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PROCEEDINGS OF 1ST INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON

CONDUCIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR SMART SCHOOL

(CLES) 2011

Main Organizer

Conducive Learning Environment for Smart School Research Group, UKM

Building Performance & Diagnostic Research Group, UM

Co-Organizer

Kampus Lestari Research Group, UKM

Low-Energy Architecture Research Group, UKM

Eco-Urbanscape Research Group, UKM

Building Surveying Division, ISM

School Of Housing, Building & Planning, USM

Department Of Building Surveying, UiTM



Publishing Officers:

Hafsah Othman

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Norliyana Mohd Fadilah


Nurul Syuhada Spalie


Published By


43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA

Email: [email protected]

National Library of Malaysia Catalguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Malaysia1

st international symposium on conducive learning environment for smart school (CLES) 2011

ISBN 978-967-5878-26-8

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any

form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior written

permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting restricted copying in the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia dan

Universiti Malaya.

Printed in Malaysia byUniversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, MALAYSIA

mailto:[email protected]






EDITOR

N.Utaberta

N.M.Tawil

A.S.Ali

S.N.Kamaruzzaman

Department of Architecture,Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,


SCIENTIFIC COMMITEE

A.I. Che-Ani (UKM)

M.M. Tahir (UKM)

N.A. Goh (UKM)

N. Hamzah (UKM)

N.M. Salleh (UM)

L. Chi-Hin (UM)

L.C.Hsia (UM)

L.P. Wah (UM)

M.Y. Yuzainee (UNITEN)

R. Sulaiman (UM)

S.A.F.Al-Zawawi (UM)



PREFACE

Conducive learning environment is pertinent in generating critical thinking, be it from the earlystages of learning up to tertiary level of education. Developing an institution with a holistic

Conducive Learning Environment in mind is not easy. The development of the learningenvironment should be examined in terms of the environment, master planning, space planningand design elements as well as operating assets and buildings. This will create a school whichtakes into account the overall environment and ensure the health interests and excellent well being of its students. This symposium is organized by the Conducive Learning Environment forSmart School (CLES) research group of the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineeringand Built Environment of UKM. It intends to uphold and generate the development ofknowledge in conducive learning environment for Malaysia and the world.

The conference itself tries to gather and share different view and understanding of studies andresearch among academician, architect, consultants, developers, engineers, government officer,local authorities, manufacturers, politicians, project manager, students, surveyors and all thoseinterested in one day seminar and conference in order to:

1. To provide formal communication platform and publication to the members of theinternational researchers who have aspiration about Smart School.

2. To disseminate knowledge that related with the development of learning environment forsmart school to the local and overseas research community.

3. To empower the research collaboration between members of the group with anotherresearchers within and outside UKM.

4. Empowering the research network for smart school with the local and overseas

universities.

It is expected that from this ‗conducive‘ platform, the idea, exploration and discussion willinitiate a better paradigm, explore different point of view and open a healthy dialogue towards a better learning environment of teaching and learning in the future.

Sr. Dr. Adi Irfan Che Ani

Chairman of CLES 2011



CONTENTS

KEYNOTE ADDRESS

Management of Change in Singapore‘s Programme for Rebuilding and ImprovingExisting (PRIME) Schools L.S.Pheng ………………………………………………………………………..………………………1

Smart Programme for Smart Students Malaysian Smart School (MSC) N.Ishak, N.S.Spalie…………………………………………………………………………..……… .24

INVITED PAPER

Designing for School: Guidelines and Safety Considerations In Design Development Stages R.Rahman…………………………………………………………………………………………...………29

Conduciveness of school environment towards learning with Total Building

Performance (TBP) through Integrated Design Process (IDP) R.K.Khanna, H.B.Gang and L.S.Pheng…………………………………………………………...…….36

Membina Semula Persekitaran Pembelajaran Diluar Kelas yang Mampan dari PemahamanRekabentuk dan Pendekatan-Pendekatan Sekolah Alam di Indonesia. N. Spalie, N. Utaberta, M.M. Tahir, N.A.G.Abdullah, A.I.Che-Ani………………….………..…….47

Green Building Design Features For A Better Smart School: Lesson Learnt From GeoAnd Leo Office BuildingsS.N.Kamaruzzaman, R.Sulaiman, L.Chi- Hin…………………………………………….………..…...57

A Model Of Uncertainty In Refurbishment Design ProcessS.A.F. Al-Zawawi, L.P.Wah, A.S.Ali…………………………………………………………….…..…..71

Comparison How Outdoor Learning Enhances Eq Skills Between Australia And SingaporeEducationS. Mirrahmi, N.M.Tawil, N.A .G.Abdullah, A.I.Che- Ani, N.Utaberta…………………..………..…82

Space Management- A Relation Of Workspace In The Office And Schools EnvironmentS. N.Kamaruzzaman, N.M.Salleh, N.Razali…………………………………………..…………...……89

Pengenalan Penjenisan Rumah Tradisional Orang Asli di Semenanjung Malaysia

M. Surat, A.R.Musa, M.Y.A.Broughton…………………………………………………………...….…99

Scale of Measurement for Benchmarking in Building MaintenanceS.A.F.Al-Zawawi, L.C.Hsia, A.S.Ali………………………………………….…………………..……106

Quality Of Architecture In Use: Users Experience And Expectation To Usability OfDesign In Learning EnvironmentS.N.Haron, M.Y.Hamid, A.A.A.Ghani…………………………………………………………….……120



Factors Affecting Students‘ Performance In Calculus B. Faridah, M.Y.Yuzainee, A. R.Fadhilah ……………………………….…………..……….........…128

Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Pelajar Dalam Memilih Universiti: Kajian Kes

M.Y.Yuzainee, A.R.Fadhilah, B.Faridah.....................................................................................134

Pembangunan Kriteria Pemeriksaan Ruang Tandas Bangunan Institusi PengajianBerdasarkan Enam Piawaian Pemeriksaan Bangunan

A.R.M. Nasir, A.I. Che-Ani, N.M. Tawil, M.M. Tahir, N.A.G. Abdullah.....................................148

Mendefinisikan Semula Rekabentuk Pembelajaran Di Luar Kelas Di Malaysia:Pengajaran Dari Pendekatan-Pendekatan Frank Llyod Wright Dalam PenyusunanRuang Dan Landskap. N.Utaberta, N.Spalie, N.A.G.Abdullah, M.M.Tahir ………………………………….………....…..156

Analysis of Lighting Performance During Summer Equinox Between Single Domeand Pyramid Roof Mosque in Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina. A.S. Hassan, Y .Arab…..………………………………………….……………………………………..163

Pengembangan Sebuah Ruang Kelas Belajar Serta Aplikasi Learning by Doing diSekolah High Scope Indonesia A.Setiawan………………………………………………………………………………………….……..176

An Alternative Design for A Smart School A.H.Abdullah, S.S.Zubir …………………………………………………………...…………………….182

AUTHOR INDEXS



PROCEEDINGS

1ST

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON CONDUCIVE LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT FOR SMART SCHOOL (CLES) 2011



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Management of Change in Singapore’s Programme for Rebuilding and

Improving Existing (PRIME) Schools

L.S.Pheng PhD, FCIOB

Professor, Department of BuildingSchool of Design and Environment National University of Singapore

Abstract

The rationale behind PRIME to upgrade and improve existing schools in Singapore to keep up with rapidchanges in info-com technology (ICT) and to provide a more conducive learning and work environmentfor the stakeholders, namely the students and the teachers, is presented in this paper. The study highlightsthe key components of PRIME and underscores the causes of variations that may occur in both the designand construction stages in the school building projects. The effects of the variations made in the PRIMEschool building projects will be presented, together with a checklist of the corresponding controls to

manage these variations that may occur during the: (1) Design stage; (2) Construction stage; and (3)Design-construction interface. Finally, the paper will present the most important causes, their frequenteffects and effective controls for managing change orders in the PRIME school building projects inSingapore.

Keywords: School buildings, Singapore, PRIME, Change management

1.0 Introduction

Construction projects are complex because they involve many human and non-human factors andvariables. They usually have long duration, various uncertainties, and complex relationships

among the participants. The need to make changes in a construction project is a matter of practical reality. Even the most thoughtfully planned project may necessitate changes due tovarious factors (O‘Brien, 1998).

The high living standards have generated many manufacturing and building employmentopportunities in global construction industry. The growth of towns has accelerated as a result ofhigh population growth. Large and complex projects have been built, attracting contractors fromall over the world. Most of these contractors appear to lack a sufficient understanding of thesocial, cultural and physical environment (Dulaimi and Hwa, 2001). This situation, coupled withinexperienced owners, has led to inadequate designs resulting in many changes to plans,specifications and contract terms.

Changes are inevitable in any construction project (Mokhtar, et al., 2000). Needs of theowner may change in the course of design or construction, market conditions may imposechanges to the parameters of the project, and technological developments may alter the designand the choice of the engineer. The engineer‘s review of the design may bring about changes toimprove or optimize the design and hence the operations of the project. Furthermore, errors andomissions in engineering or construction may force a change. All these factors and many othersnecessitate changes that are costly and generally un-welcomed by all parties.



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Consideration must be given from the initial stages (inception) of the project untilcommissioning. Contractual provision is required to define the conduct of owner, consultant andcontractor to participate in and manage changes. Systematic and proper procedures must be set in place to process a change from conceptual development until it materializes in the field. Thereality is that an adverse environment exists among parties in the construction industry. Changes

could be perceived as positive or negative to the preconceived goals of the professionalsinvolved in a project. Therefore, a major change must be managed and handled professionally inorder to minimize its cost, schedule and consequential impacts that may divert the project awayfrom its targeted goals.

To identify and analyze potential changes that could happen in a project as early as possiblecan enhance the management of projects. Learning from these changes is imperative because the professionals can improve and apply their experience in the future.

2.0 Thinking School, Learning Nation Through Prime

The only resource which Singapore has its people. Hence, education is an important componentin Singapore‘s economic development plans. The government‘s vision for ―Thinking School,Learning Nation‖ is to prepare the young citizens of Singapore to face future challenges in anincreasingly globalized world. For this purpose, certain basic fundamentals must first be put in place. In addition to committed and well trained teachers, the education system must besupported by excellent school facilities to create a physically conducive environment for thelearning journey.

Many of the primary and secondary schools (both government and aided) in Singapore weresome 20 to 30 years old about the time when this vision was articulated. The government ofSingapore, through the Ministry of Education (MOE), initiated the Programme for Rebuildingand Improving Existing Schools (PRIME) in 1999 to ensure that the new generation ofSingaporeans would get the best opportunities to equip themselves with the informationtechnology (IT) available. The new and upgraded facilities will include computer laboratories,media resource libraries, IT learning resource rooms, IT networking for the entire school, pastoral care rooms and health and fitness rooms. Teachers and students can also look forward to bigger classrooms and staff-rooms, and more interaction areas. The emphasis on IT is also in linewith the Master Plan 1 for IT in Education that was formulated by the MOE in the mid-1990s(Mokhtar, Foo and Majid, 2007).

Schools that were built before 1997 will either be rebuilt or upgraded. Upgrading worksinvolve construction of extension blocks and alteration of existing school buildings. Rebuildingworks involve the construction of entirely new buildings. Construction in PRIME is carried outin phases, and the selection of schools for PRIME is determined by the age and state of theschool physical facilities as well as the availability and suitability of sites for this purpose. Insummary, PRIME is carried out based on: (1) On-site rebuilding and upgrading, (2) Relocation,and (3) Mergers, as appropriate (Source: Ministry of Education, Singapore atwww.moe.edu.sg/initiative/prime retrieved on 27 April 2010). Over a period of seven years from1999 to 2005, MOE invested some S$4.46 billion to either rebuild or upgrade some 290 existingschools. Under PRIME, a new primary school building can expect to house some 2500 pupils

http://www.moe.edu.sg/initiative/prime

http://www.moe.edu.sg/initiative/prime



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studying in a double-session system and some 1300 pupils in a new secondary school in a single-session system. The costs of rebuilding the schools are S$15 million and S$20 million for each primary and secondary school respectively. The costs of upgrading works would depend on theexisting conditions of the schools and can range between S$10 million to S$12 million for each primary school and approximately S$15 million for a secondary school (Ministry of Education,

1999). As of July 2009, some 251 schools have been included in the earlier ten phases ofPRIME, of which 227 schools have completed their upgrading programmes. Beginning in early2007, all schools will be provided with an indoor sports hall in phases to facilitate flexibility inco-curricular activities, sports and games without being affected by inclement weather (Ministryof Education, 2009).

Given the massive capital investments in PRIME projects, important consideration must begiven to budgetary and costs controls. Part of this important consideration relates to how costsmay be better controlled through an effective system for managing change in the design andconstruction phases of the PRIME projects.

