Principles of Exercise Training

CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 9 OverviewOverview

• Terminology

• General principles of training

• Resistance training

• Anaerobic and aerobic power training programs

Terminology:Terminology:Muscular StrengthMuscular Strength

• Strength: maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can generate– Static strength– Dynamic strength (varies by speed and joint angle)

• 1 repetition maximum (1RM): maximal weight that can be lifted with a single effort– Start with proper warm-up– Add weight until only 1 repetition can be performed

Terminology:Terminology:Muscular PowerMuscular Power

• Muscular power: rate of performing work– Explosive aspect of strength– Power = force x (distance/time)

• Power more important than strength for many activities

• Field tests not very specific to power

• Typically measured with electronic devices

Figure 9.1Figure 9.1

Terminology:Terminology:Muscular EnduranceMuscular Endurance

• Endurance: capacity to perform repeated muscle contractions (or sustain a single contraction over time)

• Number of repetitions at given % 1RM

• Increased through– Gains in muscle strength– Changes in local metabolic, cardiovascular function

Table 9.1Table 9.1

Terminology:Terminology:Aerobic PowerAerobic Power

• Aerobic power: rate of energy release by oxygen-dependent metabolic processes

• Maximal aerobic power: maximal capacity for aerobic resynthesis of ATP– Synonyms: aerobic capacity, maximal O2 uptake,

VO2max

– Primary limitation: cardiovascular system– Can be tested in lab or estimated from wide variety

of field tests

Terminology:Terminology:Anaerobic PowerAnaerobic Power

• Anaerobic power: rate of energy release by oxygen-independent metabolic processes

• Maximal anaerobic power: maximal capacity of anaerobic systems to produce ATP – Also known as anaerobic capacity

– Maximal accumulated O2 deficit test

– Critical power test– Wingate anaerobic test

General Principles of Training:General Principles of Training:Principle of IndividualityPrinciple of Individuality

• Not all athletes created equal

• Genetics affects performance

• Variations in cell growth rates, metabolism, and cardiorespiratory and neuroendocrine regulation

• Explains high versus low responders

General Principles of Training:General Principles of Training:Principle of SpecificityPrinciple of Specificity

• Exercise adaptations specific to mode and intensity of training

• Training program must stress most relevant physiological systems for given sport

• Training adaptations highly specific to type of activity, training volume, and intensity

General Principles of Training:General Principles of Training:Principle of ReversibilityPrinciple of Reversibility

• Use it or lose it

• Training improved strength and endurance

• Detraining reverses all gains

General Principles of Training:General Principles of Training:Principle of Progressive OverloadPrinciple of Progressive Overload

• Must increase demands on body to make further improvements

• Muscle overload: muscles must be loaded beyond normal loading for improvement

• Progressive training: as strength , resistance/repetitions must to further strength

General Principles of Training:General Principles of Training:Principle of VariationPrinciple of Variation

• Also called principle of periodization

• Systematically changes one or more variables to keep training challenging– Intensity, volume, and/or mode

– Volume/ intensity

– Volume/ intensity

• Macrocycles versus mesocycles

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Training Needs AnalysisTraining Needs Analysis

• First appropriate step in designing and prescribing appropriate resistance training program identifies– Muscle groups to target– Type of training– Energy system to stress– Injury prevention needs

• Specifics of resistance training program design based on needs analysis

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Strength, Hypertrophy, and PowerStrength, Hypertrophy, and Power

• Should involve concentric (CON), eccentric (ECC), and isometric contractions– CON strength maximized by ECC

– ECC benefits action-specific movements

• Exercise order– Large muscle groups before small, multijoint before

single joint, high intensity before low intensity

• Rest periods based on experience– Novice, intermediate lifters: 2 to 3 min between sets

– Advanced lifters: 1 to 2 minutes between sets

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Static-Contraction ResistanceStatic-Contraction Resistance

• Muscle force without muscle shortening

• Also called isometric training

• Early evidence showed great promise– Later evidence did not support early findings– Isometric training nonetheless still popular

• Ideal for immobilized rehab situations

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Free Weights Versus MachinesFree Weights Versus Machines

• Free weights (constant resistance)– Tax muscle extremes but not midrange– Recruit supporting and stabilizing muscles– Better for advanced weight lifters

• Machines– May involve variable resistance – Safer, easier, more stable, better for novices– Limit recruitment to targeted muscle groups

Figure 9.2Figure 9.2

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Dynamic Eccentric TrainingDynamic Eccentric Training

• Emphasizes ECC phase of contraction– In this phase, muscle’s ability to resist force greater

than with CON training– Theoretically produces strength gains versus

CON

• Early ECC versus CON research equivocal

• More support from recent studies– ECC + CON workouts maximize strength gains– ECC important for muscle hypertrophy

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Variable-Resistance TrainingVariable-Resistance Training

• Resistance in weakest ranges of motion, in strongest ranges

• Muscle works against higher percentage of its capacity at each point in range of motion

• Basis for several popular machines

Figure 9.3Figure 9.3

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Isokinetic TrainingIsokinetic Training

• Movement at a constant speed– Angular velocity can range from 0 to 300°/s– Strong force opposed by more resistance– Weak force opposed by less resistance

