principles of building construction 2
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PLATFORM FRAME
Advantages of platform frame over balloon frame Uses short easily available length of lumber for wall framingThe vertically hollow spaces are automatically fire stopped at each floorPlatform are convenient working surfaces
DisadvantagesEach platform constitutes a thick layer of wood whose grain runs horizontally – large vertical shrinkage lead to distress in the exterior and interior finishes surfaces
BALLOON FRAME Used full length studs that run continuously for 2 stories from foundation to roofToo long to erect efficiently Tall hollow spaces between stud acted as multiple chimney in fire, spread fire rapidly to the upper floor unless use fire stops.
PLATFORM FRAME - ConceptA floor platform is buildLoad bearing walls are erected upon itA second floor platform is build upon these wallsSecond set of walls upon this platformThe attic and roof are then built upon the second set of wallA floor platform is completed at each level and the walls bear upon the platform rather than directly upon the walls of the story below
ROOF FRAMING
Roof trussOr install ridge & rafterHip and valley Applying plywood roof sheathing or insulation layerBatten for tile roof roof covering or tiles
PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2
AQS 1291
Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali
7 REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES
Contents
Concrete
Reinforcements
Formworks
Reinforcing
Prestressing
Sitecast Concrete Framing System
Precast Concrete Framing System
Method of Connections
SPECIFYING CONCRETE
Designed mix
Prescribe mix
Nominal mix
Standard mix
Designated mix
DESIGNED CONCRETE MIXED
Deriving mix portion just right for the job
Involve extra work in design and testing but for large volume application or high strength concrete,
produce concrete of consistently suitable properties
The mix is specified by a grade corresponding to required characteristic compressive strength at 28 days eg
C25
DESIGNED CONCRETE MIXED
The purchaser specifies the required strength, the minimum cement content and other properties
necessary to ensure durability but leaves the contractor or manufacture to decide the mix portion
Producer makes concrete to satisfy the purchaser’s performance specification
PRESCRIBED CONCRETE MIX
Specify the mixed portion by prescription
The purchaser specify the mixed portion and accept the responsibility for their being able to provide the
desired properties in the concrete
PRESCRIBED MIX - NOMINAL MIXED
To specify ratio such as 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts aggregates
Mixed proportion by weight
Type of cement
Type of aggregate and their maximum size
Degree of workability (slump and/or water cement ratio)
PRESCRIBED MIX - STANDARD MIXES
BS5328
Mixes are produced from one of the five grades ranging from ST1 to St5 with corresponding 28
days strength characteristics of 7.7 to a limit of 25N/mm2
Mixed composition and details are specified by
Cement to aggregate by weight
Type of cement
Aggregate type and maximum size
Workability
Use or omission of reinforcement
Most suited to site production, where the scale of operation is relatively small
PRESCRIBED MIX - DESIGNATED MIXES
These are recommended mixes for specific application e.g. blinding and mass concrete fill, strip
footing, mass concrete foundation, trench fill foundation, unreinforced house floor, drainage
application
General, graded 0- 4, ranging from 7.5 to 25N/mm2 characteristic strength for foundation, floors
and external works
Needs to specify
Reinforced or unreinforced
Maximum aggregate size (if not 20mm)
Exposure to chemicals ( chlorides and sulphates) etc
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE - WORKABILITY
Determined by the ability to be placed, compact and finished
Measured by slump test
Factors affecting workability
Water content
Maximum aggregate size
Aggregate shape
Aggregate surface texture
MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
Can either be made wholly on the site or factory (ready mixed concrete)
Ready mixed concrete is useful where:
continuous site production is not possible
space for storage and mixing is limited
high quality or special mixed concrete required
HANDLING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE
Whether concrete is moved from the mixer by lorries, barrows, dumper, pipeline it is important that the
process does not cause segregation
Segregation
coarse aggregate go to the bottom while water and cement raise to the top
Prevention:
Deposit concrete as close to the final position
If dropped for more than 3 or 4 feet user drop chutes
If moved horizontally should pump through hose, conveyed in bucket rather than pushed across.
COMPACTION
Trapped air in concrete ( about 2% ) must be remove after placing if maximum density is to be achieved
Done by compaction with rod or vibrator
Compaction eliminate trapped air but excessive vibration will cause segregation
CURING OF CONCRETE
A process by which cement is enabled to hydrate
Since water is involved in the process it is essential to maintained concrete in a saturated condition for a
sufficient length until required strength achieved
During curing period the strength of concrete is gradually increased
Drying of water will cause to be shrinkage and stress developed and caused cracks
CURING METHOD
Curing compound
Cover with impervious sheets (plastic)
Cover with gunny sacks, spray water every day for 1 week
Steam curing – room temperature for several hours then stem curing – mainly used in precast factories
where a high early strength need to be achieved
PROPERTIES OF HARDERN CONCRETE - STRENGTH
Determine by ultimate strength in compression
Concrete gains strength over a long period of time
Rapid gain in strength in first 28 day
Afterwards increase of strength is slow
28 days strength used to measure strength
STRENGTH DEPEND ON NUMBER OF FACTORS
Types of cement used
Normal, air entraining, high early strength, low heat hydration, resistance to sulphate
Types and size of aggregates
¾ of concrete made of aggregate
strong clean, chemically stable, properly graded
Max size not more than ¾ clear space between bars or 1/3 thickness of slab
STRENGTH DEPEND ON NUMBER OF FACTORS (cont’d)
Water
clean, drinking water
Use of admixture
Air entraining, water reducing, accelerating admixture, retarder
water/cement ratio
Water used for hydration process. Extra water used for workability. More water weaker
DURABILITY
Mainly depend on its permeability and hence on the porosity of the hydrated cement
Similar to the determination of strength- low water cement ratio better durability
REINFORCEMENTS
Requirement
must have tensile strength
capable of achieving tensile strength with out undue strain
easily bend to any shape
capable of developing an adequate bond between concrete and reinforcement
similar thermal coefficient to prevent unwanted stressed due to temp change
reasonable cost
STEEL REINFORCEMENTS
2 basic types BS4449
Mild steel - characteristic strength 250 N/mm2 –smooth surface
High yield strength - 460 N/mm2 – transverse ribs
Nominal size – 6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32
STEEL REINFORCEMENTS
Bending of reinforcement – at site or factory
STEEL – Fabric/Mesh
Steel fabric BS4483
Type A square mesh,
B – rectangular
C long mach for pavement,
2400 wide. 4800 length or 48,000 or 72000 (rolled)
Before placing should be brushed free of rust and mill scale and free of grease
CONCRETE COVER
Minimum cover of concrete – protection from corrosion and fire resistance.
Nominal cover = size of bars
BS8110 Table 3.4 give recommended cover relationship to exposure/ durability and period of fire resistance
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE AND DETAILS
Drawing should have the following information:
Sufficient cross-reference to identify members in relation to the whole drawing
All the necessary dimension
Detail of reinforcement
Minimum cover of concrete
Concrete grade
BAR SCHEDULE
Example:
2R 2001
6R 1004 - 200
HOOKS, BENDS AND LAPS
To prevent bond failure, bars extended beyond no stress section
Hooks and bends are to reduce anchorage length
Laps and joints length
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM
Transfer load to column
Simply supported beam of uniform loading maximum moment is at the centre
Tensile stress is taken by reinforcement while compression stress is taken by concrete
Maximum shear is near the support
Shear stress is taken by stirrup or inclined bars
Stirrup also to reduce shrinkage cracking and to from cage for easy handling
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN
Vertical member carrying the beam and floor loading to the foundation
Compression member
Concrete is strong in compression
Reinforcement still needed- load not axial, lateral loading, slender column
Minimum no of bars - 4
Links – to prevent buckling and busting
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
Behave exactly as beam
Design in the same manner as beam but per m wide
Fabricated to from a continuous mat
FLAT AND SLABS
Slab act as plate which is divided into middle and column strips
Can be thick and heavy but have clear ceiling height
BEAM AND SLAB
Larger span is possible
Reinforcement uncomplicated
Negative moment at the support required top reinforcement
FORMWORKS
Wet concrete have no shape nor physical strength – put into formwork until it has cured and gained strength
to support itself.
