural saving and lending systems for pastoralists by promoting livestock marketing; developing the infrastructure and restocking; expanding the Community Based Animal Health Service Delivery System; and facilitating participatory ways of conflict management which involve all.

Ridgewell, A., Getachew Mamo & Flintan, F. (Eds.) (2007). Gender and Pastoralism Vol. 1: Range Land and Resource Management in Ethiopia (pp.15-32) Addis Ababa: SOS Sahel Ethiopia.

The book’s emphasis is on pastoral gender relations and the different ways women and men access, use and manages natural resources, and what impact changes in resource patterns have on these. With the objective of promoting the importance of gender mainstreaming in development interventions in Ethiopia’s pastoral and agro-pastoral areas whilst stimulating further debate as to how best this can be achieved, the researchers adopted action research approaches where communities and other stakeholders took part in the learning process.

The book contains six independent but interrelated researches: (1) A Sharing of Past Experience, provides a synthesis of literature from Ethiopia and other countries and presents an overview of gender, pastoralism and rangeland management; (2) “Community?” Forest Management in Borana, reviews the gender impacts of a collaborative forest management intervention amongst two Borana communities in southern Ethiopia; (3) The ‘Privatisation’ of Somali Region’s Rangelands, assesses the environmental and social consequences of a growing charcoal industry and changing rangeland practices on Ethiopia’s Somali pastoralists; (4) The Dynamics of Rangeland & Water Management in Afar, presents how natural resources in Ethiopia’s north-eastern lowlands are utilized and managed by pastoralist men and women and the changes challenging this; (5) Coping with Drought in the Borana Rangelands, returns to the Borana rangelands to review the coping strategies and development interventions experienced during


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times of environmental stress; and (6) Implications for Gender, Pastoralism and Rangeland Management, concludes by summarizing issues raised and forwarding recommendations for future developments based around the gender considerations emphasized in the text.

The papers argue that due to degradation of ranges pastoralists are finding that a reliance on livestock alone as a livelihood system is proving too difficult and involvement of charcoal trade endangered not only the resource base but also social norms including respect for elders. In addition, the confusion between traditional and formal system in control of natural resources, finding the right forum where women can voice their concern and needs regarding natural resource use and management and monitoring of change in development interventions requires systemic approach. In the wake of changes in the natural resource base, livelihood activities and role of traditional institutions in pastoral communities, the research presents pressing issues and lessons for addressing gender issues.

Yasin Abdalla & Samat, N. (2011).Pastoral Land Right and Protracted Conflict in Eastern Sudan. The Journal of Pan African Studies 4(8), 74-90.

The study was conducted in the Gedarif state in eastern Sudan. The study focused on the insecurity of land rights and its association with pastoral conflict in the area. The writer used his personal observation and documentary analysis methods. Recently, as the study reveals, most pastoral areas especially in Africa have witnessed severe conflicts and bloodshed. This is attributed to several factors such as high population growth rates, repeated droughts, ecological stresses and climatic changes. Although not denying its role, the study questions the validity of such claims. Under the pretext of “development”, pastoral lands have been taken and vested to outside investors, without taking into account the historical right of local communities and their livelihood interests. Unequal access to land remains one of the fundamental causes that contributed to the grievance and protracted conflict in the area. Land is everything for rural people (livelihood, credit, dignity, wealth, and social peace); losing these means losing everything. Thus, as the study indicated, it is not surprising to have them fighting against the successive government that fails to address their needs and grievances. Therefore, according to the study, pastoral land all over the country has become an arena of violence such as in Darfur in western Sudan or Gedarif in the eastern Sudan.

The study concludes that there is a close link between changes in communal land rights and the potential conflict over land resources in the Gedarif state of eastern Sudan in addition to the ecological stresses and demographic factors. The development of commercial agriculture (mechanization) at the expense of the subsistence economy through the support of the World Bank has also contributed to such conflicts. Most of pastoral development programs have failed to address the issue of historical land rights, and connect both formal and communal system efficiently. The researcher believes that neither a formal nor communal land tenure system would be appropriate and suitable for all land users. Thus, the system of land tenure in Gedarif like elsewhere in Sudan needs to be revised, and the taken land needs to be relocated fairly if the state aims to reach a sustainable social peace. As the study shows, only two options are left for the


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State, either to listen to the voices of pastoral communities to involve them in land tenure policy or to listen to the sound of their weapons.

