Frontiers of Architectural Research (2015) 4, 12–23

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REVIEW

Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the designof Muslim homes: A literature reviewZulkeplee Othmann, Rosemary Aird1, Laurie Buys2

School of Design, Queensland University of Technology, Faculty of Creative Industries, Brisbane, Australia

Received 4 July 2014; received in revised form 23 December 2014; accepted 23 December 2014

KEYWORDSPrivacy;Modesty;Hospitality;Muslim;Islam;Home

org/10.1016/j.foar.2014015. Higher Education P

ing author. Tel.: +61 7 5resses: zul.othman@hdr.3289 4184; Mobile: +613138 1146; Mobile: +61under responsibility of

AbstractTraditional Islamic teachings and traditions involve guidelines that have direct applications in thedomestic sphere. The principles of privacy, modesty, and hospitality are central to these guidelines;each principle has a significant effect on the design of Muslim homes, as well as on the organization ofspace and domestic behaviors within each home. This paper reviews literature on the privacy,modesty, and hospitality within Muslim homes. Nineteen publications from 1986 to 2013 wereselected and analyzed for content related to the meaning of privacy, modesty, and hospitality in Islamand the design of Muslim homes. Despite the commonly shared guidelines for observing privacy,modesty, and hospitality within each home, Muslims living in different countries are influenced bycultural factors that operate within their country of residence. These factors help to shape thearchitectural styles and use of space within Muslim homes in different ways. Awareness of themultifactorial nature of the influences on the Muslim perception of home and the use of space isnecessary for architects, building designers, engineers, and builders to be properly equipped to meetthe needs of clients.& 2015. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rightsreserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132. Material and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.1. Privacy and design of Muslim homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.1.1. Visual privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.1.2. Acoustical privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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462 4443; Mobile: +61 408 711 893.qut.edu.au (Z. Othman), r.aird@qut.edu.au (R. Aird), l.buys@qut.edu.au (L. Buys).427 186 888.405 307 530.

Southeast University.

13Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the design of Muslim homes: A literature review

3.1.3. Olfactory privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4. Humility in design and spaces for performing religious activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.1. External modesty: humility in design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.2. Internal modesty spaces: areas for religious activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5. Extending hospitality and strengthening relationships with society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195.1. Public hospitality domains: male guests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195.2. Semi-public hospitality spheres: female spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205.3. Private hospitality areas: family spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1. Introduction

The home environment is conceptualized in numerous ways inthe academic literature. Some authors conceive a home interms of the rich interdependent psychological meaning it holdsfor its occupants (Stafford, 2011; Moore, 2000; Sixsmith, 1986).Other scholars propose that a home expresses a symbolic socialcommunication that defines interpersonal creative expressionand style, as well as represents the social network and socialclass of its owner (Heathcote, 2012; Altman and Chemers,1984). Heathcote (2012) notes that the interior decor or thearrangement of the furniture and artifacts in a home reflectsthe lifestyle and ambitions, as well as the personal life journey,of the owner. Rybczynski (1987) conceptualizes home as asymbolic place that offers notions of domesticity, comfort, andwell-being through domestic intimacy and privacy. Heathcote(2012) identified spatial and architectural elements such asdoors, windows, and bedrooms as features that are functionalbut also exert substantial influence on human domestic beha-viors and interactions within the home environment. Regardlessof the size, number of available rooms, architectural style, orreal estate value, each home provides its dwellers or ownerswith meanings that serve both their personal and social needs.Sixsmith (1986) suggests that a home is composed of three mainstructures: (a) the personal home (an extension of oneself withcentral emotional expression), (b) the social home (a place toshare, entertain, and build relationships), and (c) the physicalhome (the physical structure, space, and architectural style).The above mentioned authors provide insights into the micro-level symbolic meaning of home from a universal perspective.By contrast, other authors including Altman and Chemers (1984)highlight the importance of macro-level factors, such asclimate, culture, socioeconomic factors, and religion in shapingindividual perceptions of home. One macro-level factor thatrequires considerable attention is the influence of other culturaltraditions on home perception, space utilization, home design,and domestic behaviors. The migration of large numbers ofpeople to countries with cultural and religious traditions thatmarkedly differ from those of their country of origin is nowcommonplace. Home building in foreign lands that can meetparticular individual needs presents an array of opportunitiesand challenges.

Many Muslims have established new homes in differentlocations across the globe in recent years. Islam involves strongreligious traditions that apply directly to the structure andorganization of life within the home and its environment.Within the Islamic faith, a home is considered to be a

“microcosm of Islamic culture and civilization” that is of“matchless delight” (Omer, 2010). The design of traditionalMuslim homes is subject to guidelines from principles outlinedin Islamic Sharia Law, which are derived from the Quran(revelations of Allah to Prophet Muhammad) as well as hadithsand sunnahs (utterances and actions of Prophet Muhammad).Following three main principles have emerged from theseguidelines (Othman et al., 2014; Omer, 2010; Mortada, 2011):

a)

privacy, a safe and private place for personal andfamily’s sanctuary;

b)

modesty, a home with spaces for religious rituals andactivities, further defined by humility in design througheconomical and sustainable designs, and;

c)

hospitality, a dwelling with opportunities to extendhospitality to neighbours and enhance relationships withthe society.

