Private Pilot Ground SchoolPrivate Pilot Ground School

Session 3 Session 3

Chris Tavenner CFI/MEIIChris Tavenner CFI/MEII

AIRPORTS, AIRPORTS, AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND

AIRSPACEAIRSPACE

Runway MarkingsRunway Markings The number at the end of The number at the end of each runway indicates its each runway indicates its magnetic alignment magnetic alignment divided by 10°; e.g., divided by 10°; e.g., runway 26 indicates 260° runway 26 indicates 260° magnetic; runway 9 magnetic; runway 9 indicates 090° magnetic. indicates 090° magnetic.

A displaced threshold is a A displaced threshold is a threshold (marked as a threshold (marked as a broad solid line across broad solid line across the runway) that is not at the runway) that is not at the beginning of the full the beginning of the full strength runway strength runway pavement. The remainder pavement. The remainder of the runway, following of the runway, following the displaced threshold, is the displaced threshold, is the landing portion of the the landing portion of the runway. runway.

The paved area before The paved area before the displaced threshold the displaced threshold (marked by arrows) is (marked by arrows) is available for taxiing, the available for taxiing, the landing rollout, and landing rollout, and takeoff of aircraft. takeoff of aircraft.

RunwaysRunways•Chevrons mark any surface or area extending beyond the usable runway which appears usable but which, due to the nature of its structure, is unusable runway.

•This area is not available for any use, not even taxiing.

•Closed runways are marked by an "X" on each runway end that is closed.

Airport signsAirport signs

Beacons and LightingBeacons and Lighting

Operation of the green and white rotating beacon at an airport located in Class D airspace during the day indicates that the weather is not VFR, i.e., The visibility is less than 3 SM, or The ceiling is less than 1,000 ft.

A lighted heliport may be identified by a green, yellow, and white rotating beacon.

Military airports are indicated by beacons with two white flashes between each green flash.

Airport taxiways are lighted with blue edge lights.

To operate pilot-controlled lighting (PCL), you should first click the mike seven times, which turns everything on. For high-intensity lights, leave it alone. For medium-intensity lights, key it five times. For low-intensity lights, key it three times.

Beacons and LightingBeacons and Lighting

PapiPapi TouchdownTouchdown Runway Runway

EndEnd ThresholdThreshold

VASIVASIVISUAL GLIDESLOPE INDICATORS

Visual glideslope indicators provide the pilot withglidepath information that can be used for day or nightapproaches. By maintaining the proper glidepath as provided by the system, a pilot should have adequate obstacle clearance and should touch down within aspecified portion of the runway.

Visual approach slope indicators (VASI) are a system of lights to provide visual descent information during an approach to landing.

The standard VASI consists of a two-barred tier of lights. You are Below the glide path if both light bars are red, i.e., "red means dead." On the glide path if the far (on top visually) lights are red and the near (on bottom

visually) lights are white. Above the glide path if both light bars are white. Remember, red over white (i.e., R before W alphabetically) is the desired sequence. White over red is impossible. A tri-color VASI is a single light unit projecting three colors. The below glide path indicator is red. The above glide path indicator is amber. The on glide path indicator is green. VASI only projects a glide path.  It has no bearing on runway alignment. On a precision approach path indicator (PAPI) Low is four red lights (less than 2.5°). Slightly low is one white and three reds (2.8°). On glide path is two whites and two reds (3.0°). Slightly high is three whites and one red (3.2°). High is four whites (more than 3.5°). On a pulsating approach slope indicator (a VASI with flashing/pulsating signals) Low is a pulsating red. On glide path is a steady white or alternating red/white (depending on model). High is a pulsating white. Each pilot of an airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach

slope indicator shall maintain an altitude at or above the glide slope until a lower altitude is necessary for landing (FAR 91.129).