This study is very important for PRIME in that it showed that the right to access to land and related resources in pastoralist area is indispensable to bring sustainable development and peace. It also indicates that the traditional land rights of pastoral communities are threatened by changes attributable to different factors.

XI. TRADITIONAL INSTITUTION, AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Kelemwork Tafere & Gebreyasus Tekelu. (2013). From traditional Dagu to mobile and media technologies: communication and livelihood change among the Afar pastoralists of Ethiopia, Wudpecker Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 1(3), 035-040.

The study generally describes the role played by modern communication technologies in the Afar regions. It also briefly states about traditional communication means. Ethnographic methods were employed to collect data and the study follows a qualitative approach. The basic aim of the study is to address the effectiveness and availability of modern as well as traditional communication means in the Afar region. The study describes the Dagus as a primary and important traditional communication method adopted by the Afar society. The Dagus is a system of communication were information, relating to rainfall, pasture, local security and rules of natural resource use formulated by the clan leaders as well as other issues of economic, social and political importance, is exchanged among Afar societies despite difference in clan identities or place of residence. The Dagus is also employed in the context of Afar relations with other non-Afar people. Dagus is an effective system of communication in the region.

In the region there has been expansion of modern communication technologies like mobile phones, radio and satellite TV. These instruments have been used by government and other organs to communicate to the society issues regarding trade, irrigation, drought and other environmental hazardous. However, as the technologies are available to those who can afford them, most of the poor pastoralist in remote areas does not have access to them. Moreover, the poor network quality and the illiteracy level of the society undermine the use of the technologies. It is also evident that the tendency to modernize in general has caused generational conflicts between old and young members of the local.

Generally, the study is very brief and does not fully provide the inputs used to analyze the effectiveness of the traditional as well as the modern communication means. As well it does not give a figure of the modern technology communication means users. However, it could provide PRIME with a brief overview of the available traditional communication means in the Afar region. PRIME could develop a design that would enable traditional communication means to effectively communicate information with pastoralist of Afar.


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Pastoralist Community Development Project & WIBD Consult (October 2005). Social Analysis and Indigenous Livelihood Strategies in Afar Pastoral Communities. Retrieved from http://www.pcdp.org.et/Docs/Research/Participatory%20Research%20&%20%20Social%20Analysis%20-%20The%20case%20of%20Afar.pdf

The purpose of the study, among others, was to identify potential roles of traditional institutions in the pastoral community development. As well as determining the framework and effectiveness of available traditional communication means in Afar. The scope of the study is restricted to the Gulina Woreda’s three pastoral communities, namely Kalewan, Darayitu and Fokisa. Participatory research methods such as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Participatory Community Dialogue (PCD) and household survey were applied using standard data collection tools.

As per the study, the Afar society is structured into clans and sub-clans in Gulina Woreda and the major clans are “Assayemara” and “Adohemera”. The clans have four groups of leaders with different responsibilities. Kado Aba holds the highest power and Aba makes decisions on matters like settlement of disputes within his clan, use and management of rangeland, water and other natural resources and conflict resolutions (among clans). Dala is a leadership position with a power to make decision affecting and applicable at village level. Fei’ma is the youth group that forms the defense force of the community that oversees the execution of sanctions passed by Kedo Aba or Dala Aba. Edola is the council of elders constituted in a given community as need arises. Most of the decisions pertinent to arbitration and settlement of disputes on social and economic issues, management of rangeland and natural resources abide to customary laws (known as Madda). Traditional leaders work in harmony with the government system at woreda level and often play advisory roles. Afar traditional institution does not allow women to participate in community issues including attending public meetings with men.

Regarding traditional communication means the study provides Dagus as the major communication means in the Afar region. The Dagu involves exchange of information about daily life and general. A person has an obligation to tell every information he has to all people s/he finds without any discrimination on the basis of gender, age or any other relevant background. The information is accessible to both male and female members and interested person in the community. A person found telling or passing false information is punished and also ostracized for his deeds. Information given by women is considered less reliable.

The study provided PRIME with the social construction of the Afar society which will help the project better understand the society. This will intern enable upcoming programs to be designed in a way that goes along with the societal makeup of the society, ensuring the effectiveness of the project. PRIME may wish to use the system as information dissemination channel.