• Resistance from electronics, air, or hydraulics

• Theoretically allows maximal contraction at all points in range of motion

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:PlyometricsPlyometrics

• Also known as stretch-shortening cycle exercise– Uses stretch reflex to recruit motor units– Stores energy during ECC, released during CON– Example: deep squat to jump to deep squat

• Proposed to bridge gap between speed and strength training

Figure 9.4Figure 9.4

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Electrical StimulationElectrical Stimulation

• Pass current across muscle or motor nerve– Ideal for recovery from injury or surgery– Reduces strength loss during immobilization– Restores strength and size during rehab

• No evidence of further supplemental gains in healthy, training athletes

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Core Stability and StrengthCore Stability and Strength

• Core: trunk muscles around spine and viscera– Abdominal muscles– Gluteal muscles, hip girdle– Paraspinal, other accessory muscles

• Yoga, Pilates, tai chi, physioball

• Proximal stability aids distal mobility

Resistance Training Programs:Resistance Training Programs:Core Stability and StrengthCore Stability and Strength

• May decrease likelihood of injury

• Increases muscle spindle sensitivity– Permits greater state of readiness for joint loading– Protects body from injury

• Core musculature mostly type I fibers, responds well to multiple sets and high reps

Anaerobic and Aerobic Anaerobic and Aerobic Power TrainingPower Training

• Train sport-specific metabolic systems

• Programs designed along a continuum from short sprints to long distances– Sprints: ATP-PCr (anaerobic)– Long sprint/middle distance: glycolytic (anaerobic)– Long distance: oxidative system (aerobic)

Table 9.2Table 9.2

Table 9.2 Table 9.2 (continued)(continued)

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval TrainingTraining: Interval Training

• Repeated bouts of high/moderate intensity interspersed with rest/reduced intensity– More total exercise performed by breaking into bouts– Same vocabulary as resistance training: sets,

repetitions, time, distance, frequency, interval, rest

• Example– Set 1: 6 x 400 m at 75 s (90 s slow jog)– Set 2: 6 x 800 m at 180 s (200 s jog-walk)

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval TrainingTraining: Interval Training

• Appropriate for all sports and activities

• For given sport, first choose mode, then adjust– Rate of exercise interval– Distance of exercise interval– Number of repetitions and sets per training session– Duration of rest/active recovery– Type of activity during active recovery– Frequency of training per week

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Exercise Interval IntensityTraining: Exercise Interval Intensity

• Determined by duration/distance or % HRmax

• Duration and distance more practical– One method: Use best time at a set distance, adjust

duration by desired intensity– Intensity depends on fitness, number sets/reps, etc.– ATP-PCr system training ~90 to 98% intensity– Anaerobic glycolytic training ~80 to 95% intensity– Aerobic oxidative training ~75 to 85% intensity

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Exercise Interval IntensityTraining: Exercise Interval Intensity

• % HRmax a better index of physiological stress– HRmax determined by lab test, all-out run

– ATP-PCr training ~90 to 100% HRmax

– Anaerobic glycolytic training ~85 to 100% HRmax

– Aerobic-oxidative training ~70 to 90% HRmax

• Heart rate monitors helpful for recording HR for duration of workout

Figure 9.5Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6Figure 9.6

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Distance of IntervalTraining: Distance of Interval

• Determined by requirements of activity

• Sprint training: 30 to 200 m (even 400 m)

• Distance training: 400 to 1,500+ m

Repetitions and Sets per SessionRepetitions and Sets per Session

• Largely sport specific

• Short, intense intervals more repetitions and sets

• Longer intervals fewer repetitions and sets

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Duration of Rest IntervalTraining: Duration of Rest Interval

• Depends on how rapidly athlete recovers– Based on HR recovery (fitness and age dependent)– <30 years: HR should drop to 130 to 150 beats/min– >30 years: subtract 1 beat for every year over 30

• For active recovery between sets, HR <120 beats/min

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Activity During Rest IntervalTraining: Activity During Rest Interval

• Exercise intensity recovery intensity

• With better fitness, intensity or rest duration

• Land training: slow or rapid walk or jog

• Swimming: slow swimming or total rest

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Frequency of TrainingTraining: Frequency of Training

• Depends on purpose of interval training

• World-class runner: 5 to 7 times/week

• Swimmers: interval training every workout

• Team sports: 2 to 4 times/week

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Continuous TrainingTraining: Continuous Training

• Training without intervals

• Targets oxidative, glycolytic systems– Can be high or low intensity

– High intensity near race (85 to 95% HRmax)

– Low intensity: LSD training

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: LSD TrainingTraining: LSD Training

• Long, slow distance

• Train at ~60 to 80% HRmax (50 to 75% VO2max)– Popular, safe– However, must train near race pace, too

• Main objective: distance, not speed– Up to 15 to 30 mi/day, 100 to 200 mi/week– Less cardiorespiratory stress– Greater joint/muscle stress, overuse injuries

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Fartlek TrainingTraining: Fartlek Training

• Vary pace from sprint to jog at discretion

• Continuous training + interval elements

• Primarily used by distance runners– Fun, engaging, variety– Supplements other types of training

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval-Circuit TrainingTraining: Interval-Circuit Training

• Combined interval and circuit training– Circuit length 3,000 to 10,000 m– Interval stations every 400 to 1,600 m– Stations involve strength, flexibility, or endurance

• Jog, run, or sprint between stations

• Often set in parks or countryside