Made from wood, metal or plastic
Temporary means to support reinforcement
Curing period – help to retain necessary water of hydration
Stripping without damage to either formwork or concrete
FORMWORK -REQUIREMENTS
Must be able to support wet concrete (2400 kg/m3) and fluid pressure
No excessive deflection under loading
Accurately set out
Grout tight joints
Size must be easily handled
Material must be easily fixed
Easily assembled and dismantled
CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY
Depends on quality of formwork surfaces
Two defects on concrete surface
Blow holes – small holes less than 15 mm cause of air trapped between formwork and concrete surface
Uneven colour – irregular absorption of from wet concrete by formwork
Form release compound or mould oil is applied to inside surface of the formwork to alleviate these defects
and to prevent adhesion of concrete to the formwork.
FORMWORK LININGS
Use lining such as oil tempered hardboard, moulded rubber, moulded PVC to obtained smooth patterned
surfaces
Major component of the overall cost of concrete building
Constitute an entire temporary building that must be erected an demolished in order to produce permanent
building of concrete
TYPES OF FORMWORK
Foundation Formwork
Column Formwork
Beam Formwork
Floor or Roof Formwork
FOUNDATION FORMWORK
Generally a series of isolated bases or pads
If subsoil is firm and hard- excavate trench or pit to the size and depth required and cast concrete.
Or else construct foundation formwork
COLUMN FORMWORK
vertical mould which has to resist considerable horizontal pressure in the early stage
yokes and clamps
BEAM FORMWORK
3 sided supported by cross head which are propped to the underside of the soffit board
beam form is also used to support slab formwork and the two structural members are cast together
FLOOR OR ROOF FORMWORK
Also called shuttering .
Consist of panels that can easily handled
Adjustment for leveling can be carried out using small folding wedges between the joist or framing and the
beam box
FLOOR OR ROOF FORMWORK
SITE WORK
All formwork should be clear of rubbish, dirt and grease before the application of mould oil or reducing
agent
All joint should be checked to ensure that they are grout tight
Distance between mixer and formwork should be kept as short as possible to prevent segregation and avoid
double handling
Compacting – reinforcement should not be displaced, not to over compact
WHEN TO REMOVED FORMWORK
Table 6.6 from BS 8110
Eg. soffit formwork to beam and props to slabs -10days
WHEN TO REMOVED FORMWORK
Removed slowly
Beam sides could be removed earlier that the soffit board an enable a flow of air to pass round the new
concrete speed up hardening process and reuse of formwork earliest possible.
Material and plant should no the placed on partly hardened concrete.
TESTING – CUBE TEST
Samples taken during concreting
Test for compression –
3 days, 7 days, 28 days
REINFORCING A SIMPLE CONCRETE BEAM
Compressive stress at the top of the beam – taken by concrete
Tensile stress at the bottom – put reinforcement
Tensile stress in diagonal orientation near the end of the beam – resisted by stirrup
REINFORCING A CONTINUOUS CONCRETE BEAM
Reinforcement at the bottom mid-span and top at the column
REINFORCING STRUCTURAL CONCRETE SLABS
Slab- very broad beam, similar reinforcing pattern as the beam
TWO-WAY SLAB ACTION
Nearly square slab reinforced equally in both direction
Shallower than one way slab
REINFORCING CONCRETE COLUMN
Verticals bars to take the compressive loads and resist tensile stress
Ties wrap around the vertical bars help to prevent buckling under load
Rectangular (use ties) and circular column (uses spiral)
REINFORCING CONCRETE COLUMN
PRESTRESSING
Concept
Prestressed members lighter, longer span
Types:
pre-tensioning
Post- tensioning
PRETENSIONING
High strand steel are cast first before casting of concrete
After curing steel is cut at either end of the member
Useful for precast members
POST TENSIONING
Done at site
Steel strands (tendons) are prevented from bonding to concrete and not tensioned until concrete is cured
Tensile force is applied by jack
Tendon may be left unbonded as in building
Bonded by grouting as in bridges and other heavy structures
POST TENSIONING
SITE CAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEM
Tend to be heavier
Slow to construct – level by level
Variable weather condition
Now with method of handling material and reusable form work, fabrication of reinforcing element and
mechanizing the finishing operation.- technique most favorable
CASTING A CONCRETE SLAB ON GRADE
Supported directly on the ground
Scrape top soil
Lay 80-100mm crushed stone (20mm dia) – drainage layer
Construct simple edge formwork
Coat the formwork with release compound
Moisture barrier layer
Mortar layer or sand
Reinforcements - BRC
POURING AND FINISHING THE SLAB ON GRADE
Control joint provided with fiber board strip
Pouring of concrete by cute or wheelbarrow, conveyer belt, pump – depend on scale of job and accessibility
Spread using shovels and rakes until formwork is full
Vibrate to eliminate air pockets
Straightedge concrete with stiff plank to achieve level surface
If smooth surface desired use float
POURING AND FINISHING THE SLAB ON GRADE
Shake on hardener is sprinkle over surface of slab between straight edging and floating operation to form
hard durable surface for heavy wear application
For completely smooth ,dense surface use steel trowel – several hours after floating when quite firm
If non slip surface use stiff bristled broom – broom finished
POURING AND FINISHING THE SLAB ON GRADE
CASTING CONCRETE WALL
Keys is sometimes formed in the top of footing
Reinforcements of wall overlap of those of strip footings
Front and back formworks are tied
Exact height – surveyor transit and marked on the inside of formwork
CASTING CONCRETE WALL
Pour, vibrate smoothened
Stripping of formwork when concrete strong enough
CASTING OF CONCRETE COLUMN
Formed and cast like a wall
Dowel bar from the footing matched the vertical bars of column
The vertical bars projected from the top of the column to overlap or splice to the bars of column for story
above and bend at right angle to splice in to roof structure
Offset (bent inward) to avoid interference
CASTING OF CONCRETE COLUMN
ONE WAY FLOOR AND ROOF FRAMING SYSTEM
The walls and column are poured prior to erecting the formwork
Girder and beams are nearly formed first then slab but concrete are poured at the same time as the slab
When the beam and slab attained enough strength to support themselves safely the formed is stripped
Beam and slab are reshored with vertical propped to relieve them of load until they reached full strength
TWO WAY FLOOR AND ROOF FRAMING SYSTEM
Slab is supported by a grid of beam running in both direction
Used for heavy loaded industrial floor
Thickness usually 6-12in
Reinforcement – column strip carries higher bending force compared to middle zones
The End
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEM
Structural precast concrete element are cast and cured in plant, transported to site and erected as rigid
component.
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEM
Advantages
Mixing, placing curing is carried out under controlled condition which result uniform and accurate units
Excellent surface properties
Repetitive standard unit – reduce cost
Could use pretension – longer spans, lesser depth and lighter element
Frame can be assembled on site on cold weather with the help of planning, programming and progressive of
building operation
Reduce labour needs and can be assemble by semi skilled labour
Erection faster – no formwork
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEM
Disadvantages
System building less flexible in its design concept
Heavy and bulky to transport – restricted by transport size
Needs mechanical lifting to place in position
Programming is restricted by controls on delivery and unloading time laid down by the police
Need structural connections
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Slabs
Beams
Girders
Columns
Wall panels
PRECAST CONCRETE SLABS FIG 15.3
The most fully standardized
Supported by load bearing walls, frames of steel, cast in situ concrete and precast concrete
Solid flat slab
Hollow core slab
Double tee
Single tee
PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS, GIRDERS AND COLUMN FIG 15.4
Rectangular beam
L shaped beam
Inverted tee beam
I beam
PRECAST CONCRETE WALL PANELS
Precast solids slabs – load bearing wall panels
ASSEMBLY CONCEPT FOR PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDING
Fig 15.5 – slab supported on l shape girder and precast column
Fig 15.6 – supported on precast loadbearing wall
Fig 15.7 – combination of girder an d load bearing walls
THE MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
Fig 15.8
CASTING OF BED Fig 15.8, 15.9, 15.11
connections
CASTING OF BED Fig 15.8, 15.9, 15.11
Permanent form – casting bed
Work cycle
Morning – lifting of element that is cast yesterday
Strung high strength steel strand between abutment
Pretensionned strand
Place reinforcing bars, stirrups etc
Cast in concrete
Finished surface with trowels
Steam to cure
Nest morning test concrete cylinder to verify strength
Cut end of strands- prestressing concrete
METHOD OF CONNECTIONS
FOUNDATION CONNECTIONS FIG 9.4.1
pocket left in the foundation – prop and grout
cast or weld in base plate at he foot of the column and use holding down bolt to secure column to its
foundation
COLUMN CONNECTIONS Fig 9.4.2
Principle to ensure continuity
dowel bar positioned in the upper and lower column
stud and plate connection
exposed reinforcement connection
BEAM CONNECTIONS FIG 9.4.3
projecting concrete haunch is cast on the column with dowel or stud bolt to fix to the beam
projecting metal corbel is fixed to the column and beam
Column and beam reinforcement left exposed of hook and hooked to together and covered with in situ
concrete
Lateral restrain in beam and column connection is provided by leaving projected reinforcements from the
beam sides to bond to the floor slab or precast concrete floor unit.