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Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia (2004, June). Rally of the Borana, Guji, Gebra, Arsi and Marian, Pastoral Clans of Oromia. Report: Addis Ababa. Retrieved from http://www.pfe-ethiopia.org/report_files/oromoelders.pdf

The report is about the rally conducted in Borana Oromos and the neighboring communities. The report indicated that four clans of Oromo ethnic group comprised of pastoral elders and Aba Gadas of Borana, Guji, Gebra, Arsi and Marian of Liben, Dirre and Moyale Woredas conducted a joint rally at Yabello from June 8-15, 2004. Sponsored by development groups and government, the pastoralists initiated the rally with the objectives to discuss and frame pastoral problems each ethnic group might have and to consolidate and present these problems in the form of resolutions. Accordingly, two meetings were conducted: for the Pastoralists alone and all participants including invited peoples and organizations to witness the occasion.

Mini-meetings for each clan groups were arranged and assigned their own facilitators. These included Borana, Guji, and Gabera clans. Arsi and Merian clans were represented with few members so that they merged to the Borana groups. Before all the three pastoral groups came together for a joint meeting each group separately discussed what they felt was their major problems. Before the floor was opened for discussion, the pastoralists were asked as to what problem they consider to be the most important one in the Borana low lands. Accordingly, conflict is and has been the most worrying problem of all. After a lot of pros and cons, the group decided to have 5 people as committee members representing each clan. Before all the three pastoral groups came together for a joint meeting each group separately discussed and thrashed out what they felt was their major problems. Finally, the general discussion was held to bring forward pressing problems and possible solutions. The communities are empowered to call up extra ordinary meetings to resort on own challenges, and which may feed up the Gumi Gayo General Assembly. As the report recommended, this type of rally should be supported and encouraged as part of the local communities’ development initiatives as well as part of the national initiatives. The report is very important for PRIME in that it indicated the importance of empowering grass root communities for effectiveness of any intervention in the concerned community in areas where different communities share resources.

Stark, J., Terasawa, K. & Mersi Ejigu. (2011). Climate Change and Conflict in Pastoralist Regions of Ethiopia: Mounting Challenges, Emerging Responses. Foundation for Environmental Security, USAID, CMM Discussion Paper No. 4.

The report tries to explore the linkage between natural hazards and environmental stresses, and conflict in pastoral regions of Ethiopia. The main purpose of this case study is to help fill the gap in knowledge regarding how climate-related vulnerabilities interact with the dynamics of conflict in specific locations. The study was conduct in Oromiya, Somalia, and Afar regions and Dire Dawa city administration. This study relies in part on Foundation for Environmental Security and Sustainability’s (FESS) Environmental Security Assessment Framework (ESAF) methodology, while integrating core components of USAID’s Conflict Assessment Framework (CAF).

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The study shows that the search for water and pasture clearly has become more difficult as extreme weather has reduced their availability, and moving into new areas in search of these resources often provokes conflict. Population growth, tracts of land provided to investors for ranching, and environmental degradation have reduced available land. With the banning of burning in recent years, bush encroachment and the spread of invasive species also has reduced pasture land. Highly variable rains and a mobile lifestyle sometimes bring different clans into competition over scarce resources. Recently, federal, regional, and zonal government officials frustrated with the difficulty in containing this proliferating conflict have begun to engage with clan leaders to explore the use of customary laws to restore inter-clan peace in those instances where formal state institutions fall short. The most encouraging finding of the study is the striking emergence of “peace committees” of various stripes in nearly all of the locations visited. A window of opportunity has opened in which government authorities, frustrated by the persistence of conflict in pastoralist areas, have engaged with and solicited the assistance of elders, community leaders, and customary institutions in dispute resolution and conflict mitigation. PRIME should focus on natural resources management as scare or poorly managed resources are mostly the root causes for conflict, and support and make use of available peace committees.