3.0 Management Of Change

Change orders are an unwanted, but inevitable reality of every construction project (Clough andSears, 1994; O‘Brien, 1998; Mokhtar, et al., 2000). Construction projects are bound to encounterchange orders; the goal of the owner, design or construction manager is to limit the number ofsuch changes (CII, 1994a; Ibbs, 1997). Proper management of change orders is very significantfor all types of construction projects. Changes in drawings and contract documents usually leadto a change in contract price or contract schedule. Change also increases the possibility ofcontractual disputes. Conventionally, changes present problems to all the parties involved in theconstruction process.

Mendelsohn (1997) observed that probably 75% of the problems encountered on site weregenerated at the design phase. This is not to say that contractors do not create a slew of problemsof their own but that these problems were often compounded by inherent design flaws. If onewere to seriously consider ways to reduce problems on site, an obvious place to begin with is tofocus on what the project team can do to eliminate these problems at the design phase.

There are many reasons for issuing construction change order in the construction process. Itcan be a result of the non-availability or slow delivery of required materials or the correction ofcontract document errors and omissions (Thomas, 1990). Identifying the causes of change ordersis very important in order to avoid potential changes in future projects or to minimize theireffects.

The construction process is influenced by highly changing variables and unpredictablefactors that could result from different sources (Zipf, 1998). These sources include the performance of construction parties, resources availability, environmental conditions,involvement of other parties and contractual relations. As a consequence of these sources, theconstruction of projects may face problems which could cause delay in the project completiontime (Clough and Sears, 1994).



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Kumaraswamy, et al. (1998) studied claims for extension of time due to excusable delays inHong Kong‘s civil engineering projects. Their findings suggested that 15-20% time over run wasmainly caused by inclement weather. 50% of the projects surveyed were delayed because ofchanges.

Kaming, et al. (1997) studied the factors influencing construction time and cost over runs forhigh rise projects in Indonesia where 31 project managers working in high rise buildings weresurveyed. Kaming, et al. (1997) pointed out that the major factors influencing cost overrun werematerial cost increase due to inflation, inaccurate material estimating and the degree of projectcomplexity. In the case of time over run, the most important factors that caused delays weredesign changes, poor labor productivity, inadequate planning and resource shortage.

The magnitude of schedule average slippage due to changes was reported as 18% (CII,1990a; Burati, et al., 1992; Zeitoun and Oberlender, 1993, Kumaraswamy, et al., 1998). Thedeviation (change) cost amounted to an average of 14% of the total cost of the project (CII,1990a; Burati, et al ., 1992; Zeitoun and Oberlender, 1993). Although there have been cases

where change cost accounted for as high as 100% of the budgeted funds, the industry norm ofthis percentage was about 10%. The impact of changes varies from one project to another.However, it is generally accepted that the changes affect the construction projects withunpalatable consequences in time and cost (CII, 1986; CII, 1988; Hester, et al., 1991; Moselhi, et

al., 1991; Barrie and Paulson, 1992; CII, 1994a; Ehrenreich-Hansen, 1994; Ibbs, et al ., 1998;Mokhtar, et al., 1997; Mokhtar, et al., 2000; Ibbs, et al., 2001).

Changes are common in all types of construction projects (CII, 1994a; Fisk, 1997; O‘Brien,1998; Ibbs, et al., 2001). The nature and frequency of changes occurrence vary from one projectto another depending on various factors (CII, 1986a; Kaming, et al., 1997). Changes inconstruction projects can cause substantial adjustment to the contract duration, total direct andindirect costs, or both (Tiong, 1990; Odell, 1995; Ibbs, 1997a; Ibbs, et al., 1998). Therefore, project management teams must have the ability to respond to changes effectively in order tominimize their adverse impact to the project.

Great concerns have been expressed in recent years regarding the impact of changes inconstruction projects. As mentioned briefly in the previous section, changes are frequent inconstruction projects and can cause considerable adjustments to the project time, cost andquality. The causes of change orders are greatly varied, thus making the task of changemanagement difficult for most clients. However, the undesirable situation can be minimized aslong as a mechanism for handling change orders and making more informed decisions based onthe past projects can be understood and built into project management.

The litmus test for successful management should not be whether the project was free ofchange orders, but rather, if change orders were resolved in a timely manner to the benefit of allthe parties and the project. A clearer view of the causes and their impacts and controls willenable the project team to take advantage of beneficial changes when the opportunity ariseswithout an inordinate fear of negative impacts. Eventually, a clearer and comprehensive view ofcauses, their effects and potential controls based on past projects will assist the project team tolearn from past experiences and to make more informed decisions for effective management of



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change orders. No such studies have been undertaken on the management and control of changeorders on a large scale so far using an IT based decision support system platform. The ProjectChange Management System (PCMS) will assist professionals in analyzing changes andselecting the appropriate controls for minimizing their adverse impacts by providing timelyinformation. Furthermore, by having a systematic way to manage changes, the efficiency of

project work and the likelihood of project success should increase.

Learning from the changes is very important because the professionals could improve andapply their experience in the future (Ibbs, et al., 2001; Arain, 2005a). In cases where professionals leave the organization, the project experience continues to reside within theindividual professionals. In the absence of an established and organized knowledge-base of pastsimilar projects, the professional teams would face problems in planning effectively beforestarting a project, during the design phase as well as during the construction phase to minimizeand control changes and their effects. Hence, a comprehensive system for consolidatingdecisions made on past similar projects is highly recommended.

4.0 Knowledge Gap in Change Management

There have been many research studies in the area of change orders. Most researchers havelooked at the classification of changes (Thomas and Napolitan, 1994; Yu, 1996; Fisk, 1997;Hsieh, et al., 2004), classification of change originators (CII, 1990a; Burati, et al., 1992; Thomasand Napolitan, 1994), constitutional aspects, for instance, contract change, clause interpretation,contractual administration of changes and substantiation of change claims (Ashly and Mathews,1986; Ibbs, et al., 1986; Hester, et al., 1991; Krone, 1991; Diekmann and Kim, 1992; Cox, 1997;Hsieh, et al., 2004), cost related aspects, for instance, quantitative studies on the productivityfactor in change and its impact and magnitude of the impact (Ibbs, et al., 1986; CII, 1990a;Hester, et al., 1991; Burati, et al., 1992; Zeitoun and Oberlender, 1993; Thomas and Napolitan,1994, 1995; Ibbs, et al., 1998) and costing and valuation of changes (Hester, et al., 1991;Thomas and Napolitan, 1994; CII, 1990a). In the context of Singapore‘s construction industry, anotable study on the causes and improvement for quality problems in design and build projectswas carried out by Geok (2002).

The issue concerning changes has received much attention in the literature. Despite manyarticles and much discussion in practice and academic literature, an in-depth and holistic view ofcauses, their effects and controls for changes for making timely and more informed decisions foreffective management of change orders was not well represented in the literature. A clearer viewof the causes and their impacts on the projects will enable the project team to take advantage of beneficial changes. Eventually, a clearer and comprehensive view of the causes, their effects and potential controls will result in informed decisions for effective management of change orders.

In view of the transfer and acquisition of construction knowledge and experience, a DecisionSupport System (DSS) can help to conserve the knowledge and experience and make these morewidely, easily and quickly available for assisting in the decision making process (Alkass, et al.,1992; Turban and Aronson, 2000; Arain, 2008). The decision aid can also facilitate theknowledge acquisition process once it has acquired the necessary construction knowledge andexperience and transferred these into a usable form (McCoy and Levary, 1988). The decision aid



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also enables the professionals to consider more factors that can affect designs during the decisionmaking process, conduct more thorough decision processing, and influence their preferredinformation (Ling, 1998). A knowledge-base would assist in making more informed decisions because it provides an excellent opportunity to learn from past projects (Turban, 1990; Arain andLow, 2005b). A comprehensive knowledge-base of past projects is recommended. However,

there were no significant research studies undertaken on the management and controls of changeorders on a large scale so far using an IT based management system platform.

5.0 Fundamentals of Changes

A change order is a written order to the contractor signed by the owner and issued afterexecution of the contract, authorizing a change in the work or an adjustment in the contract sumor the contract time (Clough and Sears, 1994; Fisk, 1997).

The term ―change‖ shall mean any change in the original contract intention as deduced fromthe contract as a whole describing or defining the works to be carried out and shall include but is

not restricted to:

a) An increase or decrease in the quantity of any part of the work. b) An addition to or omission from the works.c) A change in the character, quality or nature of any part of the works.d) A change in the levels, lines, positions and dimensions of any part of the works.e) The demolition of or removal of any part of the works no longer described by the employer

of the superintending officer.f) A requirement to complete the works or any phase or part by a date earlier than the relevant

time for completion.

Functionally, a change order accomplishes after execution of the agreement what thespecifications addenda do prior to bid opening (see Figure 1), except that an accompanying pricechange may be involved in a change order. A price change would not necessarily always be inthe contractor‘s favor; it could also be in the form of a cash credit to the owner, or it may involveno price change at all (Fisk, 1997). It is the standard practice in construction contracts to allowthe owner the right to make changes in the work after the contract has been signed and during theconstruction period.



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6.0 Causes, Effects and Controls f or Change Orders

The need to make changes in a construction project is a matter of practical reality. Even the mostthoughtfully planned project may necessitate changes due to various reasons (O‘Brien, 1998). Toovercome the problems associated with changes to a project, the project team must be able toeffectively analyze the change and its immediate and downstream effects (CII, 1994a).

Potential Causes of Change Orders

An effective analysis of changes and change orders requires a comprehensive understanding ofthe root causes of changes (Hester, et al., 1991). Hence, 53 causes of change orders wereidentified. As shown in Figure 2, the causes of changes were grouped under four categories:Owner related changes, Consultant related changes, Contractor related changes and Otherchanges. These groups assisted in developing a comprehensive enumeration of the potentialcauses of changes.

Potential Effects of Change Orders

Effects of changes were observed by many researchers (CII, 1986; CII, 1990; CII, 1994; Thomasand Napolitan, 1995; Ibbs, et al., 1998, Arain and Low, 2005c). The 16 potential effectsidentified from the literature review are shown in Figure 3. These will also form the basis for thesurvey of the professionals described later.

Controls for Change Orders

Controls for changes and change orders have been suggested by many researchers (Mokhtar, etal., 2000; Ibbs, et al., 2001; Arain and Low, 2003). 30 controls have been identified from theliterature review. These will also form the basis for the survey of the professionals later. Thecontrols were grouped under three categories: Design stage, Construction stage and Design-Construction interface stage as shown in Figure 4. These groups assisted in developing acomprehensive enumeration of potential controls for change orders.

Advertising

Date

Sign

21 3 4

Changes by Addenda No Changes Changes by VO

Figure 1 Changes through project phases (Fisk, 1997)

Bid

Opening

Award

Date



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B.1 Change in design by

consultants

B.2 Errors and

omissions in design

B.3 Conflicts between

contract documents

B.4 Inadequate scope of

work for contractor

C.1 Lack of contractor’s

involvement in design

C.2 Unavailability of

equipment

C.3 Unavailability of

skills

C.4 Contractor’s

financial difficulties

D.1 Weather

condition

D.2 Safety

considerations

D.3 Change in govt.

regulations

D.4 Change in economic

conditions

D.6 Unforeseen

problems

D.5 Socio-cultural factorsB.5 Technology change

B.6 Value engineering

B.7 Lack of coordination

B.8 Design complexity

B.9 Inadequate working

drawing details

C.5 Contractor’sdesired profitability

C.6 Differing site

conditions

C.7 Defective

workmanship

C.8 Unfamiliarity with

local conditions

C.9 Lack of specialized

construction manager

Causes of variation orders

A. Owner related

variations

B. Consultant

related variations

C. Contractor

related variations

A.1 Change of plans or

scope by owner

A.2 Change of schedule

by owner

A.3 Owner’s financial

problems

A.4 Inadequate

project objectives

D. Other variations

A.8 Change in

specifications by owner

B.20 Change in specifications by

consultant

C.19 Contractor’s

obstinate nature

A.5 Replacement ofmaterials/procedures

A.6 Impediment in

prompt decision making

process

A.7 Obstinate

nature of owner

B.10 Inadequate shop

drawing details

B.11 Consultant’s lack of

judgment and experience

B.12 Lack of consultant’s

knowledge of available materials

and equipment

B.13 Honest wrong belief of

consultant

B.14 Consultant’s lack of

required data

B.15 Obstinate nature of

consultant

B.16 Ambiguous design details

B.17 Design discrepancies

(inadequate design)

B.18 Non-compliance design

with govt. regulations

B.19 Non-compliance design

with owner’s requirement

C.10 Fast track

construction

C.11 Poor procurement

process

C.12 Lack of

communication

C.13 Contractor’s lack of

judgment & experience

C.14 Long lead

procurement

C.15 Honest wrong belief of

contractor

C.16 Complex design and

technology

C.17 Lack of strategic

planning

C.18 Contractor’s lack of

required data

Figure 2 Causes of variation orders grouped under four categories



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Effects of variation orders

Progress is affected but

without any delay

Increase in project cost

Hiring new professionals

Increase in overhead expenses

Delay in payment

Quality degradation

Productivity degradation

Poor safety conditions

Completion schedule delay

Procurement delay

Rework and demolition

Logistic delay

Tarnish firm’s reputation

Poor professional relations

Additional payment for contractor

Dispute among professionals

Figure 3 Potential effects of variation orders



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C.1 Prompt approval procedures

C.2 Ability to negotiate variation

C.3 Valuation of indirect effects

C.4 Team effort by owner, consultant and contractor to control

variation orders

C.5 Utilize work breakdown structure

C.6 Continuous coordination and direct communication

C.7 Control the potential for variation orders to arise through

B.1 Clarity of variation order procedures

B.2 Written approvals

B.3 Variation order scope

B.4 Variation logic and justification

B.5 Project manager from an independent firm to manage the project C o n t r o l s f o r v a r i a t i o n o r d e r s

A . D e s i g n s t a g e

B . C o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e

C . D e s i g n - C o n s t r u c t i o n i n t

e r f a c e s t a g e

A.1 Review of contract documents

A.2 Freezing design

A.3 Value engineering at conceptual phase

A.4 Involvement of professionals at initial stages of project

A.5 Owner involvement at lannin and desi n hases

Figure 4 Controls for variation orders



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7.0 Data Collection

A major survey of the professionals, preceded by a pilot study, was undertaken to ascertainwhich of the 53 causes, 16 effects and 30 controls were important, and their level of importance.