Traffic PatternsTraffic Patterns        

The segmented circle system provides traffic pattern information at airports without operating control towers. It consists of the Segmented circle – located in a position affording maximum visibility to pilots in the air and on the ground, and providing a centralized point for the other elements of the system

Landing strip indicators – showing the alignment of landing runways (legs sticking out of the segmented circle)

Traffic pattern indicators – indicators at right angles to the landing strip indicator showing the direction of turn from base to final

1)  In the example below, runways 22 and 36 use left traffic, while runways 4 and 18 use right traffic. 2)  The "X" indicates that runways 4 and 22 are closed.3)  The area behind the displaced thresholds of runways 18 and 36 (marked by arrows) can be used for taxiing and takeoff, but not for landing.

Wind direction indicator – a wind cone, wind sock, or wind tee installed near the runways to indicate wind direction

Traffic PatternsTraffic PatternsThe large end of the wind cone/wind sock

points into the wind as does the large end (cross bar) of the wind tree.

Landing direction indicator – a tetrahedron on a swivel installed when conditions at the airport warrant its use. It is used to indicate the direction of takeoffs and landings. It should be located at the center of a segmented circle and may be lighted for night operations.

The small end points toward the direction in which a takeoff or landing should be made; i.e., the small end points into the wind.

If there is no segmented circle installed at the airport, traffic pattern indicators may be installed on or near the end of the runway.

Remember, you land In the same direction as the tip of the tetrahedron is

pointing.

As if you were flying out of the large (open) end of the wind cone or Toward the cross-bar end of a wind "T" (visualize the "T" as an airplane with no nose, with the top of the "T" being the wings).

If you are approaching an airport without an operating control tower,

You must turn to the left when landing unless visual displays advise otherwise.

You must comply with any FAA traffic pattern for that airport when departing.

Wake TurbulanceWake Turbulance

Wingtip vortices (wake turbulence) are only created when airplanes develop lift.

The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow.

Wingtip vortex turbulence tends to sink into the flight path of airplanes operating below the airplane generating the turbulence.

– Thus, you should fly above the flight path of a large jet rather than below.

– You should also fly upwind rather than downwind of the flight path, since the vortices will drift with the wind.

The most dangerous wind, when taking off or landing behind a heavy aircraft, is the light quartering tailwind. It will push the vortices into your touchdown zone, even if you are executing proper procedures.

Collision AvoidanceCollision Avoidance Navigation lights on the aircraft consist of a Navigation lights on the aircraft consist of a

red light on the left wing, a green light on red light on the left wing, a green light on the right wing, and a white light on the tail. the right wing, and a white light on the tail. In night flight, In night flight,

When an airplane is crossing in front of you When an airplane is crossing in front of you from your right to left, you will observe a from your right to left, you will observe a red light. red light.

When an airplane is crossing in front of you When an airplane is crossing in front of you from your left to right, you will observe a from your left to right, you will observe a green light. green light.

When an airplane is flying away from you, When an airplane is flying away from you, you will observe a steady white light. you will observe a steady white light.

When an airplane is approaching you When an airplane is approaching you head-on, you will observe a red and green head-on, you will observe a red and green light but no white light. light but no white light.

Note that the navigation lights on the wings Note that the navigation lights on the wings cannot be seen from the rear. cannot be seen from the rear.

A flashing red light on an aircraft is a A flashing red light on an aircraft is a rotating beacon and may be seen from any rotating beacon and may be seen from any angle. angle.

Collision AvoidanceCollision Avoidance In daylight, the most effective way to scan for other aircraft is to use a series of short,

regularly-spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into your central visual field.

Each movement should not exceed 10°, and each area should be observed for at least one second to enable detection.

Only a very small center area of the eye has the ability to send clear, sharply focused messages to the brain.

At night, collision avoidance scanning must use the off-center portions of the eyes. These portions are most effective at seeing objects at night.

Accordingly, peripheral vision should be used, scanning small sectors and using off-center viewing.

Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion with respect to your aircraft and stays in one scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.

If it increases in size, you should take immediate evasive action. Prior to each maneuver, a pilot should visually scan the entire area for collision

avoidance. When climbing or descending VFR on an airway, you should execute gentle banks left

and right to facilitate scanning for other aircraft. All pilots are responsible for collision avoidance when operating in an alert area.

U.S. AIRSPACEU.S. AIRSPACE

CLASS ECLASS E

[ECHO][ECHO]

What is Class E AirspaceWhat is Class E Airspace

Class E airspace is controlled airspace. Class E airspace is controlled airspace.