In combination, these three principles form the primaryconsiderations of those who seek to create a traditionalMuslim home (Othman et al., 2014). However, the migrationof Muslims across the globe also exposes them to thecultures and traditions of their host countries. Many studieshave focused on the ways Muslims achieve and perceiveprivacy and extend hospitality within their homes. However,little is known about the importance of domestic spaces forperforming religious rituals and the practice of humilitywithin the context of home design.

To date, the body of scholarly literature is related to thethree principles of privacy, modesty, and hospitality, buttheir respective connections to home design are fragmen-ted. To the best of our knowledge, a review of the availableliterature in this topic remains unavailable, thereby leavingarchitects, builders, and designers unfamiliar with thedifferent design approaches used by Muslims within theirhomes to adhere to these principles. The present study aimsto conduct a review of studies published over the past threedecades to ascertain the influence of these three principleson the design of Muslim homes, considering the similaritiesand differences that emerge between countries.

2. Material and methods

Database searches were undertaken to identify publicationsthat provide insights into the relationship between theIslamic principles of privacy, modesty, and hospitality, as

Table 1 Publications related to Muslim homes and the domains of privacy, modesty, or hospitality.

Domainsexamined

Publicationtype

Author(s) Purpose Theory/Conceptualframework

Sample DAta collectionmethod

Country(focus ofinterest)

1 Privacymodesty

Journalarticle

Azizah andPutri (2013)

To assess the extent of implementation of hijab in Arab housesin Pasar Kliwon; Surakarta

Modesty and female physicalprivacy

5 Arabhouses

Case study Indonesia

2 Hospitality Journalarticle

Sobh et al.(2013)

To study home and commercial hospitalities and receptivenesstowards foreign workers and visitors in Arab-Gulf culture

Arab hospitality rituals,multiculturalism and

15 Qualitative Qatar andUAE

hyper-ritualization3 Privacy Journal

articleBekleyenand Dalkilic(2011)

To investigate effects of climate and privacy measures on thecharacteristics of indigenous

Courtyard home designs,Microclimate Privacy

5 (historicalcourtyardhouses)

Case study Turkey

courtyard houses in Diyarbakır4 Privacy Conference

paperDaneshpour(2011)

To understand traditional concepts of privacy in Islamicsocieties and how they are translated in the current Islamichousings

Privacy and Quran N/A Literature review Iran

5 Privacy Book Mortada(2011)

To analyse Islamic traditional principles and values that governMuslims' social and built environments with the non-Muslim“reader in mind”

Sharia Law and builtenvironment

N/A N/A WorldwideModestyHospitality

6 Privacy Journalarticle

Memarianet al. (2011)

To analyse and compare privacy and hospitality patterns ofhouses and nomads' tents in Kerman

Privacy and Sharia Law House types Analytic-logicaland comparativemethods

IranHospitality

7 Privacy Journalarticle

Shabaniet al. (2011)

To analyse cultural and social attributes in response to privacyin traditional Iranian homes

Privacy N/A Literature review IranHospitality

8 Privacy Journalarticle

Sobh andBelk (2011)

To recognize contradictions between privacy and hospitality inQatari homes from the Western modernity influences andimplications to property marketers

Privacy and hospitality 24 Qualitative(Hermeneutics)

Qatar andUAEHospitality

9 Modesty Book Wan Tehand Nasir(2011)

To explain concepts, functions, structural and elements in atraditional Malay house

Humility in design intraditional Malay homes

TraditionalMalay homes

N/A Malaysia

10 Privacy Book Omer (2010) To identify Islamic traditional teachings and principles towardsMuslim housing design

Islamic Housing and Sharia Law N/A N/A WorldwideModestyHospitality

11 Privacy Journalarticle

Hashimet al. (2006)

To understand privacy needs, regulating mechanisms and designeffects on achieving privacy in two-storey low-cost terracehouses in Selangor

Visual privacy and familyintimacy

6 (1 of eachhousingdesigntypology)

Case study Malaysia

12 Privacy MA Thesis Hallak(2000)

To study privacy patterns in single-family detached homes andtownhouses of middle-class Muslim immigrants in Montreal

Privacy, territoriality andcosmology

14 Case study Canada

13 Privacy PhD. Thesis Amor (2000) To investigate forces that shape Arab Muslim immigrants' homeenvironments and neighborhood settings in Dearborn

Grounded Theory 20 Qualitative USAModestyHospitality

14 Privacy PhD. Thesis Shraim(2000)

To study hospitality and visibility in Islamic domestic spacethrough visual separation of men's and women's domains

Hospitality and genderedspace

95 (4 housetypes)