The survey results identify the most important causes, their frequent effects and effectivecontrols. The survey results also assists in developing a checklist for implementing the mosteffective controls for change orders for school building projects. Like any other construction project, school building projects are also subjected to similar risks.

The analysis of data collected from the source documents assisted in identifying the natureand frequency of occurrence of changes in school building projects. The data collected from thesource documents was analyzed.

The objective of this study was to develop an exhaustive list of important causes, their effectsand controls for change orders for school building projects in Singapore. To achieve the study

objectives, a questionnaire survey was carried out to collect the relevant information. Thequestionnaires were divided into two main types based on the targeted population i.e., thedeveloper, consultants and contractors. One type of questionnaires was developed for collectingdata from the developers and the other type was for collecting data from the consultants and thecontractors who were involved in the school building projects under the Programme forRebuilding and Improving Existing Schools (PRIME).

The questionnaire survey was restricted to the professionals who were involved in the school building projects under PRIME. The selection process for the respondents was carried out usingthe following parameters:

a. Restricted to the school building projects carried out under PRIME in Singapore. b. Restricted to professionals from the developers‘ side who were involved in school building projects under PRIME in Singapore.

c. Restricted to professionals i.e., project architects, senior architects, principal architects anddirectors, from the consultants‘ side who were involved in school building projects underPRIME in Singapore.

d. Restricted to professionals i.e., project managers, construction managers, senior projectmanagers and directors, from the contractors‘ side who were involved in school building projects under PRIME in Singapore.

The survey packages i.e., the final questionnaire along with a covering letter stating the main

objectives of the questionnaire, and a self addressed and stamped envelope, were prepared. Thesurvey packages were sent to the 178 professionals. They included 35 developers, 82 consultantsand 61 contractors who carried out the school projects under PRIME. Of the 178 professionals,98 professionals responded to the survey. 29 (82.86%), 36 (43.90%), and 33 (54.10%) responseswere received from developers, consultants and contractors respectively.

After checking though the completed questionnaires, 92 questionnaires were found to besuitable for data analysis. This yielded a response rate of about 51.69%. The respondents



12

included 28 developers, 33 consultants and 31 contractors. Table 1 shows the details of theresponses.

Table 1 Survey response rates

RespondentsQuestionnaires

sent

Responses

received

PercentageValid

responses

Percentage

Developers 35 29 82.86% 28 80.00%

Consultants 82 36 43.90% 33 40.24%

Contractors 61 33 54.10% 31 50.82%

Total 178 98 55.06% 92 51.69%

Major causes of changes

The major causes of changes in school building projects were categorized into the mostimportant ones as shown in Table 2. The results suggested that the errors and omissions indesign, change in specifications by owner, unforeseen problems, change of plans or scope by

owner, and design discrepancies were considered to be the most important causes of changeorders for school building projects in Singapore. It was revealed that of the top five mostimportant causes of changes, four causes were from both owner related changes and theconsultant related changes groups.

Table 2 Most important causes of changes in school building projects

S No.

Causes MeanStd.Dev.

Rank

10 Errors and omissions in design 3.53 1.14 1

8 Change in specifications by owner 3.49 1.19 2

53 Unforeseen problems 3.41 1.07 3

1 Change of plans or scope by owner 3.40 1.12 4

25Design discrepancies (InadequateDesign)

3.36 1.21 5

Additional causes of changes in school building projects

The respondents were also asked to add other causes considered to be important to their type ofwork that were not included in the questionnaire. Other causes which the respondents reportedinclude readily available contingency sum, lack of coordination between end-user and thedesigner, and user‘s lack of judgment and experience (non-technical user), low profit margin forcontractors, unclear hierarchy of authorities for initiating changes, time constraint for design

process, and shop drawing preparation and approval.

Most Frequent Effects

The 16 potential effects of changes in school building projects were categorized into the mostfrequent ones as shown in Table 3. The results presented that project cost increase, progress isaffected but without any delay, additional payment for contractor, increase in overhead expenses



13

and rework and demolition were considered to be the most frequent effects of change orders forschool buildings in Singapore.

Table 3 Most frequent effects of change orders for school building projects

S No. Effects MeanStd.

Dev.

Rank

2 Increase in project cost 3.89 1.00 1

1Progress is affected but without anydelay

3.39 1.03 2

14 Additional payment for contractor 3.35 1.10 3

4 Increase in overhead expenses 3.29 1.36 4

9 Rework and demolition 3.26 1.18 5

Most Effective Controls

The controls for change orders were also categorized according to their effectiveness as shown in

Table 4. The top five most effective controls were owner‘s involvement at the planning anddesign phases, clear and thorough project brief, thorough detailings of design, continuouscoordination and direct communication, and team effort by owner, consultant and contractor tocontrol change orders. The results indicated that the design stage and design and constructioninterface stages were considered as the most potential phases for implementing controls forminimizing the adverse impact of changes in school building projects.

As shown in Table 4, the top five most effective controls were revealed based on theresponses from all the professional respondents. Interestingly, all these controls were related tothe design stage and the design-and-construction interface stage, which clearly identified the potential project phases for implementing controls for reducing changes.

Table 4 Most effective controls for changes in school building projects

S No. Controls MeanStd.Dev.

Rank

5Owner‘s involvement at planning and design phases

4.29 0.86 1

8 Clear and thorough project brief 4.20 0.76 2

7 Thorough detailings of design 4.17 0.75 3

25Continuous coordination and directcommunication

4.13 0.70 4

23

Team effort by owner, consultant and contractor

to control change orders 4.09 0.82 5

8.0 Analysis Of Data From Source Documents

This section presents the analysis of the data collected from source documents of school building projects completed. The source documents included the contract documents, change ordersdocuments, contract drawings and as-built drawings. The information collected from the sourcedocuments was pertinent to the school projects and changes in projects, specifically, project



14

profile information (e.g. name of the project, project type, work scope, programme, contractduration, date of commencement, date of completion, and contingency sum) and project changesinformation (change description, reason for originating change, type of change, and approvingauthority).

The profile of the projects investigated in this study is given in Table 5. The 79 school projects were constructed between July 1999 and December 2003 (Note: the 79 schools includedonly primary and secondary schools. One junior college project was not included for analysis).There were two types of school projects, namely, primary school and secondary school. Primaryschools were built for children between 6 and 12 years of age. Secondary schools were forstudents between 13 and 16 years of age. Both these school project types possessed similarfacilities, but the covered area for primary schools was 17,500m 2 and for secondary schools was21,500m2. As shown in Table 5, of the 79 school projects investigated, 43% were new building projects and 56.96% were upgrading projects. 73.52% of the new building projects were primaryschools and 26.47% were secondary schools. 93.33% of the upgrading projects were primaryschools and 6.66% were secondary schools.

Table 5 Statistics of the school projects investigated from source documents

S/No.Projecttypes

Coveredarea

Workscope

No. of projects

Program phases

Total projects

Grandtotal

P1 P2 P3

1Primaryschools

17,500m2 Upgrading 42 24 16 267

79 New 25 23 2 0

2Secondaryschools

21,500m2 Upgrading 3 2 1 012

New 9 7 2 0

70.88% of the 79 school projects were completed during phase 1 (P1), 26.58% were

completed in phase 2 (P2) and only 2.53% were built during phase 3 (P3) of the PRIME. As amajority of the projects were completed during the initial phases of the programme, largenumbers of changes were expected. This was because during the initial phases of the programme,the user requirements and specifications were not well defined.

The average number of change orders for the new school projects was 61.11, and 73.82 forthe upgrading school projects. Average number of changes in the new school projects was 70.58,and 91.46 for the upgrading school projects. Thus, changes were more evident in upgrading projects than in new projects (Arain and Low, 2005d).

The analysis also highlighted that new projects tended to have less frequent changes because

the architects started with a clean slate unlike those in upgrading projects (Arain and Low,2005d).

To examine the nature of changes in school building projects and to identify the potentialareas on which to focus to reduce changes, the number of changes related to four majorcategories of work types in both upgrading and new school projects were computed andtabulated as shown in Table 6.



15

The results indicated that the highest number of changes for both types of projects related tothe architectural works, the second highest number to the mechanical and electrical works, and asignificant numbers of changes were related to civil and structural works.

As mentioned above, the total number of changes in the upgrading school projects was

almost double the number of changes that occurred in new school projects. The average numberof changes in upgrading school projects was almost 21% more than in new school projects. Thisoccurred because of the constraint posed by an existing structure leading to discrepancies between the as-built drawings and the real situation on the ground.

The total number of change orders, changes and omissions in both upgrading and new school projects were computed and shown in Table 7.

Table 6 Statistics of changes in school building projects from source documents

Table 7 Statistics of change orders, changes and omissions in all school building projects fromsource documents

S/No.School project

type

T o t a l n u m b e r o f

p r o j e c t s

T o t a l n u m b e r o f

c h a n g e o r d e r s

T o t a l c h a n g e s

T o t a l n o . o f

c h a n g e s

( A r c h i t e c t u r a l )

T o t a l n o . o f

c h a n g e s ( C i v i l &

S t r u c t u r e )

T o t a l n o . o f

c h a n g e s

( M e c h a n i c a l &

E l e c t r i c a l )

T o t a l n o . o f

c h a n g e s

( S e r v i c e s )

T o t a l n o . o f

c h a n g e s ( A r c h . &

C & S )

T o t a l n o . o f

c h a n g e s ( A r c h . &

M & E )

1 NewProjects

34 2078 2400 1567 284 489 18 11 31

2UpgradingProjects

45 3322 4116 2437 484 1037 76 19 63

S/No Group nameTotal number ofchange orders

Total changes Total omissions

1 Owner related changes (ORV)2129 2553 172

39.42% 39.18% 49.71%

2 Consultant related changes (CRV)2945 3590 141

54.53% 55.09% 40.75%

3Contractor related changes(CTRV)

178 208 28

3.29% 3.19% 8.09%

4 Other changes (OV)42 51 5

0.78% 0.78% 1.44%

5 Combination of causes (CC)106 114 0

1.96% 1.75% 0



16

The results indicated that of the 5,400 change orders for school projects, 39.42% were relatedto the ORV group, while a majority (54.53%) of change orders was from the CRV group. Only3.29% were related to the CTRV group. Very few change orders were from the OV and CCgroups. Of the 6,516 changes that occurred in both new and upgrading school projects, 39.18%were related to the ORV group, and 55.09% of the changes were from the CRV group. The

changes related to the CTRV group were only 3.19%. Very few changes were related to the OVand CC groups as shown in Table 7. Of the 346 omissions that occurred in both types of school projects, 49.71% were from the ORV group and 40.75% were from the CRV group. Omissionsrelated to the CTRV and OV groups were 8.09% and 1.44% respectively. It was also revealedthrough in-depth interviews with the professionals that the omissions were mainly carried out forreducing the project costs and not exceeding the contingency sum allocated for the project(Arain, 2005b). The results suggested that the more number of changes encountered during the projects were also due to the timing of the project implementation, as a majority of the projectswere carried out during the early phases of the PRIME in Singapore. As discussed earlier, theobjectives and specifications provided by the developers were not fully developed during theearly phases of the programme. The time allocated for design development was not sufficient

and the specifications and requirements were frequently revised by the developers, thus leadingto numerous changes during the construction phase of the projects (Arain and Low, 2005a). As amajority of the school projects were completed during the initial phases of the PRIME, largenumbers of changes were expected. The overall analysis suggests that the highest number ofchange orders, changes and omissions that occurred in the upgrading and new projects werecontributed from the ORV and CRV groups as shown in Table 7. Hence, both these groups werefurther analyzed to determine the most important root causes of changes in both new andupgrading school projects.