ATC services are provided to all IFR aircraft ATC services are provided to all IFR aircraft operating in controlled airspace as well as operating in controlled airspace as well as VFR traffic participating in ATC services VFR traffic participating in ATC services (flight following) on a workload permitting (flight following) on a workload permitting basis. basis.

DIMENSIONS OF CLASS EDIMENSIONS OF CLASS E Class E airspace is generally all controlled airspace that is not Class Class E airspace is generally all controlled airspace that is not Class

A,B,C or D.A,B,C or D.    Class E airspace is located on all federal airways usually starting at Class E airspace is located on all federal airways usually starting at

1200ft AGL and extends 4NM on either side.1200ft AGL and extends 4NM on either side.

Used to transition to and from the terminal or enroute areas. Used to transition to and from the terminal or enroute areas.

Unless otherwise noted Class E begins at 14,500MSL up to but not Unless otherwise noted Class E begins at 14,500MSL up to but not including 18,000MSL. including 18,000MSL.

Class E may also begin at: Class E may also begin at: The Surface [Magenta segmented circle] The Surface [Magenta segmented circle] 700AGL [Shaded Magenta boarder] 700AGL [Shaded Magenta boarder] 1200AGL [Shaded Blue boarder/Federal airways 4mi-4mi] 1200AGL [Shaded Blue boarder/Federal airways 4mi-4mi] 1500AGL above 14,500ft MSL 1500AGL above 14,500ft MSL Where indicated by Staggered Black line [castled] ie: differentiating Where indicated by Staggered Black line [castled] ie: differentiating

floors of class E floors of class E

HOW IS CLASS E DEPICTEDHOW IS CLASS E DEPICTED

Airway 1200aglAirway 1200agl

700agl700agl

SurfaceSurface

REQUIERMENTS OF CLASS EREQUIERMENTS OF CLASS E

No ATC clearance No ATC clearance required for VFR traffic required for VFR traffic

ATC Clearance ATC Clearance required for IFR required for IFR

Student certificate or Student certificate or higher higher

No radio required No radio required Mode C transponder Mode C transponder

above 10,000MSLabove 10,000MSL

WEATHER MINIMUMS IN CLASS EWEATHER MINIMUMS IN CLASS E VFR 3SM 1000ft ceilings VFR 3SM 1000ft ceilings

Below 10,000MSL=3mi, 1000ft above, 500ft below, 2000ft HorizontalBelow 10,000MSL=3mi, 1000ft above, 500ft below, 2000ft Horizontal Above 10,000MSL=5mi, 1000ft above, 1000ft below, 1SM Horizontal Above 10,000MSL=5mi, 1000ft above, 1000ft below, 1SM Horizontal

Special VFR is allowed Special VFR is allowed

ATC SERVICES IN CLASS EATC SERVICES IN CLASS E No VFR aircraft No VFR aircraft

separation services separation services

Traffic advisories given Traffic advisories given on a workload on a workload permitting basis to permitting basis to participating aircraft. participating aircraft. [Flight Following]. [Flight Following].

IFR traffic separation IFR traffic separation services provided.services provided.

AIRSPEED RESTRICTIONS IN AIRSPEED RESTRICTIONS IN CLASS ECLASS E

Above 10,000MSL Above 10,000MSL UnlimitedUnlimited

Below 10,000MSL Below 10,000MSL 250kias 250kias

Below Bravo 200kiasBelow Bravo 200kias

VFR corridors 200kiasVFR corridors 200kias

ATIS AND GROUND CONTROL ATIS AND GROUND CONTROL Automatic Terminal Information Service Automatic Terminal Information Service

(ATIS) is a continuous broadcast of (ATIS) is a continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in selected recorded non-control information in selected high activity terminal areas (i.e., busy high activity terminal areas (i.e., busy airports). airports).

The information is essential but routine. The information is essential but routine. The information included is the latest The information included is the latest

weather sequence, active runways, and weather sequence, active runways, and other pertinent remarks. other pertinent remarks.