Isovist(quantitative andqualitative),space syntax

SaudiArabiaHospitality

Z.Othm

anet

al.14

15Privacy

Journa

larticle

Baha

mmam

(198

7)To

stud

yvisual

privac

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enin

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lan

dmod

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orho

odsin

Dam

ascu

sVisual

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y20

0(w

omen

)Qua

ntitative

(Fac

eto

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Syria

16Privacy

Journa

larticle

Al-Hussaye

n(199

9)To

inve

stigatean

dan

alysespatial

Trad

itiona

lIslamic

vernac

ular

arch

itec

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Mod

esty

charac

teristics,

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ean

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comfort

inAl-

Mad

inah

trad

itiona

lho

uses

Hospitality

17Privacy

MATh

esis

Baha

mmam

(198

7)To

stud

yarch

itec

turalpa

tterns

ofprivac

yin

Riya

dh'sho

mes

Privac

yan

dSh

aria

Law

10(hou

sing

typo

logies)

Casestud

ySaud

iArabia

18Mod

esty

Book

Lim

(198

7)To

unde

rstand

theform

san

dhistoryof

theMalay

housewith

rega

rdsto

culture,

relig

ion,

clim

atean

dec

onom

icfactors

Trad

itiona

lMalay

houses

and

villag

e(kam

pung

)life

Trad

itiona

lMalay

homes

N/A

Malay

sia

Hospitality

19Privac

yBo

okHak

im(198

6)To

highlight

andexplaintrad

itionalde

sign

principles

andbu

ilding

guidelines

used

bytrad

itiona

lArab

cities

in14th

centurythrough

micro

(citizen

s)an

dmacro

(rulers)

urba

nde

sign

decision

s

Privac

y,bu

ildingde

sign

guidelines,urba

nde

sign

guidelines

andarch

itec

tural

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ents

Trad

itiona

lArab

homes

N/A

Middle

East

&North

Africa

15Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the design of Muslim homes: A literature review

well as the design of Muslim homes. Nineteen publications(nine journal articles, one conference paper, four theses,including two PhD theses and two MA theses, and five books)published from 1986 to 2013 were selected for this analysis.These publications focused on at least one or more of thesetripartite principles and their respective connections to thedesign of Muslim homes. Among the 19 publications, 9 wereretained for analyzing just one of the three principles,whereas the remaining 10 referred to two or three princi-ples. A summary of all 19 publications is provided in Table 1.

3. Results

3.1. Privacy and design of Muslim homes

Privacy in a traditional Muslim home strictly follows theteachings from the Quran, sunnahs, and hadiths to ensurethat each home owner or dweller and his/her family areallowed to unwind and rest from the pressure and demandsfrom the outside world (Shabani et al., 2011; Mortada,2011; Omer, 2010). Guarding home privacy is vital in Islamto promote a tranquil and functional family structure(Omer, 2010). In Muslim homes, privacy is the main factorthat shapes how Muslim home dwellers “plan, build, per-ceive, and use their interior home spaces” (Omer, 2010).Bahammam (1987) and Mortada (2011) suggested thatprivacy in traditional Islamic homes involves four mainlayers of privacy: (a) privacy between neighbors' dwellings,(b) privacy between males and females, (c) privacy betweenfamily members inside a home, and (d) individual privacy(Fig. 1). Such privacy requirements are usually met throughcareful design by ensuring the safety of the family andseparating the private life from public associations(Memarian et al., 2011). Design considerations involve thecontrol of visibility through visual privacy, noise transmis-sion through acoustic privacy (Mortada, 2011; Hallak, 2000;Bahammam, 1987), and odor control through olfactoryprivacy (Sobh and Belk, 2011, Sobh et al., 2013).

3.1.1. Visual privacyOptimum visual privacy is a predominant design objective toensure the safety and privacy of female family memberswithin Muslim homes (Al-Kodmany, 1999). This privacycan be achieved by various external design interventions,such as the location and design of entrance doors, theplacement and sizes of windows and openings, the controlof building heights and balconies, and the incorporation ofinternal courtyards and gendered spaces (Mortada, 2011;Bahammam, 1987; Hakim, 1986). The front entrance door isthe most obvious demarcation between the public andprivate realms. Entrance doors in traditional Muslimhomes are placed away from the main street and notdirectly facing the opposite neighbors (Fig. 2) (Bekleyenand Dalkilic, 2011; Mortada, 2011; Bahammam, 1987). Clearexamples of this design can be observed in indigenouscourtyard homes in Diyarbakir, Turkey, which is a cityinhabited by Muslims, Christians, and Jews (Bekleyen andDalkilic, 2011).

Islamic teachings remind Muslims not to violate householdvisual privacy by looking into other's home through theirwindows (Daneshpour, 2011; Hakim, 1986). Some windows

Fig. 1 Layers of privacy in traditional Muslim's home(Bahammam, 1987).