Watson, E. (2001). Inter- Institutional Alliances and Conflicts in Natural Resource Management: Preliminary Research Findings from Borana, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Marena Research Project, Working Paper No. 4. Retrieved from www.cbnrm.net/pdf/sussex_001_wpaper_04.pdf/

The paper presents about the role of informal (non state) institutions in fostering community- based renewable natural resource management in post- conflict societies. The author argues that institutions are the key to successful, sustainable and appropriate development, and calls for a greater understanding of the nature of institutions and the role they can play in the construction of sustainable livelihoods and developments. The study examines the contexts of institutions, conflict and post-conflict societies, and participation and community-based developments.

It describes the demography, resource base, institutional arrangement, resource conflict and developmental organizations operating in Borana areas. It describes how different clans in the area come together to solve problems or conflicts in relation to natural resources. The author studied the Borana indigenous argues that it is quite formal and development organizations have a role to play in fostering environments in which different institutions cooperate rather than conflict. It also recommends ensuring representation of all groups for indigenous institutions may unwittingly exclude women from the development process. The author argues that indigenous institutions provide structures in which people are used to discuss matters with comfortable degree of continuity, and working with them and constructing alliance between state and indigenous institutions should be promoted. Accordingly, even if working with them is undoubtedly complex, avoiding them will not engender participation. Indigenous institutions also provide useful tool for developmental intervention both in keeping peace and NRM contexts.

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The author stated that it is not necessary to focus on the dichotomy of formal and informal institutions rather it is better to focus on how both can function together in managing natural resource and reinforcing peace.

The article tries to understanding the institutions that operates in the area, and their importance. As a result, it helps us to know how conflicts on natural resources are resolved in the area and how indigenous institutions should be used to foster peace and resource utilization.

XII. MONITORING AND EVALUATION, AND PASTORAL PROGRAMMING

Bayer, Wolfgang & Waters-Buyer, Ann. (2002). Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) with pastoralists: a review of experiences and annotated bibliography. GTZ and ETC Foundation, Eschborn, Germany. Retrieved from: http://www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/en-SVMP-waters-bayer-2002.pdf/

The review intends to give summary of best PM&E practices in pastoral areas where pastoralists are actively engaged in multi-stakeholders decision making about resource use. The scopes of the study mainly focus on PM&E practices undertaken in West Africa but also assess PM&E experiences of other areas. The review sought actual application of (as opposed to plans for) PM&E in resource management involving pastoralists as key actors. Generally, the review looked into cases of more general NRM projects that included PM&E of local environmental and socio-organizational change. The few experiences in PM&E in pastoral settings included in the review are divided into four major types: PM&E of change in the condition of natural resources (environmental monitoring); PM&E of local institutions and social relations in NRM (the way the resources are being managed); PM&E of intervention projects, referring primarily to the interactions/collaboration between the local resource managers and external supporting agencies such as government services or projects; and PM&E in participatory experimentation (on-farm/in-herd trials implemented by livestock-keepers and scientists or development workers).

In the environmental monitoring section, PM&E of natural resources, drought (basically using early warning system which is describes as ineffective, and range and water monitoring through holistic resource management approach considered to be effective are discussed. Most importantly understanding indigenous indicators and integrating them with scientific indicators will achieve success and create filling of ownership among the pastoralists. PM&E of local institutions and social relations in NRM is designed to promote the decision making capacity of marginalized groups and establish a better basis for making joint decision in relation to NRM by several user groups. Regarding PM&E of the veterinary services, the assessment argues that monitoring of CAHWS by pastoralist proved more effective.

The study also describes strengths of approaches used to enhance participatory learning about process and impact in NRM. The major issues and dangers in applying participatory approaches like hiding information by pastoralists, the immediacy of disasters like fire, flood etc, inadequacy and lack of effective communication means make application participatory monitoring difficult.

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Moreover ignorance of basic questions that should be considered in Monitoring and evaluation; indicators overload; having fixed indicators and hesitant to share power are described by the study as basic problems in applying participatory monitoring and evaluation. Generally the study emphasis the three major phases of facilitating participatory management: preparation, negotiation and learning-by-doing. It also provides PRIME with basic elements that need to be considered in designing a participatory PM&E.

Bezabih Emana (2010). Final Evaluation of Pastoralist Food Security Partnership Project, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia, Final Report, SID-Consult-Support Integrated Development.