Ceilings are usually not broadcast if they Ceilings are usually not broadcast if they are above 5,000 ft., and visibility is usually are above 5,000 ft., and visibility is usually not mentioned if it is more than 5 SM. not mentioned if it is more than 5 SM.

After landing, you should contact ground After landing, you should contact ground control only when so instructed by the control only when so instructed by the tower. tower.

A clearance to taxi to the active runway is a A clearance to taxi to the active runway is a clearance to taxi via taxiways and across clearance to taxi via taxiways and across intersecting runways, but not onto the active intersecting runways, but not onto the active runway. runway.

When cleared to a runway, you are cleared When cleared to a runway, you are cleared to that runway's runup area, but not onto the to that runway's runup area, but not onto the active runway itself. active runway itself.

"Taxi into position and hold" is the "Taxi into position and hold" is the instruction to taxi onto the active runway instruction to taxi onto the active runway and prepare for takeoff, but not to take off. and prepare for takeoff, but not to take off.

Class D Class D

Class D airspace is an area of controlled airspace surrounding an airport with an operating control tower, not associated with Class B or Class C airspace areas.

– Airspace at an airport with a part-time control tower is classified as Class D airspace only when the control tower is operating.

Class D airspace is depicted by a blue segmented (dashed) circle on a sectional chart.

When departing a non-tower satellite airport within Class D airspace, you must establish and maintain two-way radio communication with the primary airport's control tower.

– The primary airport is the airport for which the Class D airspace is designated.

– A satellite airport is any other airport within the Class D airspace area.

Class D airspace is normally the airspace up to 2,500 ft. above the surface of the airport.

– The actual lateral dimensions of Class D airspace are based on the instrument procedures for which the controlled airspace is established.

Two-way radio communication with the control tower is required for landings and takeoffs at all tower-controlled airports, regardless of weather conditions.

Airport Advisory Areas exist at noncontrolled airports that have a Flight Service Station (FSS) physically located on that airport.

– The FSS provides advisory (not control) information on traffic, weather, etc., to requesting aircraft.

Class CClass C

Class C airspace consists of a surface area (formerly Class C airspace consists of a surface area (formerly called the inner circle) and a shelf area (formerly called called the inner circle) and a shelf area (formerly called the outer circle). the outer circle).

– The surface area has a 5-NM radius from the The surface area has a 5-NM radius from the primary airport primary airport

1)  Extending from the surface to 4,000 ft. 1)  Extending from the surface to 4,000 ft. above the airport elevation. above the airport elevation.

– The shelf area is an area from 5 to 10 NM from The shelf area is an area from 5 to 10 NM from the primary airport the primary airport

1)  Extending from 1,200 ft. to 4,000 ft. above 1)  Extending from 1,200 ft. to 4,000 ft. above the airport elevation. the airport elevation.

communication with ATC prior to entering Class C communication with ATC prior to entering Class C airspace. airspace.

– A clearance is not required because a clearance A clearance is not required because a clearance relates to IFR operations. relates to IFR operations.

When departing from a satellite airport without an When departing from a satellite airport without an operating control tower, you must contact ATC as soon operating control tower, you must contact ATC as soon as practicable after takeoff. as practicable after takeoff.

Surrounding the Class C airspace is the outer area. Surrounding the Class C airspace is the outer area. The outer area is not classified as Class C airspace. The outer area is not classified as Class C airspace.

– ATC provides the same radar services as ATC provides the same radar services as provided in Class C airspace. provided in Class C airspace.

– The normal radius of the outer area of Class C The normal radius of the outer area of Class C airspace is 20 NM from the primary airport. airspace is 20 NM from the primary airport.

The minimum equipment needed to operate in Class C The minimum equipment needed to operate in Class C airspace airspace

– 4096 code transponder, 4096 code transponder, – Mode C (altitude encoding) capability, and Mode C (altitude encoding) capability, and – Two-way radio communication capability. Two-way radio communication capability.

You must establish and maintain two-way radioYou must establish and maintain two-way radio

           

TERMINAL RADAR PROGRAMS TERMINAL RADAR PROGRAMS

Terminal radar programs for VFR aircraft are classified as basic, Terminal radar programs for VFR aircraft are classified as basic, TRSA, Class C, and Class B service. TRSA, Class C, and Class B service.