Fig. 2 Ground floor plan of Cahit Sitki Taranci's home (nowDiyarbakir Museum) in Diyarbakir, Turkey (Baran et al., 2011,p. 613).

Z. Othman et al.16

have been designed and installed in traditional Muslimhomes with this consideration in mind to ensure that suchincidents are avoided (Fig. 3). For example, most traditionalmud houses in Saudi Arabia have very small windows,whereas some houses use high-level windows (approxi-mately 1.75 m high) on ground floor windows (Fig. 3)(Mortada, 2011; Shraim, 2000; Al-Hussayen, 1999; Hakim,1986). Visibility to the outside is minimized through the useof wooden lattice screens or mashrabiya (Daneshpour, 2011;Mortada, 2011). Another design approach used to ensurevisual privacy in traditional Muslim homes is the control ofbuilding heights throughout the neighborhood (Daneshpour,2011; Mortada, 2011). The use of similar building heightsand careful alternative locations of windows, such thatthe windows do not face tenants living opposite the home,

are used to control the visibility; thus, home dwellers,especially females, are visually protected from outsidestrangers (Daneshpour, 2011).

The introduction of courtyards in traditional Muslimhomes in the Middle East allows for adequate distances toprevent direct visibility into the internal home spaces ofneighbors; these courtyards were also designed to mitigateclimatic factors in some of these countries (Bekleyenand Dalkilic, 2011; Al-Kodmany, 1999; Bahammam, 1987).Apart from meeting privacy requirements, these designapproaches are eco-efficient, thereby creating a cool andcomfortable indoor home environment despite the extremeoutside climate (Bahammam, 1987). For instance, indigen-ous courtyard homes in Diyarbikir, Turkey were designedsuch that all “summer rooms” are in the southern section ofthe courtyard, facing north, whereas all “winter rooms” arein the northern section, facing south (Bekleyen and Dalkilic,2011), as shown in Fig. 2. The center courtyard functions asan important space to provide cool cross-air ventilationduring summer, light to its surrounding spaces, and a privateoutdoor space for the home dwellers (Bekleyen and Dalkilic,2011). The grand north-facing and decorative covered openspace (a cool room or iwan, as shown in Fig. 2) catches thecool summer breeze and creates a pleasant microclimate(Bekleyen and Dalkilic, 2011). This space is mostly used byits tenants during summer for private functions and musicalentertainment (Bekleyen and Dalkilic, 2011). Courtyardhomes meet the design requirements for privacy andclimate while providing opportunities for landscaped inter-ventions, such as the incorporation of fountains, shadetrees, Islamic calligraphy, and design motifs (Bekleyen andDalkilic, 2011; Al-Kodmany, 1999; Bahammam, 1987).

The creation of gendered spaces is another crucial criter-ion for maintaining visual privacy when designing Muslimhomes (Sobh and Belk, 2011; Al-Hussayen, 1999). Visualprivacy is viewed as a legitimate measure, although theQuran does not obviously state the obligation to havegendered spaces in homes, except for the social restrictionsand allowed behavior between “not blood-related” (non-muhrim) men and women (Sobh and Belk, 2011). Thedomestic domain of a Muslim home is regarded as a femalespace (Sobh and Belk, 2011). Women in the Middle Easterncountries embrace gender-segregated spaces that areenforced by the social system and turn these spaces intotheir respective domains (Sobh et al., 2013; Sobh and Belk,2011; Al-Hussayen, 1999). For example, Arab-Gulf womentake this opportunity to visit each other, exchange recipesand ideas, or display their current purchases of designerclothing, fragrances, or expensive beauty products in theprivacy of the female salon (Sobh and Belk, 2011). Arab-Gulfwomen are the key decision makers on domestic matters,such as interior design and furniture; these women alsodetermine the people allowed to enter their homes (Sobhand Belk, 2011).

3.1.2. Acoustical privacyMaintaining acoustical privacy is another important criter-ion in the design of traditional Muslim homes (Mortada,2011). The main consideration in achieving this objective isthe control of sound transmission and vibration from theoutside into the internal domain or from one internal room

Fig. 3 Traditional Islamic window height guidelines in Arabic cities (Hakim, 1986, p. 34).

17Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the design of Muslim homes: A literature review

or space to another (Mortada, 2011; Hakim, 1986). Thislevel of privacy is achieved by thick walls to ensureacoustical privacy and to fulfill privacy requirements, asshown in Fig. 4 (Hakim, 1986). Thick layers of walls made ofmud bricks, stones, and rocks are commonly used in severaltraditional homes in the Middle East to ensure proper soundinsulation (Mortada, 2011; Hakim, 1986). This design inter-vention is also applied to floors and roofs to ensure theconsistent control of horizontal and vertical sound transmis-sion (Mortada, 2011; Hakim, 1986).