The overall objective of the project was to improve food security through stabilizing pastorals livelihoods. To realize this, the project focused on improving management and use of key natural resources, livestock marketing and income diversification, and strengthening traditional systems working in partnership with government and development actors on food security issues. Consortium approach was adopted to provide the overall management and leadership. At the end, the consortium commissioned final evaluation to SID Consult to assess the overall project relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability.

The evaluation exercise was carried out during February 2010 and the key findings and recommendations were presented at the workshop organized for all stakeholders in Yabelo town. Bezabih argued that project planning and implementation was participatory and focused on the priority needs of the pastoralists and thus relevant. In terms of efficiency, the author depicted that the project has successfully piloted innovative initiatives that opened up new opportunities and huge potential to improve pastoralist livelihoods. Rate of project activities implementation as per the paper is high and the budget has been effectively used although the budget allocation process favored management, staff and other overhead costs than the key program components with a rate of 46% to 54% respectively. The author evaluated the project as effective in terms of meeting its specific objectives for the target beneficiaries. Meeting the overall project goal requires further efforts. This paper could possibly be used to inform PRIME’s intervention strategies on the key management issues around resource management as well as alternative livelihood options.

Commonwealth of Australia (2006). Introduction to Cost-Benefit Analysis and Alternative Evaluation Methodologies, Financial Management Reference Material No. 5, Retrieved from http://www.finance.gov.au/publications/finance-circulars/2006/docs/Intro_to_CB_analysis.pdf.

The study is about cost-benefit analysis (CBA) generally and its relation with other similar tools. The researcher used document analysis as a method of study. The study indicated that CBA is a tool used to determine the worth of a project, program or policy; quantitative analytical tool to aid decision-makers in the efficient allocation of resources; used to assist in making judgments and appraising available options. It identifies and attempts to quantify the costs and benefits of a

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program or activity and converts available data into manageable information. The strength of the method is that it provides a framework for analyzing data in a logical and consistent way. A CBA is normally undertaken as one aspect of a more comprehensive assessment of a program’s appropriateness, efficiency and effectiveness.

Used retrospectively instead of prospectively, the known outcome from the activity, in terms of both costs and benefits, can be compared with what would have happened in the absence of the project, which is often described as ‘the counterfactual’. This provides transparency and accountability in reporting on how well public funds have been spent. It is also useful for technical reasons as it provides evidence on the validity and appropriateness of assumptions, forecasts and analyses used in future decision-making. The document also described the steps in CBA: outline the nature of the problem to be addressed (its background, context and rationale); identify the constraints in meeting the objectives to ensure all alternatives examined in the analysis are feasible; and write up the analysis and prepare recommendations. The document also compares other similar tools like financial evaluation and cost effectiveness analysis: A financial evaluation attempts to determine the net financial benefit (or loss) to an agency rather than the net benefit (or loss) to the economy or society while cost-effectiveness analysis measures the benefits in physical units rather than in monetary terms.

The document is one of the many available resources for understanding CBA and other related/ alternative tools. As it well describes the why and when of CBA, the experiences could provide basic practical lessons for program as well as activity evaluation.

Darnton, A. (2008, July). Reference Report: An overview of behavior change models and their Uses, GSR Behaviour Change Knowledge Review. Retrieved from http://www.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Behaviour_change_reference_report_tcm6-9697.pdf.

This review makes the distinction between models of behavior and theories of change. This is primarily an explanatory step, taken to highlight the different uses of the types of models and theories incorporated in the behavior change literature. The study used documentary analysis method of study. The study indicated that models of behavior help us to understand specific behaviors, by identifying the underlying factors, which influence them. By contrast, theories of change show how behaviors change over time, and can be changed. While behavioral theory is diagnostic, designed to explain the determinant factors underlying behavior, change theory is more pragmatic, developed in order to support interventions for changing current behaviors or encouraging the adoption of new behaviors. While the two bodies of theory have distinct purposes, they are highly complementary; understanding both is essential in order to develop effective interventions.

The study indicated that both behavioral models and theories of change reveal learning to be fundamental to the process of change. Models of behavior which include feedback imply a learning process at work: we require evidence of impacts in order to evaluate and change our performance. Even in models which don’t explicitly show feedback, learning is at work

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determining outcomes, as our learning from past behavior shapes our expectations of future outcomes, our emotional reactions, our habits and our sense of agency. Beyond behavioral models, theories which explicitly address learning underline the importance of learning processes in bringing about lasting change. To ground interventions in a thorough understanding of behavior and change, research analysts and policy makers also need to consider the consequences and wider contextual issues of intervening, whether intended or unintended. Wider contextual issues to be accounted for when considering undertaking behavior change interventions include the ethics around intervening, and the wider effects of doing so, both in terms of equity effects and unintended consequences.