Basic radar service provides safety alerts, traffic advisories, and limited Basic radar service provides safety alerts, traffic advisories, and limited vectoring on a workload- permitting basis. vectoring on a workload- permitting basis.

TRSA service provides sequencing and separation for all participating TRSA service provides sequencing and separation for all participating VFR aircraft operating within a Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA). VFR aircraft operating within a Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA).

Terminal radar program participation is voluntary for VFR traffic. Terminal radar program participation is voluntary for VFR traffic.

Contact approach control when inbound. Contact approach control when inbound.

When departing, you should request radar traffic information from When departing, you should request radar traffic information from ground control on initial contact, along with your direction of flight. ground control on initial contact, along with your direction of flight.

Code 1200 is the standard VFR transponder code. Code 1200 is the standard VFR transponder code.

The ident feature should not be engaged unless The ident feature should not be engaged unless instructed by ATC. instructed by ATC.

Certain special codes should never be engaged Certain special codes should never be engaged (except in an emergency), as they may cause (except in an emergency), as they may cause problems at ATC centers: problems at ATC centers:

7500 is the hijacking code. 7500 is the hijacking code. 7600 is the lost radio communication code. 7600 is the lost radio communication code. 7700 is the general emergency code. 7700 is the general emergency code. 7777 is the military interceptor code. 7777 is the military interceptor code.

RADIO PHRASEOLOGY RADIO PHRASEOLOGY When contacting a flight service station the proper When contacting a flight service station the proper

call sign is the name of the FSS followed by "radio" call sign is the name of the FSS followed by "radio" (e.g., McAlester Radio). (e.g., McAlester Radio).

When contacting an En Route Flight Advisory Service When contacting an En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) the proper call sign is the name of the Air (EFAS) the proper call sign is the name of the Air Route Traffic Control Center facility serving your area Route Traffic Control Center facility serving your area followed by "flight watch" (e.g., "Seattle Flight followed by "flight watch" (e.g., "Seattle Flight Watch"). Watch").

Civilian aircraft should start their aircraft call sign with Civilian aircraft should start their aircraft call sign with the make or model aircraft (e.g., Cessna 44WH or the make or model aircraft (e.g., Cessna 44WH or Baron 2DF). Baron 2DF).

When a make or model is used the initial November When a make or model is used the initial November is dropped from the call sign. is dropped from the call sign.

Pilots should state each digit of the call sign Pilots should state each digit of the call sign individually (e.g., 6449U = six, four, four, niner, individually (e.g., 6449U = six, four, four, niner, uniform). uniform).

When calling out altitudes up to but not including When calling out altitudes up to but not including 18,000 ft., state the separate digits of the thousands, 18,000 ft., state the separate digits of the thousands, plus the hundreds, if appropriate (e.g., 4,500 ft. = four plus the hundreds, if appropriate (e.g., 4,500 ft. = four thousand five hundred). thousand five hundred).

Unless otherwise noted the altitudes are MSL. Unless otherwise noted the altitudes are MSL.

ATC TRAFFIC ADVISORIES ATC TRAFFIC ADVISORIES

Radar traffic information services provide pilots with Radar traffic information services provide pilots with traffic advisories of nearby aircraft. traffic advisories of nearby aircraft.

Traffic advisories provide information based on the Traffic advisories provide information based on the position of other aircraft from your airplane in terms of position of other aircraft from your airplane in terms of clock direction in a no-wind condition (i.e., it is based on clock direction in a no-wind condition (i.e., it is based on your ground track, not heading). your ground track, not heading).

12 o’clock is straight ahead. 12 o’clock is straight ahead. 3 o’clock is directly off your right wing. 3 o’clock is directly off your right wing. 6 o’clock is directly behind you. 6 o’clock is directly behind you. 9 o’clock is directly off your left wing, 9 o’clock is directly off your left wing,

Other positions are described accordingly, e.g., 2 o’clock, Other positions are described accordingly, e.g., 2 o’clock, 10 o’clock. 10 o’clock.