Internal spaces are usually divided into three main zones toachieve acoustical privacy, namely, male, female, and servicezones, which are linked via courtyards (Mortada, 2011 Al-Kodmany, 1999). The use of gendered spaces provides addi-tional control of sound transmission based on exclusive roomsfor males or females (Mortada, 2011). These gendered spacesare separated by circulation spaces and corridors to furtherensure that acoustical privacy is maintained (Memarian et al.,2011; Mortada, 2011; Sobh and Belk, 2011). Ensuring that thepublic (male and public areas) and semi-public (female andfamily rooms) spaces are located closest to the main entrancerestricts the noise to the front areas and maintains acousticalprivacy for private spaces (Al-Hussayen, 1999).

3.1.3. Olfactory privacyPrivacy in Muslim homes is not strictly limited to visual andacoustical privacy. Sobh and Belk (2011) claim that olfactoryprivacy also plays an important role in the control of smellsor odors produced in kitchens to prevent them fromspreading to spaces where guests are entertained. Sometraditional Muslim home owners in the Middle East com-monly use incense (incense woods or oud or incense sticks oragrabati) to disinfect the house and control the olfactionproduced from cooking areas (Sobh et al., 2013; Sobh andBelk, 2011). Although the Quran does not explicitly discussthe use of incense, some statements in hadiths imply thatincense is a good traditional practice to purify the home anda medicine to treat tonsillitis in children (Omer, 2010). Thepractice of removing shoes prior to entering a host's home isanother representation of a guest's attempt to minimize any

pollution and to maintain pleasant odors within the home(Sobh and Belk, 2013; Hakim, 1986).

The three types of privacy allow home owners anddwellers in these traditional homes to achieve optimumlevels of privacy and security for their families, especiallysafety for the female members. Both visual and acousticalprivacy involve external and internal spaces, whereasolfactory privacy concentrates on interior spaces. A sum-mary of the three of types of privacy and the variousmethods used to achieve them is provided in Table 2, asdiscussed in this section.

4. Humility in design and spaces forperforming religious activities

Modesty (haya in Arabic) is a personality trait, wherein oneremains polite and humble without necessarily lacking self-esteem or self-confidence (Azizah and Putri, 2013). The actof modesty can be classified into two main categories:(a) physical modesty in terms of dress code and designhumility, and (b) inner modesty in terms of internalperception (self-improvement or self-motivation) and socialinteraction (shyness, humility, and politeness) (Azizah andPutri, 2013; Mortada, 2011). In terms of home design andbuilt environments, Islamic guidelines from Sharia Lawemphasize the need for the design of a home to provide(a) a balance of neighborhood wealth by not showing offone's wealth through excessive spending on a home (exter-nal area of a home) and (b) private spaces for religiousactivities and education (Mortada, 2011).

Modesty principles are part of various long establishedtraditions, cultures, and religions, but the Western society inthe 21st century mostly conceives modesty in Islam to rest onthe Muslims' dress code as acts of decency and respect(veiling or hijab). This subject has become highly controver-sial in recent years. The perceived “intimate parts” or awrahdiffer in accordance with the gender of an individual. Theawrah for Muslim men is from the navel to the knee, whereasthat for Muslim women is predominantly the entire body,

Fig. 4 Example of thick external walls for optimum acoustical privacy (Hakim, 1986).

Z. Othman et al.18

except for the face and hands with respect to non-muhrims(Azizah and Putri, 2013). This conception of the awrah is theIslamic way of protecting women from non-muhrim men interms of any indecent gestures that may lead to prohibitedsexual assault or abuse, whether outside or inside a home(Azizah and Putri, 2013).

The central importance of being modest is made evidentby considering the meaning of the word “Islam” itself.“Islam” comes from an Arabic word root salam, whichmeans peace. Islam means submission or surrendering inArabic and implies total submission to the Almighty God(Allah) (Mortada, 2011). The act of praying to Allah (God) bymaking oneself humbly prostate on the ground symbolizesthe Muslims' recognition of Allah to seek constant guidanceand support. This act signifies the importance of practicingfive prayers a day to constantly remind a Muslim of the needto be humble and modest to Allah.

4.1. External modesty: humility in design

Islam emphasizes the importance of humility in design andprohibits any exuberant disbursals, wrongdoings, excessivespending, or desires for infamy (Mortada, 2011; Omer,2010). This humble behavior is based on the function of ahome as a basis of society, as described in Sharia Law andreflected by Prophet Muhammad's lifestyle (Mortada, 2011).His house in Medina was built on the basis of a simplerectangular shape with external walls made of palm fibers

and simple fabric, as shown in Fig. 5 (Mortada, 2011; Omer,2010).