Of the 28 causes of changes, 8 causes were related to the ORV group and 20 were related tothe CRV group as shown earlier in Figure 2. The results indicated that a majority of the frequentroot causes were related to the CRV group. Nonetheless, the numbers of causes were not exactlythe same for each group. Furthermore, the causes of change orders were extracted andcategorized into the most important ones as shown in Table 8.

Table 8 Most important root causes of changes in school building projects from sourcedocuments

S No. Causes Group TVO TV TO

1 Change of plans or scope by owner ORV 984 1184 97

2 Change in specifications by owner ORV 950 1145 65

3 Noncompliance design with govt. regulations CRV 754 940 14

4 Design discrepancies (Inadequate Design) CRV 580 697 1

5 Change in design by consultant CRV 476 563 386 Errors and omissions in design CRV 384 451 8

7 Change in specifications by consultant CRV 296 363 34

8 Inadequate scope of work for contractor CRV 137 187 0

9 Inadequate project objectives ORV 140 167 8

10 Consultant‘s lack of judgment and experience CRV 94 115 22

(Note: TVO= Total change orders, TV= Total changes, TO= Total omissions)



17

As shown in Table 8, the results of these two groups revealed that change of plans or scope by owner, change in specifications by owner, and inadequate project objectives from the ORVgroup and noncompliance design with government regulations, design discrepancies, change indesign by consultant, errors and omissions in design, change in specifications by consultant,inadequate scope of work for contractor, and consultant‘s lack of judgment and experience from

the CRV group were considered as the most important and common root causes of changes inschool building projects (Arain, 2005b). Furthermore, the results concurred with the results ofthe questionnaire survey, as the most important causes of changes that were revealed earlier werealso considered as the most important causes of changes in this analysis as shown in Table 8.

The analysis results suggested that the professionals should concentrate more on defining thescope of project, allocating sufficient time for design development and improving designdetailings and compliance with government regulations that would assist in reducing changesrelated to the ORV and CRV groups. Furthermore, as discussed earlier, a majority of the mostimportant root causes of changes were related to the CRV group as shown in Table 8. Hence, it ishighly recommended that changes can be reduced with due diligence during the design stages.

Figure 5 presents the most frequent effects and effective controls for the most importantcauses of changes that were identified earlier. This would benefit the professionals involved withschool projects. The professionals would learn about the root causes of change orders and theirdownstream effects that would assist in the proactive evaluation of change orders.



18

1) Errors and omissions in

design

Increase in project

costs


without any delay

Increase in overhead

expenses

Delay in payment

Additional payment for

contractor


2) Change in specifications

by owner

3) Unforeseen problems 4) Change of plans or

scope by owner

5) Design discrepancies

(inadequate design)

M O S T F R E Q U E N T E F F E C T S


without any delay

Increase in project

costs


ex enses

Delay in payment


Additional payment for

contractor

Thorough detailing of design

Clear and thorough project

brief

Team effort by owner,

consultant and contractor to

control variation orders

Owner involvement at

planning and design process

Knowledge-base of previous

similar projects

M O S T E F F E C T I V E C O N T R O L S




brief




similar projects




Clear and thorough

project brief

Avoid the use of open

tenderin

Comprehensive analysis and

prompt decision making through

computerized knowledge-based

decision su ort s stem

Restricted pre-qualification

s stem for awardin roects

Owner’s involvement

during construction phase


Freezing design (i.e., no

changes after final design)



brief




Involvement of contractor at

planning and scheduling process




similar projects


Prompt approval

rocedures



brief




Involvement of professionals

at initial stages of project




similar projects M O S T E F F E C T I V E C O N T R O L S

Completion schedule

delay

Increase in project

costs


expenses

Delay in payment


M O S T F R E Q U E N T E F F E C T

S


without any delay

Increase in project

costs


expenses

Delay in payment




without any delay

Increase in project

costs


expenses

Delay in payment




Figure 5 Most important causes, their frequent effects and effective controls for change order for school building projects



19

9.0 Conclusion

In construction project management, the issue of changes has long been acknowledged as amajor contributor to conflict and disputes (CII, 1994a; Sutrisna, et al., 2003; Arain, et al., 2004;Arain and Low, 2005a). One of the most common reasons for conflicts and disputes were bad

management decisions due to lack of decision support (Arain and Low, 2005b). Changes areinevitable in construction projects. However, timely management decisions may assist inreducing the adverse impact of changes to building projects.

This study presented an extensive investigation of issues related to change management.Initially the study concentrated on the causes, their effects and controls for changes in building projects. In-depth and rigorous analyses were carried out for identifying the root causes ofchanges, their effects and controls. Overall analyses indicated that the majority of changes wererelated to the design stages of building projects. This eventually pointed toward the consultantsfor major contributions to changes in projects. Nevertheless, the in-depth analyses also presentedsome very interesting and realistic issues pertinent to the building projects and their timing of

implementations. It was revealed that the nature and frequency of occurrence of changes variedfrom one project to another.

The major findings of the study include:

1. The study identified, through survey analyses and in-depth interviews with the professionalswho were involved with school building projects under the PRIME, the most importantcauses, effects and controls for changes in school building projects. Errors and omissions indesign, change in specifications by owner, unforeseen problems, change of plans or scope byowner, and design discrepancies were considered to be the most important causes of changeorders for school building projects in Singapore. Furthermore, it was also revealed that of thetop five most important causes of changes, four causes were from both owner related changesand the consultant related changes groups. This showed that the owner and the consultant hadalmost equal contributions to initiate changes in building projects.

2. The study also revealed that project cost increase, progress is affected but without any delay,additional payment for contractor, increase in overhead expenses and rework and demolitionwere considered to be the most frequent effects of change orders for school buildings inSingapore. Interestingly, most of these effects were experienced by the contractors anddevelopers. However, the root causes of the most frequent effects were mostly consultantrelated causes.

3. Furthermore, the in-depth analysis revealed that the top five most effective controls were

owner‘s involvement at the planning and design phase, clear and thorough project brief,thorough detailings of design, continuous coordination and direct communication, and teameffort by owner, consultant and contractor to control change orders. It was clearly identifiedthat the design stage and design and construction interface stages were considered as themost potential phases for implementing controls for minimizing the adverse impact ofchanges. The study suggested that the owner and the consultant should provide carefulconsiderations for implementing controls for reducing changes in building projects.



20

4. The study confirmed that the nature and frequency of occurrence of changes varied from onetype of project to another; for instance, the nature and frequency of occurrence of changesvaried in upgrading and new school building projects. This hypothesis was proven throughin-depth analysis of the information collected from the source documents of school building projects completed under the PRIME.

5. To complement the survey findings, the study presented the in-depth analysis of theinformation collected from source documents of the school building projects. Interestingly, itwas confirmed that the majority of changes were related to the owner related changes andconsultant related changes groups. As mentioned above about the most important causes,change of plans or scope by owner, and change in specifications by owner from the ownerrelated changes group and noncompliance design with government regulations, designdiscrepancies, change in design by consultant, and errors and omissions in design from theconsultant related changes group were again ranked as the most important and common rootcauses of changes in school building projects.

The most important recommendations based on the findings of the interview sessions withthe professionals were the allocation of sufficient time for design activities, team efforts byowner, consultant and contractor for effective management of building projects, utilization ofother graphical means for making the user understand the design details of the building projects,and thorough detailings of design, for effective management of changes in building projects.Furthermore, the study also revealed additional causes, effects and controls that were suggested by the professionals.

Learning from the changes is imperative because the professionals can improve and applytheir experience in the future. In cases where professionals left the organization, the projectexperience would remain within the individual professionals. Therefore, a comprehensive systemfor consolidating decisions made on past similar projects was highly recommended. In theabsence of an established and organized knowledge-base of past similar projects, the professional teams would face problems in planning effectively before starting a project, duringthe design phase as well as during the construction phase to minimize and control changes andtheir effects.

Acknowledgements

This study would not have been possible without the kind assistance of Dr Faisal Manzoor Arainas well as collaborators from the Project Development and Management Branch, Ministry ofEducation, Singapore. Their inputs and contributions are gratefully acknowledged. Financialsupport for this research project came from the Academic Research Fund (R-296-000-078-112).

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24

Smart Programme for Smart Students

Malaysian Smart School (MSC)

N. I shak 1 , N.S. Spalie

Phd (W. Michigan)1

Director Permata Pintar-Smart School Education and Important of LearningEnvironment


1.0 Introduction

The Smart School educational program was one of the seven flagships of the MSC Malaysialaunched by former Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad in 1997. Earlier in 1996, theMinistry of Education began to develop the blueprint for ―Smart Schools‖ concept with the aimto transform the Malaysian education system via ICT mediation.

―Smart School‖ can be defined as a learning institution that has been systematicallyreinvented in terms of teaching and learning; and improvement of the school management processes to help students cope and build leverage on the Information Age (The Smart SchoolRoad Map 2005-2020). The Smart School applications convey the benefit of technology to theeducators and administrators. These also allow the young to get familiar with the ICT world – using tools such as personal computers, scanners, printers, multimedia products, TV/videos, etc. – at a much earlier stage in life. They get to appreciate the power of the Internet and multimediaapplications, which can make learning more attractive, self-directed, collaborative, individually- paced, continuous, reflective and enriching. These collectively enable them becoming moretechnology savvy in educational pursuits. Educational materials not only limited to printed books, but also include electronic books, multimedia software, courseware catalogues and

databases (Umat, 2000).

In line with the launch of the seven MSC flagship applications, the smart school initiative began with 88 schools selected for the programme. The 88 Smart Schools were initiallyidentified to be the incubator and nucleus for Smart School concepts, materials, skills, andtechnologies developed by the MoE. These schools were integrated with InformationCommunication Technology (ICT), which exposed students, teachers, administrators and parentsto IT in every aspect of education at the administrative and classroom levels. Informationtechnology is to be used in every aspect of teaching-learning in smart school (CurriculumDevelopment Center, 2002). This was to help students to develop self-learning skills in order to prepare themselves for success beyond primary school. They were aimed to be self-direct, self-

access, and self-pace in learning. An assessment of the program such as the Impact Study (2005)indicated that the infrastructure set up by the MoE, including the provision of computers,applications and ICT coordinator to the various schools, were in need to be optimally managedand used.

Several studies have been conducted on the impact of the Smart School programme. Thiswas fundamentally essential to systematically shift the education system from rote learning andexamination-oriented culture to a thinking and creative knowledge culture (Foong-Mae, 2002).



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Foong-Mae also noted that the idea planned by Ministry of Education was a move toward morecritical and creative teaching and learning culture. There has been an increase in varioustechnology-enablers in the school classrooms such as individual desktop personal computers,multimedia computer laboratories, video conferencing systems and high-speed Internetconnections. The finding of several studies indicated that the technology could motivate students

in learning. Furthermore, computers have become the most sought- after electronic devices in both homes and schools (Ng & Gunstone, 2002, Nugent, Soh, & Samal, 2006; Shyu, 2000).Other researches acknowledged that self-regulated learning became one of the most essentialskills that students should possess, particularly in this information age (Chen, 2002; Veenman,Beems, Gerrits & Weegh, 1999; Schraw, 1998; Henderson, 1986; Wang & Peverly, 1986).Efficient learners were found to have the skills to design and control their own learning processes and were able to evaluate and reflect on the entire process. They were self regulatedlearners, learners who Meta cognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally manage and promotetheir own academic learning (Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989). Owing to the tremendous explosionof information, it was no longer adequate to continually utilize knowledge acquired in a limitedtime compared to with the help of others for a long time (Hoe, 2003). Students must become

self-regulated learners for in the future they have to proactively and assertively thrive in aninformation-rich and technology-driven society (Lapan, 2002).

One of recent major developments of Smart Schools was in 2007, whereby a broad targetwas set to transform 47 out of 88 smart schools into five star smart schools. As of the year 2008,however only 32 schools achieved above 75% target 5 star rating in ICT.(www.msc.com.my/smartschool/whatis/rating/full_rating.pdf )

Thus it can be seen that the conceptual aim of the smart schools is to shift the paradigmof teaching-learning to enable optimal fulfillment of students` needs; capabilities and individualdevelopment. The main component of the Smart School is thus its teaching-learning processeswhich can be regarded as the "heart" of the Smart School. These processes are enhanced throughthe utility of ICT and judicious integration of curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, and teaching-learning materials. It is mode of learning reinvented in order to enable students to be more self-directing, efficient, and competent in gaining knowledge. The ICT mediated learning also shiftsthe focus from teacher-centred teaching to student-centred learning.

The ICT used in every aspect of teaching-learning enable students to practice self-accessed and self-directed learning at their own learning pace. The facility for virtual componentof the curriculum as in online learning creates new environment for use and organization ofspace in classroom, daily schedule and routines, and the social and emotional atmosphere. Theintegration of classroom and online learning environment could richly meet children‘sdevelopmental needs. Thus, it makes all children, including those with special needs feel secureand comfortable with their learning pace. Complementary online learning helps overcome someof the learning processes hampered by classroom constraints. As a result, ICT- mediated learningaids them to become independent and confident learners.