Traffic advisories usually also include Traffic advisories usually also include Distance away in miles. Distance away in miles. Direction of flight of other aircraft. Direction of flight of other aircraft. Altitude of other aircraft. Altitude of other aircraft.

ATC LIGHT SIGNALS ATC LIGHT SIGNALS In the absence of radio communications, the tower can communicate with you by light signals. In the absence of radio communications, the tower can communicate with you by light signals.

Light signal meanings depend on whether you are on the ground or in the air. Light signal meanings depend on whether you are on the ground or in the air.

•Acknowledge light signals in the air by rocking wings in daylight and blinking lights at night.

•If your radio fails and you wish to land at a tower-controlled airport, remain outside or above the airport's traffic pattern until the direction and flow of traffic has been determined, then join the traffic pattern and maintain visual contact with the tower to receive light signals.

ELTs AND VHF/DF ELTs AND VHF/DF ELTs transmit simultaneously on 121.5 and ELTs transmit simultaneously on 121.5 and

243.0 MHz. 243.0 MHz.

You can monitor either frequency during flight You can monitor either frequency during flight and before shut down (after landing) to ensure and before shut down (after landing) to ensure your ELT has not been activated. your ELT has not been activated.

The VHF/Direction Finder facility is a ground The VHF/Direction Finder facility is a ground operation that displays the magnetic direction operation that displays the magnetic direction of the airplane from the station each time the of the airplane from the station each time the airplane transmits a signal to it. airplane transmits a signal to it.

In order to take advantage of VHF/DF radio In order to take advantage of VHF/DF radio reception for assistance in locating a position, reception for assistance in locating a position, an airplane must have both a VHF transmitter an airplane must have both a VHF transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter and receiver and a receiver. The transmitter and receiver are necessary to converse with a ground are necessary to converse with a ground station having VHF/DF facilities. station having VHF/DF facilities.

The transmitter is also needed to send the The transmitter is also needed to send the signal that the Direction Finder identifies in signal that the Direction Finder identifies in terms of magnetic heading from the facility. terms of magnetic heading from the facility.

LAND AND HOLD LAND AND HOLD SHORT SHORT

OPERATIONS OPERATIONS (LAHSO) (LAHSO)

Land and hold short operations Land and hold short operations (LAHSO) take place at some (LAHSO) take place at some airports with an operating control airports with an operating control tower in order to increase airport tower in order to increase airport capacity and improve the flow of capacity and improve the flow of traffic. traffic.

LAHSO requires that you land and LAHSO requires that you land and hold short of an intersecting hold short of an intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on a some other designated point on a runway. runway.

Before accepting a clearance to Before accepting a clearance to land and hold short, you must land and hold short, you must determine that you can safely land determine that you can safely land and stop within the available and stop within the available landing distance (ALD). landing distance (ALD).

ALD data are published in the ALD data are published in the special notices section of the special notices section of the Airport/Facilities DirectoryAirport/Facilities Directory ( (A/FDA/FD). ).

ATC will provide ALD data upon ATC will provide ALD data upon your request. your request.

Student pilots should not participate Student pilots should not participate in the LAHSO program. in the LAHSO program.

The pilot in command has the final The pilot in command has the final authority to accept or decline any authority to accept or decline any land and hold short (LAHSO) land and hold short (LAHSO) clearance. clearance.

You are expected to decline a You are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance if you determine LAHSO clearance if you determine it will compromise safety. it will compromise safety.

You should receive a LAHSO You should receive a LAHSO clearance only when there is a clearance only when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000 ft. and minimum ceiling of 1,000 ft. and visibility of 3 SM. visibility of 3 SM.

The intent of having vasic VFR The intent of having vasic VFR weather conditions is to allow pilots weather conditions is to allow pilots to maintain visual contact with other to maintain visual contact with other aircraft and ground vehicle aircraft and ground vehicle operations. operations.

End Session ThreeEnd Session Three

Chris Tavenner CFI/MEIIChris Tavenner CFI/MEII

TKAS TKAS Tractor King Aviation ServicesTractor King Aviation Services

www.tractorking.orgwww.tractorking.org