The study indicated that behavioral models can help in the task of identifying which factors are the most significant in determining behaviors. However, behavioral models do not specify how to bring about behavior change; as well as understanding behavior, we need to understand change. The study is very important for PRIME for the purpose of modeling behavioral change that will be done in the future as well as for the preparation of guide line for behavioral change.

Hopkins, C. (2012, July). Workshop on Developing Index-Based Livestock Insurance to Reduce Vulnerability Due to Drought-related Livestock Deaths, CARE Ethiopia Pastoral Livelihoods Program, Oromia Region.

This is a presentation paper made by Charles Hopkins during the Workshop on Developing Index-Based Livestock Insurance to Reduce Vulnerability due to Drought-related Livestock Deaths. The paper briefly summarizes the activities of different projects in Borana, namely, Pastoralist Livelihood Initiative (PLI), Regional Resilience against Drought, Global Water Initiatives, Enhanced Livelihoods in Pastoralist areas of Southern Ethiopia (ELSE), etc. The paper also describes the pastoral development challenges and the CARE pastoral program. Most importantly it also mentioned the index based livestock insurance (IBLI) type of intervention quite appropriate for vulnerable pastoralist communities. The lesson learned and best practices from the projects mentioned in this paper could be helpful for PRIME to align and develop its interventions.

Long, Trisha, Russell, M., Bilinsky, P., Dalziel, E., Bryson, J., Tarver, E. et al. (2008). Success and Learning Stories. American Red Cross/CRS M&E Module Series. American Red Cross and CRS, Washington, DC, and Baltimore, Maryland.

The document is a success and learning stories module designed for private voluntary organizations coordinated under Food Aid Management (FAM) project’s Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Working Group of USAID. It is adapted to harmonize the format of reporting success stories by different PVO’s. The working group’s goal while preparing this module was to a present package of guidance for harmonizing the formats of what it termed success and learning stories. The success stories are defined as descriptions of “who, what, when, where, why, and how” a project has succeeded in its objectives and perhaps even had unanticipated positive effects. The learning stories narrate cases of unanticipated project difficulties or negative


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impacts, how these were identified and overcome, and what was learned from the experience that may be helpful to other projects.

The module aims to give suggestions and guidance so that stories can be prepared in a way that consistently provides the type of impact information that would be most useful to donors. The components of the package consist of background and instructions. Particularly a guide or a checklist for field staff to first understand what type of information is needed for a good story and second, to systematically collect and record that information. Then it provides a suggested list of “do’s and don’ts” concerning story information, stylistics, tone, and so on; a sample template consisting of questions to be answered so as to provide the necessary information for a complete and meaningful narrative; examples of stories written from the sample template; and a blank template to be used to write a success or learning story.

Overall the document can be used as a guide by PRIME members while preparing success and learning stories. Especially as it provides template and samples it simplifies writing success and learning stories and enhances the quality and harmonization of stories to be written by different members of PRIME.

Mechler, R. and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008). The Cost-Benefit Analysis Methodology: From Risk to Resilience, Working Paper No. 1. Moench, M., Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel (eds), ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention, Kathmandu, Nepal.

The study is about cost-benefit analysis from disaster risk management (DRM) point of view. The study describes cost-benefit analysis (CBA) as an established tool for determining the economic efficiency of development interventions from general and its application in disaster risk management. It states that CBA compares the costs of conducting such projects with their benefits and calculates the net benefits or efficiency (measured by the net present value, the rate of return or the benefit-cost ratio). The study describes the importance of clarifying the objectives, information needs and data situation among different potential stakeholders before engaging in CBA assessment.

The study indicated that estimating disaster risk and the costs and benefits of risk management is inherently complex and climate change adds substantial additional complexity. Accordingly, benefits should be assessed in terms of probability multiplied by the consequences, leading to an estimate of risk as the product of hazard, vulnerability and exposure. Given the complexities involved in estimating the costs and benefits of DRM and the history and current usage of CBA as a decision support tool, it conclude that the role of CBA in DRM is strongly related to process rather than outcome. CBA is a useful tool for organizing, assessing and finally presenting the cost and benefits, and pros and cons of interventions; and demands a coherent methodological, transparent approach.