PRECAST CONCRETE AND THE BUILDING CODE
Fire resistance rating for each component
Slab element readily available in 1-2 hr fire resistance rating
Beam and column rating ranging 1-4 hrs
Can be increased by adding a topping
UNIQUENESS OF PRECAST CONCRETE FRAME
Slender, in relation to span, precise, repetitive and high quality finishes
Solid and Hollow slab
Used in schools, hotels apartment building and hospital
Precast concrete in longer span
Parking structures, warehouse and industrial plant
Increasing successful in creating publics buildings of higher architectural quality
The Ends
Thank you
PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2AQS 1291
Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 12 DRAINAGE CONTENTS Principles of Good Drainage Drainage Systems Private Sewer Drainage Materials Drain Laying Mean Of Access Rainwater Drainage Sizing Of Gutter And Down Pipes DRAINAGE A system of pipe work usually installed below ground level Function
To convey the discharge from sanitary fittings, rainwater gutters and down pipes to a suitable disposal installation.
Sewer – a means of conveying waste, soil or rainwater below ground that has been collected from the drain and convey it to the final disposal point
DISPOSAL METHOD To connect the pipe work to the public sewer –discharge to local authority sewerage treatment plan Small self contained treatment plan on site - collection tank – collected by special tanker lorry to local
sewerage treatment plan PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Material –adequate strength , durability Diameter as small as practicable : soil drain – 100 mm, surface water 75 mm Every part should be accessible for purpose of inspection and cleansing Laid in straight runs as far as possible PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Laid to a gradient which render efficient
Calculated by rate of flow, velocity , diameter of drain Rule of thumb for gradient : diameter divide 2.5, eg 100 mm gradient 1:40
Drain inlet should be trapped to prevent the entry of foul air into the building PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Inspection chamber, manholes, access fittings should be places at changes of direction or gradient, if these
changes would prevent the drain from being cleansed Inspection chamber placed at a junction unless run can be cleanse from an access point PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Junction between drains must be arranged - incoming drain joint at an oblique angle in the direction of
main flow Avoid drain under buildings, if unavoidable they must be protected to ensure water tightness and to prevent
damages Encase the drain with 100 mm (min) granular filling Use cast iron pipes under building
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Drain within 1m of foundation to the walls of buildings and below foundation level must be back filled with
concrete up to the level of the underside of the foundation. Minimum invert level of drain is 450 mm, to avoid damage by ground movement and 700 for traffic
Invert level is the lowest level of the bore of a drain DRAINAGE SCHEMES . Depend on a number of factors
Number of discharge point Relative position of discharge points Drainage system and location of local authority’s sewer Internal layout of sanitary fittings External position of rainwater down pipe Disposition of building Topography of the area to be served
DRAINAGE SCHEMES Designed within the limits of terrain Discharges flow by gravity from origin to point of discharged Pipe size and gradient selected based on sufficient capacity to accommodate maximum flow or adequate self
cleansing velocity to prevent debris accumulating DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Combined System Totally Separate System Partially Separate System Private Sewer
COMBINED SYSTEM All drains discharged into a common or combined sewer. Simple and economic method since there is no duplication of drains COMBINED SYSTEM Advantage
easy to maintain all drain are flushed when it rains impossible to connect to the wrong sewer
Disadvantage all discharge must pass through the sewerage treatment plan installation thus costly
TOTALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM The method employed by Malaysian authorities Consist of 2 sewers
one for surface water discharged – convey to a suitable outfall e.g. river without treatment second sewer received soil and foul discharge from baths, basin , sink, shower and toilet - convey to
sewage treatment plan TOTALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM Disadvantage
More drains are required Often necessary to cross one drain over the other thus risk of connection to the wrong sewer Soil drains are not flushed during heavy drain.
Advantage Smaller volume of discharged to be treated thus lead to overall economy
PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM 2 sewers used
one for surface water two act as combined sewer
The amount of surface water to be discharges into combines sewer can be adjusted according to the capacity of the sewerage treatment installation
PRIVATE & PUBLIC SEWER Public Sewer
Sewer that is owned and maintained by the local authority Private Sewer
Sewer owned by a single person or group of people and maintained by them SEWER CONNECTION TO THE PUBLIC SEWER 1. individual sewer 2. A few houses connected to the single sewer which in turn is connected to the public sewer A few houses connected to the single sewer which in turn is connected to the public sewer Possible saving
total length of drain required number of connection to public sewer amount of opening in the road number of inspection chambers
DRAINAGE MATERIALS Rigid
clay, cast iron, precast concrete(for surface water)
Flexible
unplasticied PVC(UPVC) CLAY PIPES BS 65 BS EN 295 Used for domestic drainage. Glazed with common salt, borax or boric acid during firing process to render them imperviousness Today high standard of manufacture combined with quality dense material – no need this process Type and quality marked on the barrel CLAY PIPES BS 65 BS EN 295 Diameter range 100- 250mm (increment of 25,75, mm) Length 1,300 to 16000 for plain pipe Shorter up to 600 mm for spigot and socket pipes. Joints - mostly flexible to accommodate earth movement under, around an dover the pipeline, within the
joint Rigid joint is difficult to make in wet trenches and unable to absorbed movement
Socket joint – socket and spigot Sleeve joint - plain pipes with push fit polypropylene sleeve coupling
CLAY PIPES FITTINGS 45o oblique junction Eighth bend Yard gully Access gully S trap outlet P trap outlet others MAKING OF
CLAY PIPES CAST IRON PIPES Used in domestic pipes if ground unstable, drain with shallow invert and passed under buildings, sewage is
under pressure from pumping. Diameter 75, 100, 150 and 225 mm Length 1.83, 2.74 and 3.66 fittings same as clay pipes Protective coating – hot dip into bituminous or tar composition or cold solution of naphtha and bitumen
composition. Joint – flexible push fit joint – harden rubber and soft bulb gasket UNPLASTICIZED PVC PIPES
BS 35600 industrial use, BS 4660 domestic use Made from polyvinyl chloride + additives Diameter outside 110mm, 160mm with non std diameter 82, 200,250 and 315 mm Length 3m and 6m Long length less jointing Can be cut easily by hacksaw Joint
socket and spigot with rubber ring Sleeve joints of polypropylene with ruber dealing solvent welded joint – brush with PVC solution and methyl chloride
Concrete pipes Used for major infrastructure work Size – 300mm -1.8m Std pipe – 2.5m long, 600mm dia, weight 1200kg
Can only be lifted and maneuvered into position using mechanical plan Fitted with gasket Once lubricant has been applied to the barrel, it can be pushed into socket for a watertight seal UNPLASTICIZED PVC PIPES Advantages
Smooth bore Light Easy to handle Long - length reduce joints, Can be jointed and laid in all weathers
Drain - Sewer No exact distinction between drain and sewer Generally Drain – pipeline under privately owned land, laid and maintained by the owner Sewer – pipeline laid and maintained by the local authority DRAIN LAYING BS 8301 – Laid in trenches which are excavated, if necessary timbered to prevent collapse Trench excavated to the required gradient and fall Excavation should remain open as short as possible time Technique for lying depend on material and joint ( rigid or flexible) Gradient 1:200, not less than 1:80 Lay bedding Carry out jointing Lay pipe Use pipe laser for pipe gradient or fall Built up bedding Testing Backfill and compaction DRAIN LAYING Pipe is set in position by scooping out the granular from the underneath the collar, and set the pipe in the
centre of the trench Laser sit at one end of the pipe run and the target is positioned in the end of the pipe being leveled. When
the lase strike the center of the target, the pipe is at the correct level Further granular material is then spreads and lightly packed each side of pipeline, to support it against
deformation under load. Then on top of the pipe and later backfill with excavated material up to ground level
Pipe could accommodate axial flexibility and extensibility by flexible jointing and granular flexible bedding medium.