The use of locally sourced materials rather than expen-sive imported materials embodies design humility “ideasand principles on which sustainable living should be based”(Mortada, 2011; Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011). Traditional Malayhouses were built using local materials from the site andconstructed through the combined effort of home ownersand neighbors (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011; Hashim et al.,2006; Lim, 1987). The roof of a traditional Malay house isusually made of coconut leaves or nipah palm leaves, a typeof palm tree that grows densely along the riverbanks, asshown in Fig. 6 (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011; Lim, 1987). Thistype of roof provides a waterproofed shelter that is locallybuilt to suit the humid and warm climate in Malaysia (Fig. 6)(Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011; Lim, 1987). Floral engraveddecorative timber walls, windows, screens, and panelsfollow the traditional Middle Eastern Islamic decorativestyle via abundant local sources (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011;Hashim et al., 2006; Lim, 1987). This technique enablesMalaysian Muslims to achieve similar Islamic design motifsvia alternative economical and sustainable approaches (WanTeh and Nasir, 2011).

4.2. Internal modesty spaces: areas for religiousactivities

All Muslim homes are required to have spaces for prayer (salatin Arabic or namaz in Urdu) (Omer, 2010). The flexibility of the

Table 2 Types of privacy in traditional Muslim homes.

Types ofprivacy

Location Design considerations

Visual External 1. Doors:Entrance doors are placed awayfrom the main street and notdirectly facing the oppositeneighbors2. Windows:a) Above eye level windows(approximately 1.75 m high) atlower floors with smallopenings;b) Higher level windows withtimber lattice screens(mashrabiya)3. Building heights:Similar building heights andwindows are not directly facingopposite neighbors

Internal 1. Courtyard:Providing microclimate anddirect visibility into neighbors'internal home spaces2. Gendered spaces:Separation of male and femaleguest areas to maintain privacyand safety for women

Acoustical External Floors, walls and roofs shouldnot allow penetrations of voicesto neighborhood dwellings andstreets, especially women

Internal Thickness of walls and densematerials, such as mud bricks,stones and rocks are usedInternal spaces are divided intothree zones to achieve privacy:male, female and service(linked through courtyard)

Olfactory Internal Oud (agarwood) are used asincense to disinfect the houseand control smell from cookingodors reaching guests

19Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the design of Muslim homes: A literature review

location for the five prayers-a-day practice allows Muslimowners to perform these prayers at home with families andeven friends. Several Muslim homes utilize one of the roomsclosest to living rooms as a special prayer room, which isequipped with accessible toilets for ablution or cleansing(Mortada, 2011; Omer, 2010). A traditional Malay house inMalaysia uses the spacious guest reception area (men's area) orserambi at the front of the house as an area where congrega-tional prayers are held during special or festive occasions(Hashim et al., 2006; Lim, 1987). Traditional homes in theMiddle East normally use men's majlis, the only part of thehouse that is directly accessible from the main entrance, to

perform these prayers or salat (Mortada, 2011). The tradi-tional Malay homes adopt similar approach with respect toreligious activities at home. The five prayers are practiced athome as a family ritual, except for Friday prayers, which areheld at the local surau, a small and simple version of a mosque(Lim, 1987). Other religious activities in some traditionalMalay kampung homes include daily religious classes, Quranteaching, and reading among young children to maintainIslamic education among Muslims in the neighborhood (Lim,1987).

Traditional Islamic teachings recommend that a Muslimhome dweller should beautify the internal space of his/herhome by using non-idolatry decorations or artefacts, such asflowers and decorated fabrics instead of expensive gold orany animal- or human-like statues (Mortada, 2011; Omer,2010). Decorative floral decorative patterns or Islamiccalligraphy are among the favorite wall patterns of atraditional Muslim home; floral pattern rugs are also usedto express the concept and symbolism of Islamic modesty(Hashim et al., 2006). Simple furnishings are common intraditional Malay homes and reflect their lifestyle andeconomic situations (Lim, 1987). Most Malay families wholive in Malay kampung houses have a low socioeconomicstatus and generally have an agricultural background. Floormats are mostly made of pandanus leaves or mengkuang,which are locally available and handmade (Lim, 1987).Modesty has been described as one of the 77 branches ofthe Islam faith in the sunnahs, which states that a personshould be moderate and humble in all of his/her actions andbehaviors (Omer, 2010).

5. Extending hospitality and strengtheningrelationships with society

Hospitality can be defined as constitutional acceptance ofor receptiveness to others; this trait has played an impor-tant role in the traditional Islamic society (Sobh and Belk,2013; Shraim, 2000). Hospitality is closely associated withthe compassionate treatment of strangers and with thesignificance of sharing with others within the Islamic culture(Memarian et al., 2011; Sobh and Belk, 2011). Entertainingguests in Islam represents a family's openness and generos-ity to others, such that hospitality is incorporated into theirprivate domains (Sobh and Belk, 2011). Although Islamrecommends humility and promotes frugality or avoidingany wastage, this trait does not necessarily limit thegenerosity and hospitality to a Muslim's guest (Sobh andBelk, 2013). Social interaction and the building of neigh-borly relationships to achieve social solidarity or ummah(brotherhood) among Muslims and others are stronglyencouraged within Islam. Sobh and Belk (2013) highlightthat Islamic hospitality etiquette “equally accommodatesfrugality and opulence” in honor of their guests.