Other vital components of the Smart School are its management and administrationwhich represent the drivers or the "brain" of their operation. Smart School principals andheadmasters must be efficient and effective in organizing the resources and processes of

http://www.msc.com.my/smartschool/whatis/rating/full_rating.pdf






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teaching-learning through competent management of the ICT infrastructure. They also must becompetent in optimizing their human resources; manage relationship with the Smart Schoolstakeholders such as parents, community and the private sector. The principals and headmastersmust play dynamic roles in improving the performance of the school, in addition to maintaining professional growth relating to school organization and various aspects of the Smart School.

Thus the principals and headmasters are not only administrators with the requiredknowledge on their schools` ICT-driven system, but also must be effective manager of teaching-learning and communication with external constituencies. Broadly their duties call successful forimplementation of the Smart School through their adaptiveness to changes in Smart School policies and regulations.

2.0 PERMATA Pintar Programme

About 5% of children population in Malaysia is considered gifted and talented. ‗Gifted‘ refers tonatural abilities and ‗talented‘ to the high abilities that develop through the nurturing of natural

abilities. Parents with gifted and talented children are facing problems to raise them properly.Raising a gifted and talented child is challenging, as they do things differently compared to otherchildren of their age. This may have caused some misconception which may result in thesechildren being ignored and humiliated. Gifted child often suppressed their extraordinary abilitiesin order for him or her to be accepted in normal children peer group. Malaysia will lose thesegreat human capital assets if the adverse situation continues. A special programme to actualisethe full potential of the gifted and talented children should therefore be considered by theauthority.

Datin Seri Rosmah Mansor, the wife of the Prime Minister, who was acutely aware of the problem and its implications, had the `Permata Pintar` Programme for the gifted and talentedchildren launched in March 2009. The purpose of Permata Pintar Programme is to nurture thetalents of children with one or more abilities who have a level of intellectual ability andcreativity ahead of their year or above biological age. The objectives of this programme are tofurther develop students‘ existing capacity of talents, abilities and skills; actualize students‘ potential holistically, and inculcate the value of lifelong learning. The abilities and creativityinclude abilities in sports, music, design, performing arts, make decision and leadership skills.See (http://www.permatapintar.com.my).

The programme is focused on meaningful learning processes inspired by the NationalPhilosophy of Education. It emphasizes on the development of the potential of individuals in aholistic and integrated manner. The programme concentrates on activities that aims to produce anindividual who is intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced andharmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God.

The Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia proposed a three-component programme namelythe pilot PERMATApintar National School Holidays Camp 2010; Upper Secondary SchoolPERMATApintar Programme; and ASASIpintar Programme to provide the extra educationalsupport for the gifted and talented children. Upon approval by Prime Minister Department, UKM began construction of Pusat PERMATApintar Negara, in January 2010; and initiated the search

http://www.permatapintar.com.my/






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for the gifted and talented children through a process of screening using three online tests – seewww.permatapintar.com.my. Qualified students underwent a two-level three-week programmeconducted during school holiday (November-December). The programme camps were designedfor the students to meaningfully interact with each other. They were put to pace in challengingoutdoor games with the intention of developing their leadership skills. On top of that, they were

also challenged in Mathematics, Science and creative writing.

With the end of PERMATApintar National School Holidays Camp 2010, the programmeshall be continued with the Upper Secondary School PERMATApintar Programme in the middleof January 2011. The first intake shall begin in 17 January 2011 with 139 16-year old students.They have gone through the three screening tests i.e PERMATApintar UKM1 Test,PERMATApintar UKM2 Test dan Mathematics and Sciences Competent Test in camp programme in November 2010.

The students shall undergo the two-level programme in two years‘ time. The programmeto be conducted is similar to the boarding school mode with full autonomy under UKM. The

programme will emphasize on differentiated learning whereby the students shall learn accordingto their level of achievement. The students shall be exposed to Higher Thinking Order (HOT) todevelop creative, critical and innovative thinking in their studies. The instructions are to bestudent-centred in tandem with other methods including cooperative and collaborative learning,lecture, group discussion, laboratory-based and field study, research project with UKMresearchers, writing research report, folio-keeping, exchange students, problem-based learning(PBL) and activities to develop self-identity.

The third programme is the ASASIpintar, a one year programme to complete the trilogyof Pusat PERMATApintar Negara programmes. The programme is to start in June 2011, with anintake of 250 students sponsored by Public Services Department (JPA). The programme will

focus on Sciences, Technology and Mathematics. After completing the courses in ASASIpintar,the students later will be admitted to the various UKM faculties.

3.0 Conclusion

The children are tomorrow‘s leaders, scientists, managers, directors, musicians and artists; their potential is national asset we cannot waste. Malaysian government has take action to ensure thatthese national assets are identified and developed. The Smart School programme andPERMATApintar programme are the programme implemented by government to serve as a public advocate for the needs of genius, gifted and talented children. The Smart School programwill be remodelled and its implementation fast tracked to enable more schools to benefit in

enhancing ICT utilization in schools, advance teaching and learning materials. The practicedeveloped through the Smart School program will be utilised for excellent practice in teachingand learning. In addition, the Smart School Management System will be used as a model toimprove administration processes in other school. The PERMATApintar programme will beassisting by all possible means children with outstanding gifts and talents to fulfil their potential.The programme also gives support to parents, teachers and others professionally concerned withthe development of gifted and talented children. Hopefully, these programmes will provideopportunities for parents of gifted children to meet, share and discuss their problems and to






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consult specialists on education and other matters related to gifted and talented children.Furthermore, the programmes are expected to support the organisations to nourish the educationof gifted children.

4.0 Reference

Chen, C. S. (2002). Self-regulated learning strategies and achievement in anintroduction toinformation systems course. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal,20 (1), 11-25.

Curriculum Development Center. (2002). Smart schools approaches. Retrieved November 3,2002 from http://[email protected]//

Hoe, H. (2003).Theoretical understanding for structuring the classroom as selfregulatedlearningenvironment.RetrievedJanuary4,2003

Lapan, R. T., Kardash, C. A., & Turner, S. (2002). Empowering students to become self-regulated learners. Professional School Counseling, 5 (4), 257-266.

Ng, W. & Gunstone, R. (2002). Students' perceptions of the effectiveness of the World Wide

Web as a research and teaching tool in science learning. Research in Science Education, 32,489-510. Nugent, G., Soh, L., & Samal, A. (2006). Design, development, and validation of learning

ohjecxs. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 34(3), 271 — 281Shyu, H. Y. (2000). Using video-based anchored instruction to enhance learning: Taiwan's

experience. British Journal of Educational Technology, 3/(1), 57-69.Schunk, D.H., & Zimmerman, B.J. (Eds.) (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance:

Issues and educational implications. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.Umat J. (2000) Web-Based Dissemination and Utilization of Learning Resources: TiGERWeb

project. Paper presented at the Asia and Pacific Seminar/Workshop on EducationalTechnology, Tokyo, Japan, September.

Zimmerman, B. 1. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal

of EducationalPsychology,81(3),329-339.Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds.). (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic

achievement: Theory, research and practice. New York: Springer-Verlag.Wang, M.C., Peverly, S.T., & Randolph, R.F. (1984). An investigation of the implementation and effects

of a full-time mainstreaming program. Journal of Special and Remedial Education, 5, 21-32.

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Designing for School: Guidelines and Safety Considerations

In Design Development Stages

R.Rahman 1 Faculty of Design and Architecture,

Universiti Putera Malaysia

Abstract

School is very important institution to many countries in the world. It is a place where most of the peopleget their first formal education, as well as to get to know the outside world, after their home and parents.Many studies have been done on how to improve campuses of higher learning institutions but little studyhave been done focussing on specific school, especially in developing a novel products contributing tosafety and better environment. The main aim of this research is to identify critical areas and equipmentsin school, which can be potential for designers in proposing new product development. This paper willdescribe case studies conducted at two primary schools in West Surrey, United Kingdom, whichidentified critical areas equipments in schools. Findings from this research have been generated into a

guideline, which could assist and can be beneficial to designers and product planners who‘s interested inimproving products in schools.

Keyword : School Environment, Product Design, Safety.

1.0 Introduction

A learning institution especially primary school has been the most important place to shape a student perception and mind at an early age. As young as 4 years old, children will spend a quarter of their lifetime in school itself. From the hypothesis above, it is understood that the environment including facilities,equipments and educational products must be developed and designed and well kept to give some senseof safe learning environment for those who study, visit and work. A place where people can experience

something that can stimulate a sensational feeling to think and later to remain in their cognitive mindset.

Education Aim in the United Kingdom has stated that there are certain important elements thatneed to be considered during the development of any school or learning institution for student. Theseincludes to contribute towards the spiritual, mental, moral and physical development of the community;and to provide education, materials and environment suitable to the requirement of junior or senior pupils(UK Education Act 1994).

Many studies has also emphasized that environmental factors play important element contributingto child development, emotionally and physically (Senda et al. 1992, Graves 1993, Handy et al. 1998). Inconsequence, Provence et al. (1977, p.83) has mentioned that a child acting upon his environment is oneof the processes through which physical, intellectual, and psycho-social development occurred. In further,

they stressed that the significance of the activity in the development of motor competence, react as theactive repetition of the passive experience one could gained in school environment. These emphasizedthat a child environment including things or products they observed or experienced would have an impacton their development and abilities in total. In similar, Marcus (1990, p.216) claimed that a well designedand organised of space and equipments were found not only to support cooperation and productive asopposed to disruptive behaviour, but also can motivate to reduce disciplines problems and preventvandalism in their learning environment.



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From these reviews, it is understood that good surrounding which includes everything childrenexperienced have the ability to contribute to develop a positive behaviour among the children. Indirectly,any products or facilities children experienced gives impact to their manners or attitudes in the future.However, there are also a growing number of accidents involving with equipments within schoolenvironment (especially play ground equipments) in the United Kingdom. Small scale studies in UnitedKingdom and abroad suggested 150,000 accidents in schools requiring medical treatment yearly. Figures

from the Department of Trade and Industry UK indicated that there are 40,000 accident cases resulted in ahospital visit annually.

Fig. 1 – Accidents type and Percentage

Falls to Surface 58%

Falls and Hit same equipment 14%

Falls struck with other equipment 2%

Impact with moving equipment 13.1%

Impact with stationary equipment 5.4%

Contact with protrusions, pinch points, sharp edges and sharp points 6.9%

Total 100%

(Sources: National Safe kids campaign and ROSPA.gov.uk)

In relation to these, many studies have been also been done to analysed products and safety inschools, which has been conducted by UK Royal Society of Preventing Accidents(www.ROSPA.com). In current situation, not many designers have the opportunity and exposureto experience a ‗real world‘ situation. In many cases, designers are still predict ing the usersinteractions with products based on their previous knowledge and experience.

Popovic (1999) argues that in most product development processes, designers still finddifficulties in predicting theories about users‘ needs with products they used and according toJones (1992) designers should take part and engage more in the social life of the users by

experiencing users‘ lifestyles. Norman (1988) points that there are numbers of cases of productsthat were produced without proper research into users needs and limitations which have led to problems involving users‘ interactions with products. In relation to that, this research adopted a‗practice-led design research‘ method which allowed designer to employed their design skillsand thinking together into their social engagement with the stakeholders. In this work, designerare being expose and experience the real situation in school and also taking part in socialengagement with the stakeholders (especially children, teachers and parents). This enabled themto observe the environment, before any final design decision or proposal can take place.

Hopefully, results from this work and designer experience conducting social research can be beneficially to other designers or product planners interested in designing or developing products

in schools.

2.0 Selecting the Samplings

In general, each school have different needs and facilities. Considering all the children in the schools arethe end users, the study are designed to captured different perspectives and inspirations from thestakeholders using designs assisting to provide new ideas for the designers.



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In order to arrange the placements needed to conduct a primary research, suitable primary schoolshave been identified, the head teachers contacted and appointments are being made. The selections ofchildren involved as samplings have also need to be approved by their guardians and parents.Requirements and procedures are discussed and permissions obtained from local authorities before thefield work.

The two selected schools were Manorcroft Primary School in Egham and St.Judes PrimarySchool in Bagshot. The rationale of choosing these two institutions is due to their size and areasdifferences. Although each of this school adapt similar system to manage safety and to control thechildren during school‘s hours similar, the equipments and their environment are basically not the same.This is an advantage for the researcher to observed different equipments and environment and also toanalyse different needs from the stakeholders.

3.0 Research Framework

Designing and doing research formed the main components of the methodology for this investigation. Ingeneral, methods and techniques of integrating design into the research process or designing researchhave commonly generated a great debate amongst the academic community and design thinkers

(Glanville 1999, Burdick 2003, Sanders 2006), however, in current design research situation, it has proven to become a useful and effective research tools among the design researchers (Bowen 2009,Marchand and Walker 2009, Evans 2009). Framework for this investigation is generally built up into two(2) main components, which are continuously interrelated and contributed to each other. The first (1) partfocussed more to an account of how equipments interact with stakeholders in school environment.