Pipes depend upon the support bedding for their strength, must be uniformly supported on all sides by bedding material and compacted
DRAIN LAYING Min diameter waste water 75mm, soil water 100mm Bedding –
for flexible pipes For rigid pipes
Class D – on trench bed Class N granular bedding, Class B granular bedding Concrete casing for rigid pipes
None cohesive granular material size 5-20mm Socket end laid against the flow Flexible joints required special lubricant to ease jointing process With modern excavating machinery , flexible joint pipelines may be assemble above ground and then
lowered into and bedded in comparatively narrow trenches MEAN OF ACCESS INTO SEWER Should have adequate access for testing, maintenance and clearance of blockage Rodding is the operation of pushing flexible, sectional rods down drain lines to clear blockage 3 types of access point
Rodding eyes Shallow access fittings Inspection chambers & Manholes
Access points should be provided : on long drain runs, at the head od each drain run at a bend or change of gradient a change of pipe size at junction where each drain run to the junction cannot be cleared from an access points
RODDING EYES Located at the head for a drain Are used as a continuation of straight drain runs extended to the ground level with an access cap. It is possible to rod through each drain run to clear a blockage. SHALLOW ACCESS FITTINGS Provide vertical access to both directions of drain run which is not over 600 mm deep INSPECTION OF CHAMBER Enlarge version of shallow access fitting but depth up to 1 m Provided limited access and contain facilities for few junctions and branch connections Material
Plastics Precast concrete Brick masonry
MANHOLES Inspection chambers over 1m Compartment containing half or three quarter section round channels to enable the flow to be observed Provide a drain access point for cleaning and testing Domestic drainage - shallow manhole up to 1800 mm MANHOLES Internal sizing governed by
depth to invert nos of branch drains diameter of branch drain space for one person to work within manhole
Brick manhole is formed on 150 mm concrete bed on which brick walls are raised In the bed, a half –round channel take discharge from the branch drains Have cast iron covers over frames VENTILATION OF DRAINS To prevent foul air from soil and combined drain from escaping and causing nuisance To prevent the build-up of explosive gasses and to relieve pressure which could interfere with the smooth
operation of the drainage system.
Ventilating pipes should be provided at or near the head of each main drain and any branch exceeding 10 m in length
VENTILATION OF DRAINS Can be separate pipes or soil discharge stack pipe – carried upward to act as ventilating discharge pipe stack
or soil vent pipe. Ventilating pipe should be open to the outside air and carried at least 900mm above the head of any window
within a horizontal distance of 3,000mm VENTILATION OF DRAINS Air admittance valve is used every fifth house must have a conventional vent pipe to preserved the
atmospheric pressure in the drain and sewer. Principles
Discharge of water in the stack creates a slight negative pressure sufficient to open the valve and admit air, atmospheric pressure allows spring to reseal the unit and prevent foul from escaping.
Advantages Ventilating stack can be terminated inside the building typically in the roof space Greater flexibility in design Adapt to plastic or pipework Visually unobtrusive as there is no projecting stack pipe
ROOF DRAINGE - RAINWATER DRAINAGE To get rainwater from the roof to a suitable discharge as quickly and economical as possible, thus helping to
prevent water penetration to the inside of the building Roof- collection channel (gutter) - vertical rainwater pipes – rainwater shoe (surface water drain) or trapped
gully for a combined drain Use trapped gully at the foot of rain water downpipe when soil and wastewater discharges and rainwater
goes to drain – to prevent odour Use rainwater shoe when rain water down pipe connect directly to storm water drain Gully and shoe usually bedded on a small concrete base to provide base for connection to stack pipes and
drains RAINWATER DRAINAGE Materials
Concrete galvanized pressed steel
For Domestic cast iron uPVC
CAST IRON RAINWATER GOODS – BS 460 Members – gutter, downpipe, shoe, clip, dead end, corners, hopper ,branch, socket, nozzle outlet Shape of gutter – half round, segmental and ogee Half round gutter with socket joint – diameter 75 to 150 mm, 1800 mm length Socket should be lapped in the direction of flow and sealed with putty Gutter supported by brackets screwed to the feet of rafter or fascia board Down pipes are fixed to the wall by clips SIZING OF GUTTER AND DOWN PIPES Depend on
the are of roof to be drained anticipated intensity of rainfall material of gutter and down pipes fall within gutter usually 1:150 , 1:600 numbers, size and position of outlets
UNPLASTICIZED PVC RAINWATER GOODS BS 4576 Advantages over cast iron easier jointing, gutter bolts are not required, joint is self sealing by butyl corrosion eliminated decoration not required, several colour available breakages are reduced better flow properties, enable smaller section and lower falls half round gutter – diameter 75 to 150 mm, length 6 m down pipes – dia 50,63,75, 89 mm length 2 and 4 meter CONNECTION TO SEWERS Incoming drain or private sewer is joined main sewer obliquely in the direction of flow and the connection
watertight Method of connection depend on
relative size of sewer and connecting drain or private sewer relative invert level position nearest inspection chamber on the sewer run whether the sewer is existing or being laid concurrently with drain or private sewer whether stopped or join, the junctions have been built into existing sewer the shortest and most practical route
CONNECTION TO SEWERS Public sewer less than 225 mm – remove 2-3 pipes and replace with new pipes with oblique junction If new connection have been anticipated stopped junction may be included in the design Careful removal of the disk or cap is essential to ensure undamaged socket is available to make the
connection CONNECTION TO THE INSPECTION CHAMBER OR MANHOLES If same invert level – oblique branch channel If different level - a ramp formed in the branching within inspection chamber When a branch drain is to be corrected to main drain at a lower level it is often economical to construct a
back drop inspection chamber to avoid deep excavation CONNECTION TO THE INSPECTION CHAMBER OR MANHOLES Connection of small diameter drain to larger diameter – saddle connection A saddle is a short socket pipe with a flange or saddle curved to suit the outer profile of the sewer pipe. Hole must be cut in the upper part of the sewer Saddle connection is bedded on to the sewer with cement mortar and the whole connection is surrounded
with a minimum 150 mass concrete DRAIN TESTING - 3 methods Water test
Usual method –carried out by filling the drain line being tested with head of water being 1.5m above the crown of the high end of the pipeline and observing if there any escape of water. Test of water tightness under pressure
Air test Used in special circumstances such as large diameter pipe where a large quantity of water would be
required Smoke test
Smoke is pumped into sealed drain under test. The drained is stopped at suitable interval.. Give some indication of leaks before any excavation to expose drain is undertaken
CCT survey Use camera mounted to provide view of inside the drain
SEPTIC TANK
Is designed to take the outflow of soil and wastewater, retain some solid organic matter for partial purification and discharge the liquid sewage through a system of land drain to the surrounding ground to complete the process of purification
Capacity – 2800 to 6000 liters for 4-22 people respectively Tank is bedded on concrete and surrounded with lean mix concrete with access cover at ground level 3 chambers – lower chamber for large solid particles to settle Solid sewage that sattle in the ase of the tank should be removed every 12 months to a tanker SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE Fall - External surfaces that are paved with concrete, tarmac, paving slabs, bricks or granite set should be laid
with slight slopes or falls to gullies or channels. Min fall of 1:60 Channels – may be laid to slight fall by a gentle sinking towards a gully For rain and surface water drain use clay or uPVC with rodding eyes access fittings SURFACE WATER DISCHARGE Malaysia still use open drainage system although some use close drainage system Half circle drain U drain SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE -SOAKAWAY A pit into which roof and surface water is drained and from which the water seeps into the surrounding