5.1. Public hospitality domains: male guests

Within the Islamic culture, hospitality is demonstrated by thehost through his or her efforts to ensure that guests feelcomfortable and “at home” while being entertained (Sobhet al., 2013; Amor, 2000; Shraim, 2000). Most traditional Muslimsocieties are patriarchal; thus, men play an important role in

Fig. 5 Floor plan of Prophet Muhammad's house in Medina (623 AD) (Mortada, 2011, p. 43).

Fig. 6 Weaved nipah leaves during drying (Lee, 2014).

Z. Othman et al.20

entertaining guests in the public domain of the house (Sobh andBelk, 2013). The majlis or “a place of sitting” represents themasculinity and honor of a Muslim home (Sobh and Belk, 2011).This part of the house is the only one that is directly accessiblefrom the street and the main entrance (Sobh and Belk, 2011).Several traditional homes in Iran still follow the traditional rulesof biruni (exterior area) and andaruni (interior territory of thehouse); the guest rooms are decorated with Persian rugs andother ornaments to demonstrate their acceptance of guests andthe importance of hospitality (Shabani et al., 2011).

Traditional Malay houses in Malaysia use subtle yetpenetrative Islamic approaches based on esthetic, spiritual,and ethical values (Hashim et al., 2006; Lim, 1987).Compared with traditional housing behavioral cognitions inthe Middle East, traditional Malay communities embracecommunity intimacy over family privacy (Hashim et al.,2006; Lim, 1987). A spacious main verandah or serambi atthe front of the house (Fig. 7) is a vital design element of atraditional Malay house for receiving and entertainingguests, particularly male visitors (Wan Teh and Nasir,2011; Hashim et al., 2006; Lim, 1987). Various activities

such as meetings, discussions, and prayers are held inserambi, whereas other social and neighborhood informalconversations and interactions take place on the frontporch, as shown in Fig. 7 (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011;Hashim et al., 2006; Lim, 1987).

5.2. Semi-public hospitality spheres: femalespaces

Extending hospitality is not strictly limited to entertainingmale guests within the Islamic culture. A home is considereda female domain within Islamic tradition; female membersof the family should have strong bonds with their femalefriends and relatives to exchange or keep updated withcurrent news and information (Sobh and Belk, 2011).Hospitality in traditional Middle Eastern homes emphasizesthe need for separate male and female social spaces(Memarian et al., 2011; Sobh and Belk, 2011). This require-ment is clearly demonstrated by examples ranging from thesimple Ashayer nomadic tent in Kerman, Iran (Memarianet al., 2011) to the elegant traditional Iranian courtyardhomes (Shabani et al., 2011). The female entertainmentspace or salon in traditional Middle East homes is made ofmore elegant materials and may have more modern decor ascompared with the men's majlis (Sobh and Belk, 2011).

Unlike the Muslims living in Iran, those living in tradi-tional Malay houses maintain the simplicity of the design oftraditional Malay house throughout the home (Lim, 1987).Female family members and friends use the middle section(selang or rumah tengah) of the house to socialize whenmale guests are entertained in the guest reception area(serambi). However, female family members and friendsusually use the main bedroom or rumah ibu, which isadjacent to guest reception area or serambi (Fig. 7), tocontinue their conversations after the guests have left thehouse (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011; Lim, 1987). When guests

Fig. 7 Floor plan of traditional long-roofed house, Selangor, Malaysia (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011, p. 19).

21Privacy, modesty, hospitality, and the design of Muslim homes: A literature review

stay overnight, the female members of the family sleep onthe floor or on mattresses in the back section of the house(selang or rumah tengah), as shown in Fig. 7 (Wan Teh andNasir, 2011; Lim, 1987). Female family members dominatethe kitchen (dapur) for cooking and food preparation; thisdomain of the house has a separate back entrance, as shownin Fig. 7 (Wan Teh and Nasir, 2011; Lim, 1987).

5.3. Private hospitality areas: family spaces

Family gatherings are important to the Muslims' notion ofhospitality. These occasions provide immediate and extendedfamily members with opportunities for entertaining, sharingfood, performing various rituals, and having other forms ofrecreation in an environment of optimal protection and safety(Sobh et al. 2013). Family gatherings include a wife's muhrim,namely, her father, father-in-law, sons, son-in-laws, brothers,nephews, and uncles; these family members may enter thehouse even without the presence of their husbands (Amor,2000; Shraim, 2000). In countries under theocratic govern-ments such as Iran, public entertainment and women'smobility and presence are restricted; consequently, familygatherings at home become essential weekend activities(Shabani et al., 2011). When female family members or guestsneed to retreat to areas where visual privacy is not controlled,head coverings or hijab are important to protect the females'body privacy from non-muhrim male strangers and maintaintheir modesty (Sobh and Belk; 2013). Maintaining physicalmodesty through dress code becomes an integral part ofprotecting the females' body privacy while allowing hospitableactivities to continue within a home.