The second part will be focussing on the process of developing a specific design of equipments inschool, which can be used to analyse and evaluate the understanding that has been gained from stage 1.The social inquiry works (involved with stakeholders from schools) will directly inform the designdevelopment process of this research, which in return assisted in the continuous social inquiry works.

This research work introduced element from "practice-led" design research approach to provide

an arena for investigating how stakeholders respond to the concepts of migrating product designs andexplore techniques that designers might use to work in this area.

The design work will be a continuous process alongside the social inquiry and responding toinsights emerging from it. In turn, set of conceptual design developed in the practical design work beingused as provocative objects bridging users‘ needs and inspiration to products as the programme ofinterviews and group work (design workshop and discussions) proceeds. This conceptual design work hascontinued to be a continuous process alongside the social inquiry and responding to insights emergingfrom it. In turn, speculative conceptual design has been used as instrumental in this research as the programme of interviews proceeds.



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Fig. 2 - Research Work and Design Scheme

Both processes, designing and doing social inquiry is more likely to provide good resultsfor this investigation. Thus, in designing process, the output could only reflect to the possibilities but with no absolute guarantee, this design work is validated by the social inquiry work and itsoutput.(* the reasons for NOT showing the conceptual design work is because it is leading to the

refinement of final design proposal and it‘s in the process of Intellectual Property registration)

4.0 Analysis

The analysis process has been developed based on social science qualitative data analysis

techniques in generating themes, coding, together with reflective process that fed tacitly in to thedesigning activities, as well as informing explicit analysis. In practical, both, designing andanalytical action, are contributing to inform each other and assisted to progress the analysis process.



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5.0 Findings

Priority Areas

A large number of school society would assumed that a playground is the best place for children

to have fun, and adults pay less attention to their children at playground and less conscious on play safety aspects. Similar in school as most teachers and head teachers assumed that school play areas and its environment have little to do with teachers or teaching. However, from thisresearch, it is found that percentage of accidents happened at Manorcroft School indicated that84% of accidents happened in school are at the field and play areas, (Manorcroft AccidentsStatistic Report 2008), while another 16% of accidents happened at entrances and toilet‘s door inthe school. Similar results produced by St. Judes School as more than 80% of accidents in theirschool occurred at play areas and only 20% took place in the classrooms and entrances (St,JudesSchool accident statistic 2008).

Human Factors

There are many ergonomic factors involved in preparing to design any equipment for schoolenvironment. Ergonomic applies scientific information about human to product development. Inthis case, playground equipments should be designed for different age group and technicalspecifications including relevant dimensions and sizes should be consider during the final designstage. The designer needs to know the range of ‗acceptable‘ sizes and constructional dimensionsin order to fit with the users. The measurement of the designed equipments and material shouldoccupy with the Standard and Consumer Act proposed by the authority. Studies on human scalealso included specifically on child sizing and abilities must be made accordingly to match withthe size of product and design specifications.

Areas of Supervisions

Supervision is another major factor which could ensure a greater safe environment. Prevention ofaccidents in school could be done in various way but the aspect of ‗accessible‘ supervision areaswhich developed better consciousness could make a big impact to improve safety aspects inschool environment. Accidents could happen anywhere during playtime, however, strategiclocations and layout of playground design for supervisions can improve safety and createenhanced play environment.

Designs

Most playground structures all over the world are similar in most cases. Fear of liability and

customisation production cost have turned most of the school (or public) play equipments filledwith standardize metals, high density plastic and cheap rubber parts. Although, generally usefuland enjoyable, these type of play areas seems lack of personality and creativity that comes withsite specific design. However, there are some schools and parks around the world customisedtheir equipments and environment. Such playgrounds and equipments are often whimsical andinspiring in many ways. Although the children have not much to say in words, but ideas andthoughts reflect much in their response at design concepts shown to them. Several ideas have been discovered from stakeholders during the interview and focus groups session which



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contributed to influence the conceptual designs and leading to proposed novel play equipmentsfor schools. Apart from being unique and different than others, the design of the play equipmentsin school also need to incorporated with safe, long last material, colour, low maintenance andfriendly to its environment.

6.0 Conclusion

It is almost impossible to create a 100% safe system or equipments for children to play in school.Any play experience has potentials for accidents to happen in school environment. Improving just the design and human factors aspects would not guarantee the existence of a safer playenvironment. Many other factors including policy, cost factors, materials, poor maintenance oreven supervision system have to be taken into consideration before even starting to re-design theexisting equipments in schools. Identifying possible critical areas or equipments and factors potentially led to accidents should be done collectively by experts before any design proposalscan take place. Design ideas projected from this research is just one example demonstrated howdesigner can play active role as an social investigator, to have better understanding on users and

environment before any design activities can be operated. Identifying key factors from socialengagement activities has enabled the designer to value users‘ needs in their design operationand product development, which can be valueable for other designers to work within this similararea of study.

References

Bowen, S. (2009). A Critical Artefact Methodology: Using provocative conceptual designs to foster human-centered innovation. PhD. Sheffield Hallam University, UK.

Burdick, A. (2003). Design (as) Research. In: Laurel B. (ed.). Design research: Methods and

Perspectives. MIT Press.Evans, M. (2009). Integrating practice within a PhD: A generic model for researcher-designer.

Malins J. (ed.). Proceedings of Eight International Conference of the European Academy of

Design, 1-3 April 2009. Gray‘s School of Art, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen,Scotland, 155-165.

Glanville R. (Summer 1999). Researching design and designing research. Design Issues, MITPress,15 (2), 80-91

Graves, School Ways, McGraw Hills. 1993.Handy, Charles, Aitken. 1998. Understanding Schools as organisations , Penguin.Jones, J.C. (1992). Design Methods. 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons Ltd.Marchand, A., Walker, S. (2009). Designing in Design Research: From solving problems to

exploring issues. In: Malins J. (ed.). Proceedings of Eight International Conference of the European Academy of Design, 1-3 April 2009. Gray's School of Art, Robert GordonUniversity, Aberdeen, Scotland, 300-303

Marcus, C., Francis. 1990. People Places, Van Nostrand Reinhold,Manorcroft School Accidents Report Book 2008 Norman Donald. (1988). The Design of Everyday Things. New York, DoubledayGraves. 1993. School Ways, McGraw Hills,



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Popovic. (1999). Product evaluation methods and their importance in designing interactiveartifacts. In: Green and Jordan (eds.). Human factors in product design. London, Taylor andFrancis, 26-35.

Provence. 1977. The Challenge of Day Care, Yale Univ Press.Sanders, E. (2006). Design research in 2006, DRS, 1.

Senda, Ben, Mitsuru. 1992. Designing of Children‘s Play Equipment, McGraw Hill.St. Judes School Accidents Report Book 2008.www.Britishstandard.co.ukwww. child accident prevention trust.co.ukwww. Department of Trade and Indsurty.gov.ukwww.nationalsafekidcampaign.comwww. Rospa.gov.ukwww. UK Education Act 1994

http://www.british/

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Conduciveness of School Environment Towards Learning With Total

Building Performance (TBP) through Integrated Design Process (IDP)

R.K.Khanna , H.B.Gang and L.S.PhengDepartment of Building, National University of Singapore

[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

In past decades, the concept of total building performance and its application to commercial andresidential buildings have invoked great interests among researchers in this field. The evaluation ofacademic institutions using this concept may further provide a platform to better understand critical issuesrelated to the learning environment in schools. In an attempt to understand the conduciveness of theclassroom environment towards learning, qualitative assessments are proposed in this paper to investigatethe performance of classrooms in schools. Performance is indicated by the measurement and evaluation ofsix Total Building Performance (TBP) mandates, namely thermal, spatial, visual, acoustic, indoor air

quality, and building integrity. The adoption and assessment using these six mandates may give rise tointeresting results with regards to the performance of classrooms. The paper also highlights theimportance of Integrated Design Process (IDP) in delivering total building performance with sustainableresults proposed by the design and building team members. The paper suggests that sustainability andconduciveness in the classroom and school environment can go hand in hand with TBP that isappropriately underpinned by IDP.

Keywords: Total building performance; Schools; Integrated design process, Evaluation

1.0 Introduction

In past decade there has been international emphasis on resource management, in particular

energy and economic resources leading to new requirements in addition to the previous demandsof health, safety, and welfare in a building. This over emphasis of a single building requirementhas in turn triggered a series of measurable building failure (1999). Building failures are owingto lack of trans-disciplinary coordination among each building performance mandate .Theimportance of understanding the total performance of a building in a holistic sense cannot bedenied . Furthermore, building evaluation is and should be a first priority so as to effectively predict future building performance.

The concept of total building performance and their evaluation has been expounded byresearchers over last decade (1999; Hartkopf V 1983, 1993). However, much of the focus has been on commercial buildings, in particular the issue of sick office buildings and intelligent

buildings rather than academic institutions (Atkin 1988; BC 1994; HM 1993; K. 1992; Shaw1990; WFE 1989; Wood 1989). In present scenario where emphasis is increasingly placed onacademic qualification, schools have become part and parcel of every person‘s life. This directsthe attention towards the conduciveness of classroom environment for learning. Total BuildingPerformance (TBP) is a framework that serves to understand the critical balance needed tosimultaneously ensure all building performance mandates (Wong 2003). The definition of themandates can be divided into two areas. First, there is the fundamental mandate for buildingenclosure integrity —protection of the building‘s visual, mechanical, and physical properties









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from environmental degradation. Second, there is the series of mandates relating to interioroccupancy requirements and the elemental parameters of comfort — thermal, acoustic, visual, airand spatial comfort — dependent on physiological, psychological, sociological and economicvalues. Such a concept when applied to academic institutions helps to facilitate the provision of ahealthy studying environment and facilities that are better customized to the needs of students

and teachers in new schools (Wong 2003).

Objectives of the study are:

a) Qualitatively understand the performance of classrooms towards a conducive environmentfor learning.

b) Further the study makes an attempt to use integration of design and project managementthrough IDP elaborating a proposed system that may be followed during a school design andconstruction till occupancy.

The study undertakes the following methodology:

a) Paper performs a literature review on the building performance and integration for a school.Developments in various countries such as Malaysia, US, UK etc have been studied tounderstand the suitability/conduciveness of physical environment in a school for learning.

b) Further, a review of Singapore guidelines on the standards and criteria for the planning ofschools is done elaborately.

c) IDP integrating the design parameters with project management is reviewed subjectively inthe paper as a proposed solution for achieving total building performance, sustainability andconduciveness in the learning environment.

2.0 Background

As a strategy to turn all the schools smart and further reduce the digital divide between theschools and improving access and equity to Information Communications and Technology (ICT),the Malaysian Government is leveraging and synergizing on the various ICT initiatives into oneeffort. In response to the same- computer laboratories, SchoolNet and EduWeb TV has beenintroduced in Malaysian schools. It has therefore become mandatory for the new facilities to beadequately integrated with the functioning of the school activities to provide the children with aconducive environment for learning. Rapidly ICT is becoming a mediator of learning in the multicomponents learning environments and is shown to support students and teachers in improvinglearning outcomes. In respect of providing an appropriate environment for the child to learn andgrow in school, an insight of child‘s physical environment becomes necessary to be investigated.Early Childhood Physical Environment Rating Scale (ECPERS) (Moore 1994) which has beensuccessfully tested in Australia, United Kingdom, and United States of America to assess thequality of the physical environment of pre-schools may be used to ascertain physicalenvironment aspects of pre-schools and classrooms.

Code 905 and Code 908 described in Table 1 below could be formulated as a survey toolto quantify the physical environment aspects of their pre-schools and classrooms, respectively.

Table 1: Code 905 and 908



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S.No. Code 905 : Ratings of the physicalenvironment of pre-schools

Code 908 : Ratings for the perception on the physical environment of classrooms

1 Availability of spatial exposure Exposure and definition level of the activities

2 Availability of spatial separation Visual non obstruction level

3 Availability of visual relationship Appropriateness of size of space for activitycentre

4 Availability of spatial wideness Appropriateness of size of space for storage

5 Availability of circulation zone Focus level of teaching and learning materials

6 Separation of teachers‘ working area Softness level of spatial surface

7 Availability of isolation/private space Level of spatial flexibility

8 Variety of seating space Variety level of seating/working areas

9 Appropriateness of the surfaces Quantity of teaching and learning resources

10 Outdoor/indoor visual connectivity Separation level of activity areas fromcirculation

11 Flexibility of the learning spaces

12 Appropriateness of the scale13 Appropriateness of the storage

14 Appropriateness of the children‘s‘ eye-level

15 Visibility of the entrance to the activitycentre

The findings of a pilot study (Ariffin & Ghazilla 2010) illustrated various integrationissues in terms of anthropometrics of students of primary school and furniture provided. It alsosuggested customization of furniture that can accommodate with the variability across age andgender.

Children Physical Environment Rating Scale (CPERS) dealt with 14 subscales. Thesesubscales could also be an effective measurement tool to understand child physical environmentwhich can lead to better design (Moore 2007). 14 subscales have been further categorized in 4 broad areas such as planning, building as a whole, Indoor activity spaces and outdoor spaces asmentioned in Table 2 below.