ground Used as alternative means of discharge on large area of land surrounding a building Constructed by excavating a pit of appropriate size and either filling the void with selected granular materials
or alternatively lining the sides with brickwork or precast concrete rings Small capacity SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE -SOAKAWAY Difficult to estimate the storage capacity due to silting Sited away from the building so that foundation are not affected by the percolation of water from the
soakaway – min 5000 mm TYPES OF SOAKAWAY Filled soakaway
Employed only for small capacities The life is limited by the silting up of the voids between the filling material
Lined soakaway More efficient Have longer life If access is provided can be inspected and maintained at regular interval
The End Thank you
PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2AQS 1291
Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 11 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
SANITARY FITTING AND PIPEWORKS CONTENTS Domestic water supply Sanitary fitting and pipe work DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY SYABAS provide from their main communication pipe to a stop valve and protections chamber just out side
the boundary. Service pipe is taken from this stop valve to an internal stop valve located just above floor level and housed
under the sink unit. Service pipe must not be placed where it can be affected by frost, heavy traffic or building loads Minimum depth 750mm recommended to domestic properties. Functions To provide clean water suitable for human consumption Provide a continuous supply at a constant pressure Water supply regulations
Provide guidance on materials, workmanship, water supply design and installation and provision against backflow of the water supply
Concern to prevent contamination of main supplied water by the flow of potentially polluted water from a supply or distributed system back into the mains water supply
Backflow can occur when there is a loss of pressure in the main due to failure of pumps or repair and maintenance on the main and also where a pumped supply in a building creates pressure greater than that in the main
Pipes and fittings must be designed to withstand an internal water pressure not less that one a half times the maximum water pressure design for
CONNECTION TO THE WATER MAIN Service pipe
From the main to the stop valve near the site boundary of a building Responsibility of SYABAS Stop valve is to enable SYABAS to disconnect supply if there is a leak or non payment
Supply pipe From the stop valve to and into the buildings Responsibility of house owner Subject to water pressure from SYABAS mains At a point it enter the building, there should be another stop valve
Distributing pipe Convey water from storage cistern to pipe fittings
WATER METER Located on a service pipe, in a compartment inside the property boundary. Indicate the volume of water used by the consumer Rate – Malaysia - the more used the more expensive the rate 1m3 – RM0.57 COLD WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY – direct from the main water pressure INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY – from a cold water storage cistern DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY The whole cold water to the sanitary fitting is supplied directly from the service pipe Used where high level reservoirs provide a good main supply and pressure. DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY Advantage Only a small cold water storage cistern to feed the hot water tank is required; this can usually be positioned
below the roof ceiling level giving a saving on pipe runs to the roof space and eliminating the need to insulate the pipes against frost
Drinking water available from several outlet point. Uniform high pressure supply DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY Disadvantages Lack of reserve should the supply be cut off for repair Lowering of the supply during peak demand period. Risk of contamination of the main water from sanitary fittings by back siphonage The need for comparatively frequent inspection, maintenance and repair of many valves and control to the
system INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY - advantages All sanitary fittings except drinking water outlet is supply indirectly from cold water cistern positioned at a
high level, usually roof space
Requires more pipe works but give a reserve supply in case of mains failure and reduce the risk of contamination from back siphonage.
The air gap between the supply pipe and water level in the cistern acts an effective barrier to back flow INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY - disadvantages The considerable weight of a filled cistern has to be supported at high level The inconvenience of access to cistern for inspection and maintenance The possibility of cistern overflowing Need to insulate effectively the cistern and its associated pipework against freezing Animal and insect may enter the cistern and contaminate water MATERIALS FOR PIPEWORKS Copper PVC polythene uPVC Galvanized steel Pvc pipes are resistance to frost and corrosion – superceded metal pipes PIPEWORKS Any materials suitable for service pipe are suitable for distribution pipe Choice based on individual preference
initial costs possible maintenance costs
Common Size 15mm for wash basin and WC flushing cistern 22mm for sink and bath
COPPER PIPES Low flow resistance Strong Easily jointed and bend Usually use in hot water supply Joints can be made by
Manipulative compression joint Non manipulative compression joints Capillary joint
Galvanized mild steel Used in service, supply and distribution pipework Galvanized to resist corrosion The pipe end is threaded Joint made with socket, fittings Pipes are supported at the interval of 2.5 to 3 m POLYTHENE PIPES Very light, easy to join, non-toxic, non corrosive and available in long length. Jointing using metal or plastic liner to the end of the tube Soften at low temperature - use in cold water supply. To prevent sagging, use saddle clips 14x diameter. For horizontal, 24x diameter for vertical runs. UNPLASTICIZED PVC (UPVC) For cold water service Color-gray, blue, black Jointing
a screw thread
solvent welding Chamfering the end pipes, coated with adhesive and pushed into straight coupling. Heat fusion used for larger diameter water authority mains.
Corrosion resistant Durable Environmentally sound
HPE - High density polyethylene pipe SYABAS SPECIFICATION Made from single grade polyethylene Conform to the requirements as specified in MS 1058 Part 1:2002. PE 80 with a derived density greater than 0.93g/cm³ tested at 20° C. Nominal Pressure (PN) 12.5 and Standard Dimensions Ratio (SDR) 11 with the minimum strength at 20° C. Colour - black with blue stripes. Fittings
Spigot fittings Electro-fusion fittings and Mechanical fittings and joints
Hot water piping Copper Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
Service temp 90oC COLD WATER STORAGE CISTERNS Is a liquid storage container that open to air, water at atmospheric pressure Size-depends upon reserve required and whether to fit hot water system. Minimum 115 liters for cold water
storage, 230 liters for cold and hot water services. Material - plastic Positions-roof space -reasonable access for maintenance purposes 2 m above the highest fittings - head Flow by gravity. A stop valve is fitted before and after cistern to shut off the supply for maintenance and repair purposes Outlet above the highest discharge point COLD WATER STORAGE CISTERNS Inlet and outlet connection to the cistern-opposite sides to prevent stagnation of water. Security fitting cover to prevent ingress of dust, dirt and insects. To prevent vacuum occurring as water is drawn, the cover is fitted with a screen vent. The over flow is also
fitted with a filter. Ball valve to control water supply – when water is drawn, the ball falls and arm rise will open valve to let
water in, when water rise to the water line the ball and arm rise will close the valve Overflow pipe – precaution against failure of valve Distribution pipe – 50mm above the bottom of cistern to prevent sedimentation from entering pipe PLASTIC CISTERN ADVANTAGES
non-corrosive rot proof frost resistant have good resistant to mechanical damages.