6. Discussion

This paper presents a review of the literature related to theroles of traditional Islamic teachings in shaping the design ofMuslim homes through adherence to the three principles of

privacy, modesty, and hospitality. Similarities and differ-ences were found between different countries and differentcultures. In Middle Eastern countries such as the Arab-Gulfcountries, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Turkey, particular empha-sis is placed on privacy through the segregation of male andfemale spaces; this requirement affects the layout anddesign of these homes (Mortada, 2011; Sobh and Belk,2011). In other parts of the Muslim world, such as Malaysia,privacy, modesty, and hospitality are observed by homedwellers through subtle design approaches.

Only two of the publications (both academic theses;Table 1: publications 12 and 13) are based on research thatwas conducted in non-Islamic countries; these publicationsprovide insights into the effects of Islamic traditionalteachings on Muslim home design and interior settings.Hallak (2000) focused on privacy patterns among theShaamy middle-class immigrants living in townhouses anddetached homes in Montreal, Canada, as well as on theprivacy mechanisms (physical and behavioral) used to meettheir privacy requirements. Amor (2000) investigated theinfluences on the home interiors and neighborhood settingsof Arab immigrants around Dearborn, Michigan.

The literature review indicates that privacy, modesty,and hospitality are mutually beneficial because they enablethe creation of a peaceful and safe home. Within Islam, ahome is conceived as (a) a place for personal and familyprivacy, (b) a modest space for religious activities at homewhile showing humility to the neighborhood, and (c) a basefor extending hospitality and strengthening relationshipswith family and society; thus, humankind is held responsiblefor creating a pleasant built environment by acting assuccessors or khalifa (caliphs) on Earth (Mortada, 2011;Omer, 2010). Omer (2010) presents 24 design recommenda-tions with respect to building a Muslim home based on theteachings from Sharia, which are also consistent with stricttraditional guidelines derived from the Quran and sunnahs.

Despite the existence of common Islamic principles forobserving privacy, modesty, and hospitality within a Muslim

Z. Othman et al.22

home, several other factors affect home designs; thesefactors include local culture, climate, and topography(Altman and Chemers, 1984). Modern interpretations oftraditional guidelines on home design and use of domesticspaces necessarily involve design solutions that fit with thelocal climate, current architectural trends, and buildingcodes/regulations.

Some of the traditional design examples described in thispaper provide design solutions to ensure that Muslims canadhere to the tripartite Islamic principles within thedomestic sphere. These examples also address other designneeds related to the cost of construction, climate, tem-perature, and social cohesion within neighborhoods. Forexample, a courtyard home serves as a microclimatemodifier and a way to separate public from private spaces,but it also maximizes the openness of the interior space,thereby making it visually more spacious than home designswithout an internal courtyard. Nevertheless, careful con-sideration is required to ensure that the orientation ofbuildings and the organization of internal and externalspaces suit the prevailing climate of a given site or locationif the best microclimate is to be achieved.

7. Conclusion

The concept that the principles of privacy, modesty, andhospitality remain important in the present is supported byinformation from the 19 publications reviewed in this paper.These principles have emerged through the analysis of theliterature. The commonalities, similarities, and differencesin the mechanisms used by Muslims to abide by theseprinciples provide architects, building designers, interiordesigners with a range of design options that can be drawnupon when dealing with Muslim clients. The architecturalstyles and materials used in homes built in the Middle Eastobviously differ from homes in other predominantly Muslimcountries, such as Malaysia, because of climatic factors andlocally available materials. Despite these factors, homes inpredominantly Muslim countries tend to share a “humility indesign” approach, such that homes are built with econom-ical and sustainable materials that also provide thermalcomfort.

Information on the influence of privacy, modesty, andhospitality on the design of Muslim homes in non-Muslimcountries is extremely limited. Notably, the authors locatedtwo publications that focused on the influence of a singleprinciple (privacy or hospitality), although these studieswere conducted in only two countries (USA and Canada).Further research on the influence of the tripartite Islamicprinciples on the homes of Muslims living in non-Muslimregions such as Australia and Europe, as well as in differentlocations within the United States and Canada, must beconducted. Such research is crucial to further elucidate thedegree to which Western culture affects the Muslim immi-grants' use of interior and exterior spaces and domesticbehaviors, as well as to determine the different modifica-tions they make to existing houses within their hostcountries, as a means to consistently adhere to traditionalIslamic teachings. Nevertheless, the findings from thisliterature review on the design approaches used by Muslimsin different countries are likely to benefit professionals who

work in the building industry by expanding the suite ofdesign options they can offer their Muslim clients who live innon-Muslim countries. Furthermore, the many design fea-tures covered by this literature review have the potentialfor broader applications to the homes of non-Muslims whowish to meet the design objectives shared by Muslims andnon-Muslims, such as visual privacy from neighbors, thermalcomfort, and use of sustainable and economical materials.

Acknowledgments

We thank all the authors who permitted the inclusion oftheir respective photographs and figures in this review.

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