The research presents that here are four steps in the process of employing CBA for the purpose of disaster risk management: risk analysis; identification of risk management measures and associated costs; analysis of risk reduction by which benefits of reducing risk are estimated; and


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calculation of economic efficiency in which economic efficiency is assessed by comparing benefits and costs. For such a project like PRIME that works in environmentally fragile context, understanding the application of CBA disaster risk management is crucial.

Osorio-Cortes, L. and Jenal, M. (2013). Monitoring and measuring change in market system: Rethinking the current paradigm. The SEEP Network, Retrieved from: www.seepnetwork.org/monitoring-and-measuring-change-in-market-systems---rethinking-the-current-paradigm-resources-937.php/

This paper is a synthesis of the work of the Systemic Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) initiative of the SEEP Network between August and December 2012. The initiative, coordinated by MaFI (The Market Facilitation Initiative), brought together practitioners and academics to explore two issues: the obstacles and challenges that field practitioners face when trying to monitor and evaluate changes in market systems; and the principles and guidelines that can bring donors and practitioners together to build systemic M&E frameworks and tools in a market interventions. This paper is a compilation of discussions made among practitioners through e-consultation, the webinar, the podcasts, and the opening plenary of the SEEP Annual Conference.

The paper stipulates donors, parliaments and tax payer’s assessment of development projects on the basis of the direct impact of programs have on the poor (direct delivery mode) as restrictive to ensure the sustainability of projects. The paper promotes for adaptation of development projects that follow more systemic approaches to market development. Therefore, aim of projects should be to enhance system properties, such as growth, stability, diversity, resilience, and sustainability – whether they are easily measured or not. The paper also discusses the difficulties to satisfy the demand for visible, direct changes within the poor when using systemic approaches over direct delivery approaches. Explicitly mentioned were issues of additionally, attribution, and timing. Causal models or results chains are also discussed as methods used to connect project activity and expected results. The paper generally promotes for adaptation of systematic approach when developing projects to guarantee the sustainable effect of projects on the lives of the poor. It also provides and discusses about seven principles based on complexity theory and systems thinking and on the premise that systemic M&E approaches, procedures, tools and incentives have to be designed and used to monitor and measure systemic change of a systematically designed project.

As monitoring and evaluation of projects particularly with regard to market development is among the major area of concern of the PRIME project, the paper will provide PRIME with the necessary principles that should be employed the M&E system. Moreover it gives guidance on how projects should be formulated to ensure their sustainable effective.

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The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation in the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA/CMM) (2005). Livelihoods and Conflict: A Toolkit for Programming, USAID. http://www.commdev.org/livelihoods-and-conflict-toolkit-intervention

This document comprises series of tool kits which are intended to provide USAID mission staff, their partners, and others working in countries affected by conflict and instability with: an examination of the relationship between conflict and people's livelihoods; lessons in developing livelihoods programs--including an introduction to livelihood analysis; a range of program options designed to reduce livelihood vulnerability, strengthen resiliency, and help people manage conflict-related shocks; and listings of relevant USAID mechanisms, implementing partners, and contact information. The toolkits in this series explore individual risk factors in depth. The toolkits are designed to serve as companion pieces to conflict assessments. Conflict assessments provide a broad overview of destabilizing patterns and trends in a society. They sift through the many potential causes of conflict and focus in on those that are most likely to lead to violence (or renewed violence) in a particular context. While conflict assessments provide recommendations about how to make development and humanitarian assistance more responsive to conflict dynamics, they do not provide detailed guidance on how to design specific activities. The toolkits in this series are intended to fill that gap by moving from a diagnosis of the problem to a more detailed discussion of potential interventions. Together, the assessment framework and toolkits help missions gain a deeper understanding of the forces driving violence and develop more strategic, focused, and effective interventions. Although the paper do not talk about conflict in PRIME intervention areas, the toolkits can help in conflict assessment in a general sense which can be adapted to a particular context. Moreover, the methodology embodied in this paper can help design appropriate mitigation strategies.

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