MATERIALS Polythene Polypropylene Glass fiber
Valve Valve is a fitting that can be adjusted to cause a gradual restriction in flow or a cessation of flow Also known as stop valve 2 types Globe valve
Control or shut flow through a disc that is lowered slowly by turning a screwdown spindle to a seating – used in high pressure and hot water pipework
Gate valve Operate by raising or lowering a metal gate into or out of the line of the pipework as the spindle is
screwed down or up – used for low pressure flow Taps Fitting designed to draw hot or cold water from pipework 3 types
Bib taps – operate as globe tap – connectd horizontally Pillar tap – for bath, basin, sink – connected vertically Quarter turn tap – lower disc is fixed and the top disc can be turn through 90o. When the holes in
the top disc coincide with the bottom, the water flows SANITARY FITTING AND PIPEWORKS SANITARY APPLIANCES /FITTINGS Fixed appliances in which water is used either for flushing foul matter or cleaning Soil appliances - remove soil water and human excreta such as water closets and urinals Waste water appliances -used to remove waste water from washing and the preparation of food including
wash basin, bath, shower and sinks Functional requirements
The safe and hygienic disposal of waste Durable and easy to clean / maintain
Soil Appliances Wastewater appliances Water Closet suite
WC pan, seat, flushing appliance, pipe Urinal Washbasins Baths Shower Bidets Kitchen sinks WATER CLOSETS BS 5503 WC Pan is a ceramic or metal bowl to take solid and liquid excrement, with an inlet for flushing and a
trapped outlet Pedestal type – the base is made integral with the pan which is secured to the floor with screw through the
base plugs in solid floors Wash down type /syphonic
the flush of water run around the rim to wash down the bowl and then overturn the water seal and creat syphonic action that discharges the contents
Have trap to contain water seal against odour – S trap, P trap Connection from outgo from pan to the branch drain pipe
WATER CLOSETS WATER CLOSETS – flushing cistern Designed to discharged water rapidly into pan through a flush pipe for cleaning and disposed of content Arrangement
High level Low level Close couple WC
Made from enameled cast iron, enameled pressed steel, ceramic or plastic ware WATER CLOSETS – flushing cistern Piston type cistern operate by lever or button When activated the disc or flap valve piston is raised and with it the water level which commences the
siphonage Water level is control by float valve Typical capacity 6, 7.5 and 9 litres 40% of total water consumption is by the use of WC Now – smaller capacity 4 litres, dual flush Uranial 3 types
Stall urinal Slab urinal Bowl urinal
Flush by automatic flushing cistern fixed above the urinal Use not more that 10 litres of water per hour for single urinals WASTE ATER APPLIANCES
WATER BASINS BS 1188, BS 5506 Designed for washing the upper part of body Supported on wall-mounted cantilever brackets or leg support. Consist of a bowl, soap tray, outlet, water overflow and holes to fix tap WATER BASINS BATH Made from porcelain, enameled cast iron but now glass fibre fixed on adjustable leg Overflow pipe, seal trap Shower sprays SHOWERS Shower trays to collect and discharge water Fixed or hand held shower, rose, mixing valve Wall around fixed shower are lined with impermeable materials such as tile Shower compartment is often surrounded with upstand curb or sunk into floor KITCHEN SINKS For preparation of food, washing of dishes Position: at drinking water supply outlets Consist of bowl, drainer, seal trap, fitting Building Regulation G1, G2 detailed the requirement and minimum facilities to be made available in a
dwelling and the need for sanitary accommodation to be separated from kitchen area. MATERIALS FOR SANITARY AND WASTE WATER FITTINGS Should be made from impervious materials be quiet in operation easy to clean
convenient shape fixed at suitable height. MATERIALS VITREOUS CHINA (BS 3402) white clay body which is vitried and permanently fused with a vitreous surface when fired at a very high
temperature Non-corrosive, hygienic and easily cleaned with mild detergent.. GLAZED FIRECLAY Porous ceramic body glazed in a similar manner to vitreous china. Exceptionally strong and resistant to impact damage but will allow water penetration if protective glazing is
damaged. Non-corrosive, hygienic and easily cleaned. VITREOUS ENAMEL A form of glass which can be melted and used to give a glaze protective coating over a steel or cast iron base. Used mainly for bath, sinks, and draining boards. Lighter than ceramic material, hygienic, easy to clean, has a long life. However, can be cheap and subject to staining especially from copper compound from hot water system. PLASTIC MATERIALS Acrylic plastics, glass-reinforced polyester resins and polypropylene. Require no protective coating, very strong, light, chip resistant, but generally cost more than ceramic or
vitreous enamel product. Can become soft when heated, should be used for cold water fitments or thermostatically controlled mixing
taps. Clean by warm soapy water. STAINLESS STEEL 18% chromium, 8% nickel Resistant to corrosion, very durable and light. Used for sinks and draining board, available polished or satin finish. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS SPECIFYING SANITARY FITMENTS Costs: outlay, fixing and maintenance Hygiene: inherent and ease of cleaning Appearance: size, colour and shape Function: suitability, speed of operation and reliability Weight: support required from wall and floor Design: ease BUILDING REGULATION G1, G2
Malaysia? G1 -requirements for sanitary conveniences i.e water closets, urinals and wash basins G2 – bathroom – bath or shower installation BS 6465: SANITARY INSTALLATIONS Part 1- provision and installation Part 2- special layout and design for sanitary accommodation SANITARY PIPEWORK Building Regulation approved document H1, sanitary pipeworks and drainage set out in detail the
recommendation for soil pipes, waste pipes, and ventilating pipes. Regulation govern minimum diameter of soil pipes, material requirements, provision of adequate water
seals by means of an integral trap or non-integral traps, the positioning of soil pipes of the inside of a building, overflow pipe works and ventilating pipes.
SANITARY PIPEWORK SYSTEM
one-pipe system two-pipe system single-stack system ONE-PIPE SYSTEM Single discharge pipe which conveys both soil and waste water directly to the drain. TWO-PIPE SYSTEM Two discharge pipes, one convey soil discharges, the other waste discharges. Simple, reliable, and costly system. Advantage- complete flexibility in appliance layouts and deep seal traps are not required. SINGLE-STACK SYSTEM BS 5572 Building regulation approved documents H1. Simplification of one-pipe system by using deep seal trap, relying on venting by the discharge pipe, and
placing certain restriction on basin waste pipes, which have a higher risk of self-siphonage than other appliances.
100mm discharge stack Water seal trap for each appliances to prevent foul air Branch Pipe Carried foul water from sanitary appliances to vertical discharge stack All branch discharge pipe should be discharge into a discharge stack except those to appliances on the
ground floor A branch pipe should not discharge into stack lower than 450mm from bend at the foot of the stack for 1-3
storeys , 750m – 5 storeys Fig 12.43 MATERIALS FOR SANITARY PIPEWORK Galvanized steel prefabricated stack units (BS 3868) Cast iron (BS 416) Class E - uPVC (BS 4514 )
commonly use now because low cost, ease of cutting, speedily made joints and the range of fitting available
Connection by rubber compression rings tightened by a nut Soundness test – Air test Traps of all sanitary appliance are filled with water and the open ends of pipes are seals with expending
drain plugs or bag stopper Air is pump through WC pan trap and air pressure is measured in a U tube water gauge or manometer. A pressure equal to 38mm water gauge should be maintained for 3 minutes if the pipework is sound Ventilation for internal WCs and Bathrooms Need to provide means of extract ventilation to internal bathroom and WCs to dilute pollutants and
moisture vapour by air exchanges By mechanical extract of air - 60l/sec, have 15 min overrun after light has been switch off. 10mm gap under the door for replacement air to enter The End Thank you
PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2AQS 1291
Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 9 CLADDING CONTENTS Functions Installation Requirements Cladding Systems CLADDING Definition - Non load bearing exterior wall enclosure Another definition – a weather tight skin covering an external wall Most visible part of a building – exposed to view Exposed to wear and weathering – most subjected to natural forces that can spoil its appearance Must defend the interior spaces against invasion of water, wind, sunlight, heat and cold PRIMARY FUNCTION OF CLADDING Major purpose – to separate the indoor environment of a building from the outdoor. Indoor environment can be maintained at levels suitable for the building’s intended used Has to bear wind loads, impact damage and temperature extremes KEEPING WATER OUT
Must prevent the entry of rain, snow and ice into a building Complicated as water is often driven by wind a thigh velocities and high pressure at every direction. Higher the building the higher velocity at the top level Water pushed by wind tends to accumulate in crevices and readily penetrate the smallest cracks or hole and
enter building PREVENTING AIR LEAKAGE Must prevent the unintended passage of air between indoor and outdoors. Air leaks are harmful because they waste conditioned air, carry water through wall, allow moisture vapour to