Table 2: 14 subscales of CPERS

Part A. Planning Center size and modules

Part B. Building as a whole Image and scaleCirculationCommon core of shared facilitiesIndoor environmental qualitySafety and security

Part C. Indoor activityspaces

Modified open-plan spaceHome bases



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Quiet activity areasPhysical activity areasMessy activity areas

Part D. Outdoor spaces Play yards: functional needs

Play yards: developmental needsLocation and site

As suggested, the above scale along with Code 905 and Code 908 can be used for avariety of purposes, including post-occupancy evaluation, research, policy guidance, and ashorthand design guide for new early childhood educational facilities or the modification ofexisting centers (Moore 2007).

Code 905 and Code 908 deal with physical environment aspects of pre-school andclassrooms. However the above mentioned CPERS (14 subscales) is very appropriately

categorized in planning, building as a whole, Indoor activity spaces and outdoor spaces. Strengthof these measurement tools is its ability to pinpoint faults in post-construction or post-occupancysituations.

The scale can be used as a powerful tool for the Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) ofearly childhood development and education centers. Such POEs could lead to programs or briefsfor minor design interventions or major renovations. CPERS, therefore, can be a supplementarytool proving much-needed information on the quality of a building and its various spaces andincluding outdoor play areas, all vis-à-vis child developmental and educational principles (Moore2007).

The CPERS scale, which explicitly includes a large number of descriptors of goodenvironmental design for children, can be used by architects as a type of thumbnail design guide.For example, if POEs were done on existing centers in an area using CPERS, and a summaryobtained, the relative positive and negative results would indicate some of the most importantdesign issues on which to focus in a newly designed center. However, even if a POE were notconducted, a parent group or the board of directors of a new center could use the scale to identifywhich physical environmental considerations they wanted the architect to include in the programor brief for the new building, and thus in the design of the building (Moore 2007).

3.0 School Design In Singapore

Singapore is one of the developed countries which have been embracing the concept of TBP in aholistic way. Therefore a review of its guidelines on the standards and criteria for the planning ofschools is done in terms of their relation with building performance mandates such as thermal,acoustic, visual, air, spatial comfort and building integrity.Guidelines on the standards andcriteria for the planning of schools in Singapore are provided in design handbooks for both primary and secondary schools (Liew KPM 1981).



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General Requirements

With regards to the orientation of school building, the best orientation is with the longitudinalaxis in the east – west direction to provide optimum sun shading for the building. Windows are best located facing north or south. Alternatively, when the building is oriented with the windows

facing east or west, specially designed sun shading devices are provided (Wong 2003). If naturalventilation from prevailing breezes proves inadequate, ceiling fans are provided.

Thermal performance requirements

The thermal performance refers to the temperature, relative humidity and air movement withinthe rooms. The classrooms are non- air conditioned. The acceptable limits are as follows (1996):• Temperature (24 – 28◦C)• Relative humidity (20 – 70%)• Average air movement (¡0:8 m=s)

Lighting performance requirements

In school, visual tasks are performed in both horizontal and vertical planes. The recommendeddesign values for lighting in the classrooms, where the activities carried out within areconsidered to be ‗tasks with simple visual requirements‘, are 500 lux for both horizontal andvertical planes (1987).

Spatial performance requirements

Standards of accommodation for the instructional areas in a school have to be established withdue consideration of the teaching methodology adopted. As teaching methods of theconventional or traditional style (i.e. the teacher-centric approach) are prevalent in Singaporeschools and as the progressive or non-formal styles or teaching have yet to prove theirsuperiority, the design of classrooms closely follows the traditional model. The educationalspecification(1972) of a standard secondary school sets out a space norm for 40-seat classroomsof 64 m2, that is, an area per seat of 1:6 m2. According to the Design Handbook (1990), therequirements for spatial quality in a classroom are as follows:(a) Distance between vertical rows of tables — 750 mm minimum.(b) Distance between horizontal rows of tables — 600 mm minimum.(c) Distance between the 1st row of tables and the chalkboard — 3000 mm.(d) Distance between the last row and the back of room — 1700 mm.(e) Distance of the last row from the chalkboard — 7900 mm.(f) Size of tables — 480 by 600 mm2.

Acoustic performance requirements

A poor acoustics environment in schools leads to communication problems, annoyance, stressand development of poor conversational habits. A survey, concluded in early 1990 in Singapore,recommended a noise criterion of 55 dB(A) for local schools (Lee 1989a). This level is higherthan that recommended by schools in western countries of 25 – 40 dB(A) (Lee 1989b) because it



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is tailored to the needs of the local school based on objective measurements as well as subjectiverating of noise levels in the local schools by teachers.

Indoor air quality performance requirements

There are many reasons that indoor air quality should be considered to be an important priority inthe school environment. One is that the sole purpose of a school facility is to foster the learning process, which is impacted directly by the quality of the indoor environment. Another is thatchildren are still developing physically and are more likely to suffer the consequences of indoor pollutants. The level of carbon dioxide is used to assess the efficiency of ventilation. Theacceptable concentration of carbon dioxide for indoors is 1000 ppm according to ENVGuidelines (ENV).One of the most common health complaints from air quality contamination isallergic asthma (Bayer CW 1999). Suspended particulate matter, particularly in the form of chalkdust in classrooms is one of the contributors to asthma occurrence. The recommended maximumconcentration for respirable suspended particles is 150 mg=m3 (ENV)

Building integrity performance requirements

Building integrity is based on the knowledge of loads, moisture conditions, temperature shifts,air movement, radiation conditions, biological attack, man-made and natural disasters. A building‘s integrity has three properties(1985):(a) Mechanical=structural properties — compression, tension, shear, abuse.(b) Physical=chemical properties — water tightness, air tightness, transmission, reflection,absorption of heat, light and sound energy, fire safety.(c) Visible properties — color, texture, finish, form, durability, maintainability.This performance cannot be measured objectively, but evaluated by means of subjectivemeasurements. In general, in order to satisfy this mandate, a building has to be structurallystable, weather tight, durable, be of good quality construction and meet fire safety requirements

4.0 Subjective Findings And Integrated Design Process (IDP)

From the literature review , it is evident that the study of the learning environment should never be focused on singular area performance. Rather, the impact of a decision made for one mandateon the other mandates should also be investigated in totality. It is evident through the studiesdone so far that there is a gap in achieving total building performance leading to non-conducivelearning environment. Building Integration with new upcoming technologies such as ICT inMalaysia and emerging trend of smart schools need to catered in the design philosphy of newschools. The design guidelines in Singapore are very comprehensive in nature but they also donot put much required stress on the integration of various building performance mandates .

Physical environment of the child whose conduciveness is one of the major factor for child‘slearning and development in school environment is also not appropriately taken into account.Dealing with so many parametes in a building is not an easy task which pronounceates the needof extensive integrated project management. Integration of design and project management at theonset of project which comes under the umbrella of IDP may provide a suitable solution for theevident gap. IDP may be an alternative process that can be adopted to achieve a perfect balance between requirements of owner , guidelines and TBP along with achieving sustainable targets.



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Figure 1: Design Team InvolvementImage Source: Busby Perkins + Will and Suntec

IDP and its process

IDP is a method of realizing high performance building that contributes to sustainablecommunities. It is a collaborative process that focuses on the design, construction, operation andoccupancy of a building over its complete lifecycle. IDP is designed to allow the client andother stakeholders to develop and realize clearly defined and challenging functional,environmental and economic goals and objectives.Generally IDP is:

An iterative process; not a linear approach; A flexible method – not a formula;

An IDP is the most cost effective way to achieve a high performing building. It addresses issuesearly on avoiding missed opportunities for performance and economy. Integrated designincorporates multi-disciplinary analysis as well as accountability. Ideally, it includes thefollowing steps:



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Design workshop(s) (known as an eco-charrette) where all design disciplines are represented aswell as other stakeholders;

Analyses that allow iterations of improvement in the design. Examples would include computersimulations or modeling that would test design concepts (example, energy models);

Periodic benchmarking against the goals and objectives throughout the design and construction

process; Commissioning to ensure the building has been built to the design intent and thus has true

potential for achieving green building and high performance benefits.

5.0 Can Idp Be A Solution? : A Proposed IDP for A Typical School Design

In accordance with the literature review done it may be suggested to follow IDP in a primary/secondary school to bridge the gaps in implementation and achievement of total building performance.Following steps may be followed in a school under IDP for achieving total building performance as well as energy savings towards sustainability.

Leading the Integrated Design Process

It is essential to have a champion from within the school district (i.e. on the ―owner‘s‖ side) todrive the IDP throughout project delivery (i.e. planning, budgeting, design, construction,commissioning and startup).The champion/project manager is usually a high-level constructionmanager or facility director within the school district, or an owner‘s representative. The architectserves as leader and coordinator.

The following steps describe key points of involvement for the champion of integrated design.The steps are organized as a checklist for each of the traditional phases of design.

Pre-design phase Commit to an IDP.

Hold a meeting with planning consultants to identify high performance goals, such as ―use25% less energy use than required by code‖ or ―provide a healthy learning environment.‖

Following CPERS scale to charter a design brief.

Hire design professionals with integrated design experience and high performance projectexamples.

Assess adequacy of the school budget and schedule, allow for additional time duringschematic design for integrated design.

Identify roles and responsibilities for team members, including a champion for the IDP process.

Hold a full design charrette with all design team members and school district projectmanager, as well as building user representatives from the following: facilities maintenance,teaching staff, parent group, and, if age-appropriate, student body.

Use existing framework(s) to brainstorm strategies you can use to achieve those goals.existing frameworks include the Singapore school guidelines,LEED/Green Mark for schools,collaborative for high performance schools and ASHR AE‘s advanced energy designguidelines.



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Coordinate this process with the school educational specifications. Ensure no conflicts withhigh performance goals. (Example,solid walls for classrooms provide space for hangingstudent projects, but may reduce potential for daylighting.)

Identify the person who will serve as the commissioning authority for the project.

Determine financial criteria and priorities for school design decisions.

Talk to local utilities, non-profits agencies about available incentives and tax credits. Ask the design team to gather climate and utility cost data.

Schematic design phase

Refine the school building program and space functions.

Schedule periodic team meetings and support brainstorming and collaborative problem-solving.

Encourage the designers and engineers to develop design options to reduce loads on building.

Support simplified energy modeling and Life-Cycle cost analysis for school designalternatives in order to make objective choices between options.

Remind the design team to compare results of this phase to the high performance goals.

Ensure that the commissioning authority works with the owner to document design intent andowner program requirements.

Complete a preliminary rating/scorecard using the framework applicable to the project. Thiscan be used as a benchmark throughout the project.

Design development phase

Hold regular team meetings to ensure communication among team members. Ensure high performance design is a regular meeting topic.

Evaluate various school building systems for their possible integrated benefits.

Request whole-building energy modeling to confirm the preferred design meets the energy performance goals, and to confirm eligibility for rating systems, incentives and tax credits.

Update rating document/scorecard as part of benchmarking.

Verify that the school design documents at this stage contain strategies to meet the performance goals.

Request more detailed cost information from team members to update the schematic costmodel.

Work with the value engineer to ensure functional value of high performance features.

Construction documents

Hold regular team meetings to ensure communication among team members.

Have the commissioning authority and maintenance and operations personnel perform a

document review of building systems. Update the school cost model and schedule with team input.

Update rating document/scorecard as part of benchmarking.

Request documentation from team.

Verify that the construction documents contain the strategies to meet the performance goals.



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Construction phase

Conduct a construction kick-off meeting with the contractors and subcontractors to securetheir commitment to the high performance goals. Point out specific aspects of constructiondocuments that pertain to these goals.

Ask the architect to carefully review submittals and substitution requests for impact on performance goals.

At the end of construction and prior to occupancy, allow time for the commissioningauthority to complete functional testing and operations & maintenance training.

Review commissioning report and have contractor address recommended repairs oralterations.

Occupancy

Establish an ongoing energy management program, including training and periodic re-commissioning.

Use of CPERS scale for POE. After the warranty period shakedown, verify that high performance goals were met, assess

occupant satisfaction, and share feedback with the whole team.

6.0 Preliminary Findings

In asia pacific region IDP may be termed as a new term although it is in some or other way practised in every project.The paper suggests that IDP may be further comprehensively adopted by the construction industry to achieve better synchronisation among various performacemandates. TBP importance is well understood by the industry and carries significance towardsconduciveness in the learning environment.TBP approach along with IDP parameters can be the

way to look the things in future. IDP is also considered as synonym forsustainability.Sustainability of the learning environment will enhance the buildability aspects interms of energy consumption and long-term costs to the facility. These savings will directly andindirectly help in achieving conduciveness through better and optimal designing.

7.0 Recommendations For Further Study

The limitation of this paper are subjective findings based on literature review. It is recommendedto further investigate the concerned topic on objective datasets . On similar terms IDP also needsto be further objectively studied for specific project needs in accordance with building performance requirements. Sustainability and its integration with conduciveness in learning

environment is also suggested for further research .