condense inside the wall, allow noise to penetrate from outside Sealant, gasket and air barrier membranes are used to prevent air leakage through cladding CONTROLLING LIGHT Sunlight is heat that may be welcome and unwelcome Visible light useful for illumination but can cause glare Inclusive of destructive ultraviolet which is harmful and cause fading or disintegration Sometimes include external shading to keep light and heat away from window CONTROLLING THE RADIATION OF HEAT Maintain its interior surfaces at a temperature that will not cause radiant discomfort. External sun shading devices, adequate thermal insulation, selection of glass are potential strategies in
controlling heat radiation CONTROLLING CONDUCTION OF HEAT Must resist the required degree the conduction of heat in and out of the building Thermal insulation, appropriate glazing and thermal breaks are used to control heat conduction through
cladding CONTROLLING SOUND Isolate inside of a building from noises out side Best archives by walls that are air tight, massive and resilient Requirement varies from one building to the other Hospital and major airport requires high level of noise isolation SECONDARY FUNCTION OF CLADDING RESISTING WIND FORCES Must be strong and stiff to sustain the pressure and suction that will be placed by wind Higher building experiences aerodynamic effect from surrounding building High suction force at the corner of cladding CONTROLLING WATER VAPOUR Must retard the passage of water vapour must have adequate thermal insulation to prevent condensation of moisture ADJUSTING TO MOVEMENT Forces- thermal, moisture expansion and contraction, structural deflection Must allow these forces in the design of cladding THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION Indoor and outdoor temperature differences – warping of cladding Cladding protect frame of building MOISTURE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION Masonry and concrete material cladding must accommodate their expansion and contraction caused by
varying moisture content STRUCTURAL MOVEMENT Must adjust to the movement of frame Foundation may settle unevenly deflection of girder
long term creep causes shortening of concrete column and sagging of concrete beam RESISTING FIRE Building code provision WEATHERING GRACEFULLY Must weather gracefully Dirt will accumulate eventually Provision for cleaning, replacement, safety attachment Must resist oxidation and ultraviolet degradation, corrosion, freezing and thawing damage CLADDING CLASSIFICATION Cladding fixed to a structural backing Cladding to framed structures CLADDING FIXED TO A STRUCTURAL BACKING Two reasons Structural unable to provide an adequate barrier to the elements – cladding will raise the wall’s resistance to
an acceptable level Decorative purposes to break up monotony Materials Tiles, slates, shingles, timber boarding, plastic boards and stone facing CLADDING FIXED TO A STRUCTURAL BACKING General method of fixing Secure them to timber batten fixed to structure backing CLADDING TO FRAME STRUCTURES Include panels of masonry constructed between the column and beams Light infill of metal or timber, precast concrete panels and curtain walling CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO WATER TIGHTNESS IN CLADDING In order for water to penetrate a wall 3 conditions must be satisfied simultaneously There must be water present at the outer face of the wall There must be an opening through which water can move There must be a force to move the water through the opening 3 CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO MAKING A WALL WATER TIGHT try to keep water completely away from the wall – impossible try to eliminate the openings by sealing every seam – barrier wall approach – work well if done well try to eliminate or neutralize all the forces that can move water through the wall FORCES THAT CAN MOVE WATER Gravity Momentum surface tension Capillary action Wind current Leaking sealant THE RAINSCREEN PRINCIPLE A generic solution to wind current problem is to allow wind pressure difference between outside and the
inside of the cladding to neutralize themselves Also called pressure equalized wall design Creation of an airtight barrier at the interior side of the cladding, protected from direct exposure to the
outdoor by a loose fitting unsealed, labyrinth-jointed layer known as the rainscreen THE RAINSCREEN PRINCIPLE Between the rainscreen and the air barrier is a space known as the pressure equalization chamber (PEC)
As wind pressure on the cladding build up and fluctuate , small current of air pass back and forth through each unsealed joint in the rainscreen, just enough to equalize the pressure in the PEC with the pressure outside the joint
THE RAINSCREEN PRINCIPLE These currents are too weak to carry water with them PEC should be divided into compartment not more than 2 storey high and a bay or two wide Or else large volume of air may rush through the joints and carry water in INSTALLING REQUIREMENT FOR CLADDING Must be easy to install There should be secure places for the installer to stand Build in adjustment mechanism in all fastening to allow for inaccuracies Must have dimensional clearance to allow cladding component to be inserted without binding against
adjacent component Must have features such as drainage channels, air barrier, generous edge clearance to keep glass from
contacting hard material of the frame SEALANT JOINTS IN CLADDING To fill the joint between cladding components, preventing the flow of air and or water while allowing
subsequent movement between components SEALANT MATERIALS -VISCOUS SEALANT MATERIAL Viscous sticky liquid that are injected into joint of building with a sealant gun Cure between joint to become rubber like materials that adhere to the surrounding and seal against the
passage of air and water SOLID SEALANT MATERIAL
- GASKETS Strips of various fully cured elastomeric (rubberlike) materials, manufactured in different components and
sizes for different purpose Compressed into joint and expended with lock strip inserted PERFORMED CELLULAR TAPE SEALANT Strip of polyurethane sponge material impregnated with mastic sealant. Delivered to site on air tight wrapper, compressed to one fifth of its volume When inserted expend to fill the joint. The sealant material cure with moisture from the air to form water
tight seam PERFORMED SOLID TAPE SEALANTS Only used in lap joint as in mounting glass in a metal frame. Thick, sticky ribbon of polybutene or
polysobutylene that adhere to both sides of the joint to seal or cushion the junction BASIC CONCEPT FOR BUILDING CLADDING SYSTEM
THE LOAD BEARING WALL Wall support substantial portion of the floor and roof load as well acting to separate the indoor environment
from the outdoor. Mainly brick, stone masonry Poor thermal insulator, developed water leaks, heavy, their height is limited to a few stories THE CURTAIN WALL Exterior cladding supported at each story by steel or concrete frame Bear no vertical load – thin and light Must have sufficient strength to support their own weight plus any attached finishes Strong enough to resist both positive and negative wind pressure May be constructed with any non combustible material that is suitable for exposure to the weather. May be constructed in place or prefabricated CLADDING AND BUILDING CODES
Structural strength – wind seismic loading Fire resistance – combustibility of the cladding material CLADDING WITH MASONRY AND CONCRETE Clad with brick, stone masonry, cut stone panels, precast concrete – impart solidity and permanence to a
building Brittle material must adjust to movement of the frame and maintained weather tightness despite being thin MASONRY VENEER CURTAIN WALLS Before casting concrete frame, inserts were put in formwork to create attachment Steel shelf angle is bolted to spandrel beam Flashing installed over shelf angle, edge of the floor slab Brickwork laid directly on the shelf angle MASONRY VENEER CURTAIN WALLS Backwall is also laid vertical bars grouted into hollow cores asphaltic coating applied on the outside of backup wall slab of polystyrene foam insulation placed masonry ties assembled to tie brick veneer to backwall PREFABRICATED BRICK PANEL CURTAIN WALLS Construct panels in factory, vertical and horizontal reinforcements installed Welded metal brackets for attachment to the building Completed panels with insulation PREFABRICATED BRICK PANEL CURTAIN WALLS installation by crane STONE CURTAIN WALLS PANELS MOUNTED ON STEEL SUB FRAME Vertical members erected first- designed to transmit gravity and wind load from the stone slabs to the frame
of the building Horizontal panes attached STONE CURTAIN WALLS PANELS MOUNTED ON STEEL SUB FRAME Panels have upper and lower edges to engage to the horizontal members Sealant filled the spaces between the panels allowing for considerable range of movements STONE CLADDING PANEL Fastened directly to the frame of building Weight support by two steel support plates STONE CLADDING PANEL PRECAST CONCRETE CURTAIN WALL Preacst concrete with reinforcement of prestressing Uses high quality mould Variety of surface finishes Ceramic tiles, thin bricks, thin stone facing may be attached. Thermal insulation may be sandwiched Reinforcing to resist wind gravity, seismic forces and to control cracking of panels PRECAST CONCRETE CURTAIN WALL -Panel fixing Either top hung from the structure or supported from the base Nibs projecting from the back of the panel transmit the load to the structure panels can be restrain by dowel
bars or by angle cleats GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE CURTAIN WALL Use alkali resistant glass fibre Thickness and weight one quarter of the precast concrete Can be moulded into 3 dimensional forms with intricate details, colours and textures
GFRC FABRICATION gun deposited sand cement slurry with glass fibre May be self stiffened by GFRC ribs or attached light gauge steel studs to the back in the factory steel frame is attached to it by applying pads wet GFRC over the rod anchors GFRC installation Metal Cladding Insulated and bonded metal penal are used primarily to clad industrial building They may have facing of anodized aluminum or steel with porcelain, vinyl, acrylic or enamel finishes The panel are typically 915 mm wide and span vertically between horizontal steel grits spaced 2.5 to 7.3 m
apart The End Thank you
PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2AQS 1291
Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 10 Insulation CONTENTS Sound insulation Thermal Insulation SOUND INSULATION DEFINITION OF SOUND Anything that can be heard Produced by vibrating object which moves rapidly to and fro causing movement of tiny particles of air
surrounding the vibrating source. Sound medium – medium required for the sound to be transmitted Cannot travel through vacuum DEFINITIONS LOUDNESS The greater the movement the louder the sound Depend on the distance between source and ear Unit – decibel
SOUND LEVEL AND EFFECTS ON HEARING DEFINITIONS PITCH Depend on the rate vibrating object oscillates Frequency – nos of vibration per second – higher frequency higher pitch Human ear can hear between16 – 20,000 hertz ( cycles per second) SOUND -REACTIONS When sound is produced within a building 3 reactions can occur
The pressure or sound waves can come in contact with the wall, floor and ceiling and be reflected back into the building
Some of the sound can be absorb by these surfaces and / or furnishes The sound waves upon reaching the walls, floor and ceiling can set these members vibrating in
unison and thus transmit the sound to adjacent room SOURCES OF SOUND Internal
Equipment room, service elevator and other facilities External
Neighborhood noise Traffic
Sound can enter building from external source such as traffic and low-flying aircraft SOUND DEFINED AS IMPACT SOUND – caused by direct contact with the structure – eg. foot steps AIRBORNE SOUND – conversation, radio UNDESIRED SOUND Annoyance Cause disturbance of sleep Interfere with the ability to hold a normal conversation Cause damage to hearing APPROACH TO SOLVE NOISE PROBLEM Reduce the noise emitted at the source by attenuators and mounting machinery on resilient pads Provide a reasonable degree of sound insulation to reduce the amount of sound transmitted Isolate the source and the receiver SOUND INSULATION Desirable Mandatory in some countries Most effective barrier – material of high mass BUILDING REGULATION 1991 PART E – E1 Protection against sound from adjoining dwellings or buildings E2 protection against sound within a dwelling E3 Protection against noise from external sources E4 Reverberation in the common internal parts of building containing dwelling Malaysian Uniform Building By Laws – no requirement PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS Build in such a way that noise from normal domestic activities in an adjoining dwelling or other building is
kept down to a level that will not threaten the health of the occupant of the dwelling Provides numerous examples of construction materials capable of resisting and absorbing direct
transmission of sound through structure. WHERE TO INSTALL SOUND INSULATION? Wall or Partition
Floor or Floor System Wall and Floor Intersection Doors Windows Specific rooms or areas INSULATION AGAINST INTERIOR NOISE SOURCES Sealed windows, doors and vents Interior can be constructed with non-porous concrete or brick Lined on the noise side with sound insulator Protection against sound to walls between water closet and other room, walls between bedroom, floor
between bedroom and other area MEANS TO REDUCE IMPACT SOUNDS Cushion impact – carpet, carpet padding Adsorptive ceiling – sound adsorbing ceiling Adsorb noise between floor and ceiling – installation of sound absorbing insulation between joist system TYPES OF SOUND RESISTING SEPARATING FLOORS Concrete with soft covering – 4.5mm rubber flooring Concrete with floating layer – 55 mm screed, timber boarding nailed to timber battens Timber with floating layer – resilient mineral fibre INSULATION AGAINST EXTERNAL NOISE
Mainly provided by the shell of envelope of the building Depending on
The mass of the enclosing structure The continuity of the structure
INSULATION AGAINST EXTERNAL NOISE Problems due to window open for ventilation Window cannot provide dual function insulation against noise and ventilation Double glazing can improves properties of window as sound insulation increases with the distance between
glazes unit Existing windows should be caulked or sealed with airtight gasket INSULATION AGAINST EXTERNAL NOISE Exterior doors should be provided with resilient gasket especially sliding doors Replace existing hollow core entrance door with solid door equipped with parameter gaskets Seal all opening particularly around water and gas pipes, electrical cables SOUND REDUCTION BY THE ENVELOPE OF BUILDING Roof of traditional construction - acceptable level of sound insulation Thermal insulation in roof will benefit sound reduction – inherent absorbing properties TYPES OF SOUND RESISTING SEPARATING WALLS Solid masonry
1 brick thick 190mm in-situ concrete, 215 mm concrete block work + 13 mm plaster both sides
Cavity masonry 50 mm cavity for brickwork 75 mm cavity for lightweight concrete brickwork
Masonry between isolating panels – 1 brick thick + 30 mm plasterboard Timber frame – 200 mm mineral fibre + 30 mm plasterboard THERMAL INSULATION A barrier to a natural flow of heat from an area of high temperature to an area of low temperature.
In building – generally from interior to exterior HEAT TRANSFER Conduction – vibrating molecules come in contact with adjoining molecules and set them vibrating faster
and hence become hotter. – no displacement of particles Convection – transmission of heat within a gas or fluid causing it to become less dense and rise up thus set
up a circulation Radiation – transfer of heat from one point to another without rising the temperature of the medium which
it travels HEAT TRANSFER In building, heat transfer by all three methods Heat conducted through the fabric of the building and dissipated in the internal surface by convection
and/or radiation. Traditional construction use solid building material thus had a natural resistant to the passage of heat. Today, lighter, thinner material has low resistant to heat transfer therefore use combination of materials. ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL INSULATION: Reduction in the rate of heat loss Lower maintenance cost for cooling/heating equipment Less replacement cost of heating/cooling equipment Lower power cost Reduction of condensation and draught thus improving the comfort of the occupants BUILDING REGULATIONS
L1 States that reasonable provision shall be made for the conservation of fuel and power in buildings. Satisfied by limiting the area of roof light and windows and by not exceeding the maximum U values for
element. U = thermal transmittance coefficient= overall heat transfer in watts through one meter square of structure
for one unit of temperature difference between the air on the two sides of the structure. U express in Kelvin per metre thicknessW/m2K Thermal transmittance – U value EMISSIVITY, ABSORPTIVITY Emissivity – the fraction of energy radiated compared to that radiated by a black body at the same
temperature Absorptivity - the fraction of energy absorbed compared to that absorbed by a black body at the same
temperature THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - K A measure of the rate at which heat is conducted through material Define as the heat flow in watts across a thickness of 1m for a temperature difference of 1oC and a surface
area of 1m2
THERMAL RESISTANCE – R unit m2K/W A measure of the resistance to heat transfer officered by a particular component of a building construction 3 Types
Material resistance Surface resistance Airspace resistance
For unventilated cavities R increases with increase in cavity up to 25mm – bigger convection become important
60% of heat transfer in a cavity is by radiant heat INSULATING MATERIALS CONSIDERATION WHEN SELECTING
Thermal resistance of the building Vapour control layer – dampness will loose the insulation properties Availability of material chosen Ease of fixing Appearance if visible Ultimate saving in power and heating insulation Fire risk – restriction of spread of flame over surface of wall and ceiling INSULATING MATERIALS -INSULATING CONCRETE Concrete of low density containing large number of voids. Use lightweight aggregate eg. clinker, foamed
slag, expended clay Introduction of air into the mix Omit fine aggregate use 10-20 mm light aggregate INSULATING MATERIALS -LOOSE FILLS Materials which can easily poured from a bag and leveled off between joist with a shaped trowel Material – exfoliated vermiculite, fiberglass and fibrewool, mineral wool and cork granules. Rot and vermin proof Non-combustible. INSULATING MATERIALS - BOARDS Used mainly as dry lining to walls and ceiling for self finish or direct decoration Types include
metalized polyester lined plasterboard wood wool slabs expanded polystyrene boards thermal backed plasterboard fibreboard
INSULATING MATERIALS -QUILTS Made from glass fibre or mineral wool bonded or stitched between outer paper covering for easy handling Rolls 6000 to13000 long and cut to suit standard INSULATING MATERIALS -INSULATING PLASTER Factory produced premixed plaster which have lightweight perlite and vermiculite expanded minerals as
aggregate Require only the additional of clean water before application INSULATING MATERIALS -FORMED CAVITY FILL Urea formaldehyde resin, hardener, a forming agent and warm water formed at site Form a white cellular material containing 99% by volume air Considered to be impermeable Non combustible water repellent glass or rock wool fibres are alternative cavity fill material The End Thank you