References

School building design,Asia. 1972.UNESCO, Colombo: Asian Regional Institute for SchoolBuilding Research.

. Building Diagnostics: A Conceptual Framework . 1985. National Research Council: BuildingResearch Advisory Board,National Academy of Sciences.



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CP38: Code of Practice for Artificial Lighting in Buildings. 1987. Design handbook for single session secondary schools. 1990. PWD.Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. 1996. ASHRAE. Atlanta.

Global relevance of total building performance. Automation in Construction 8:377-393. 1999.Atkin, Brian. 1988. Intelligent Buildings.

Bayer, C.W., Crow, S.A., Fischer, J. 1999. Causes of indoor air quality problems in schools, summary of scientific research.Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Tennessee.B.C., Soon. 1994. Proposed package methodology in evaluating total building performance in

Singapore.School of Building and Estate Management, National University of Singapore.E.N.V. Guidelines for good indoor air quality in office premises.Singapore: Ministry of

Environment.Gary, T. Moore, Takemi Sugiyama. 2007. The Children‘s Physical Environment Rating Scale

(CPERS): Reliability and Validity for Assessing the Physical Environment of Early

Childhood Educational Facilities. Behaviour and Society Research Group Environment.Australia: University of Sydney.

Hartkopf, V., Loftness, V., Mill, P. 1983. The concept of total building performance building

diagnostics. ASTM E6.24:p. 5 – 22Hartkopf, V., Loftness, V., Mill, P.A.D. 1993. Evaluating the quality of the workplace. NewYork: Nicols Publishing Company.

H.M., Tan. 1993. Objective and subjective indoor air quality in Singapore. School of Buildingand Estate Management, National University of Singapore.

K., Lenvik. 1992. Sick building syndrome symptoms —different prevalence‘s between males and

females.Environment International:18:11 – 17.Lee, S.E., Khew, S.K., Lee, S.F. 1989a. Noise problems in Singapore schools. NUS-PWD.Lee, S.E., Khew, S.K., Lee, S.F. 1989b. Noise problems in Singapore schools.NUS-PWD.Liew, K.P.M., Pang, K.S., Singh, H. 1981. The design of secondary schools — a case study.Educational Building Report Singapore.Moore, G.T. 1994. Early Childhood Physical Environment Observation Schedules and Rating

Scales.USA: University of Wisconsin Milwaukee.Raja Ghazilla, R.A., Taha,Z., Kamaruddin, S., Hasanuddin, I. 2010. Pilot Investigation on the

Mismatches of Classroom Furniture and Student Body Dimensions in Malaysian SecondarySchools. Journal of Social Sciences 6 (2): 287-292.

Shaw, C.Y., Vaculik, F., Patton, D.W., Comeau, G.M. 1990. Indoor air quality guide for

property managers in office buildings. Building Technology and Management.W.F.E, Preiser, ed. 1989. Building evaluation. New York: Plenum.Wong, N.H., Jan, W.L.S. 2003. Total building performance evaluation of academic institution in

Singapore. Building and Environment 38(1):161-176.Wood, J.E., Morey, P.R., Rask, D.R. 1989. Indoor air quality diagnostics:qualitative and

quantitative procedures to improve environmental conditions. Design and Protocol forMonitoring Indoor Air Quality:80 – 98.



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Membina Semula Persekitaran Pembelajaran di luar Kelas yang Mampan

dari Pemahaman Rekabentuk dan Pendekatan-Pendekatan Sekolah Alam di

Indonesia

N. Spalie , N. Utaberta, M.M. Tahir, N.A.G.Abdullah, A.I.Che-AniJabatan Seni Bina, Fakulti Kejuruteraan dan Alam Bina, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, [email protected], [email protected],[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstrak

Dengan perkembangan yang sedia ada didalam pendekatan pedagogi pembelajaran dan pengajaran didunia,tidak banyak kajian yang dilakukan ke atas pemebelajaran di luar kelas di Malaysia. Kebanyakandari kajian menfokuskan dalam pembangunan kurikulum dan penyampaian ilmu tetapi tidak banyak penulisan dan pendekatan yang dilakukan dalam melihat pembelajaran di luar kelas merupakan salah satukaedah alternatif dalam pembelajaran di dalam dunia akademik. Kertas kerja ini berusaha utnuk

menerangkan tentang falsafah dan pendekatan salah sebuah daripada sekolah alternatif di Indonesia iaitu Natural School atau lebih di kenali sebagai Sekolah Alam. Sekolah ini menggunakan kaedah yang unikserta falsafah gaya Toto Chan dalam pembelajaran telah di ambil kira sebagai salah satu sekolah alterbatifyang paling berkembang di Indonesia. Kejayaan dalam melahirkan anak-anak yang luar biasa telahmembuktikan bahawa ini merupakan implimentasi yang paling efektif dalam pembelajaran di luar kelasdi Indonesia. Perbincangan ini akan terbahagi kepada empat bahagian. Bahagian yang pertama akanmemperbincangan permasalahan semasa dan situasi dalam kurikulum dan rekabentuk pembelajaran diluar kelas. Manakala di bahagian kedua pula akan akan mengekplorasi dan mengkaji semula definisi pembelajaran di luar kelas serta kepentingan dan karakter dalam persekitaran pembelajaran. Bahagianketiga pula akan menfokuskan pengajaran dari pendekatan dan falsafah dari Sekolah Alam. Bahagianterakhir pula analisis dan perbandingan akan di buat dalam mencari keputusan dan cadangan danrekomendasi untuk fasiliti pembelajaran di luar kelas daripada pendekatan sebelum ini di Malaysia.

Kata Kunci: Pembelajaran di luar kelas (Outdoor Learning), Sekolah Alam, Indonesia.

1.0 Pendahuluan

Kecenderungan hasrat Negara dalam mencapai visi yang bertemakan 1 Malaysia telahmelahirkan satu pemikiran dan ideologi iaitu 1 perubahan, 1 pencapaian. Selaras dengan hasrat Negara untuk mencapai matlamat Wawasan 2020, Malaysia terus mencuba untuk mencari nafas baru dalam sistem pendidikannya. Visi ini bertujuan untuk mewujudkan kestabilan,keterampilan,kebijaksanaan ke arah pertumbuhan produktiviti yang boleh di capai melalui alam lingkungan,teknologi, dan lima pancaindera. Sistem pembelajaran yang baru seperti pembelajaran di luar

kelas (outdoor learning ) sedikit sebanyak membantu dalam penghasilan generasi yang lebihoptimis. Oleh yang demikian, kerajaan Malaysia telah berusaha untuk menggalakkan sekolah-sekolah supaya mempunyai inisiatif dalam mempertingkatkan prestasi dari segi pembelajarandan pengajaran. Di harapkan penulisan kertas kerja awal ini dapat membantu dalam menjayakan projek Negara yang kini gah diperkatakan iaitu Projek Permata Pintar.











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1.1 Definisi Pembelajaran Di Luar Kelas

Terdapat pelbagai definisi yang diungkapkan dalam mempamerkan pemahaman terhadap‗outdoor learning‘ yang bermaksud pembelajaran di luar kelas. Definasi ini terbahagi kepadadua iaitu ‗ Psychosocial definitions‘ atau diklafisikasikan sebagai ‗Definisi Psycososial‘ dan

‗ Environmental Definitons‘ atau diklasifikasikan sebagai ‗Definisi Alam Sekeliling‘.Berdasarkan C. A. Lewis, 1975, The Administration of Outdoor EducationPrograms. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt, pembelajaran di luar kelas dari segi psycososial ialah

“appeals to the use of the senses - audio, visual , taste, touch, and smell - for observation and perception.” iaitu percubaan terhadap penggunaan deria pancaindera- pendengaran, penglihatan, rasa, sentuh, dan hidu. Bagi definisi Alam Sekeliling pula mendifinisikan pembelajaran ini sebagai “an experi enti al method of learn ing by doing, which takes place

primari ly through exposure to the out-of-doors. In outdoor education, the emphasis for thesubject of learn ing is placed on RELATI ONSHIPS: relationships concern ing human andnatural resources.” Priest, S. (1988). The ladder of environmental learning. Journal of

Adventure Education, 5(2), 23-25. iaitu satu kaedah pembelajaran pengalaman dengan

melakukan atau mempraktikkan, yang mengambil tempat terutamanya melalui pendedahankepada alam di luar. Dalam pendidikan luar, penekanan untuk perkara pengajian diletakkan pada PERHUBUNGAN: perhubungan berkenaan manusia dan sumber semulajadi.

2.0 Permasalahan Sistem Pembelajaran Prasekolah di Malaysia

Sebagaimana yang kita telah sedia maklum, kebanyakan system pembelajaran pra-sekolah yangdipraktikkan di Malaysia menggunakan sistem pembelajaran di dalam kelas. Sistem yangmemerlukan fokus dalam mengingati dan menghafal semua maklumat. Lazimnya sistem pembelajaran ini di gunakan hampir di setiap institusi prasekolah si seluruh Malaysia baikinstitusi kerajaan atau swasta. Masalah yang paling kritikal adalah permasalahan pembelajaran

dan pengajaran berasaskan penilaian dan kedudukan mata di dalam kelas. Ini mengakibatkankerosakan sistem pendidikan dari penghayatan dan pengmanfaatan pembelajaran dalamkehidupan seharian kepada asas mengejar nilai mata kedudukan dengan hanya menghafal, bukan menghayati, memahami serta memanfaatkan ilmu tersebut. Terdapat standard kurikulum bagi institusi prasekolah yang disediakan oleh Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia yang harus dituruti oleh setiap institusi prasekolah di seluruh Malaysia. Di bawah merupakan contoh modulkurikulum prasekolah yang telah dikeluarkan oleh Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.



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Berdasarkan kurikulum ini, semua institusi harus menyediakan bahan pembelajaran yangmencukupi bagi memenuhi paiwaian yang telah di tetapkan oleh Kementerian PelajaranMalaysia. Kurikulum yang telah di tetapkan ini bukan merupakan batu penghalang bagimenvariasikan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran, malahan ini merupakan titik permulaan bagi memvariasikan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran dengan lebih terbuka. Satu contoh

modul teras tema di ambil untuk dianalisis iaitu Modul teras tema yang ke tiga; Living Things yang mempunyai sub-tema Alive or Not, How do I Stay Alive, My Body Parts, Why Do We Have..?,Do We Look Same?,Who I am ?,Nice to Know You plants, Wonderful Animals, danSimillar But Not Same. Kebanyakan institusi prasekolah di Malaysia menggunakan kaedah pembelajaran di dalam kelas dengan memaparkan visual video, visual gambar dan jugagambaran imaginasi. Walhal , dari kajian awal yang telah di lakukan ke atas segelintir pelajar prasekolah menunjukkan peningkatan minat dan juga pemahaman hampir 40% denganmenggunakan kaedah pembelajaran dan pengajaran di luara kelas-outdoor learning . Sebagaicontoh bagi modul sub-tema Nice to Know You Plants yang menggunakan kaedah audio visualsebagai kaedah pembelajaran dan pengajaran mungkin menarik minat para pelajar buat seketikaserta teknik menghafal tumbuh-tumbuhan hanya akan member kesan yang tipis terhadap

memori berbanding dengan penggunaan teknik pembelajaran di luar kelas dengan ―the use of thesenses - audio, visual, taste, touch, and smell” - menggunakan 5 pancaindera bagi proses pemerhatian, pemahaman dan tanggapan. Bukankah terdapat perbezaan di antara melihat bunga berduri di dalam bentuk visual berbanding melihat secara hidup,merasa dengan lidah, menyentuhdengan tangan, dan menghidu dengan hidung? -“an experi enti al method of learning by doing,

which takes place primari ly through exposure to the out-of-doors. In outdoor education, theemphasis for the subject of learn ing is placed on RELATIONSHIPS: relationships concern inghuman and natural resources.” Priest, S. (1988). The ladder of environmentallearning. Journal of Adventure Education, 5(2), 23-25Ya ! Inilah yang dikatakan ―outdoor learning‖-pembelajaran di luar kelas

3.0 Kurikulum „Outdoor Learning‟-

Sekolah Alam Di Indonesia

Beberapa institusi prasekolah di Indonesia khususnya di Jakarta, telah di jadikan bahan kajianawal bagi kaedah pembelajaran di luar atau di kenali sebagai sekolah alam. Institusi-institusi initelah berjaya menggunakan teknik pengajaran dan pembelajaran di luar kelas denganmenggunakan 5 pancaindera dan juga pengalaman hidup. Kejayaan ini telah memperlihatkan perkembangan sekolah-sekolah alam bagai cendawan yang tumbuh selepas hujan kerana permintaan yang semakin menigkat di kawasan bandar dan juga di luar bandar. Inimemperkuatkan lagi azam untuk melanjutkan kajian tentang ―outdoor learning‖- pembelajarandi luar kelas ini.

3.1 Sekolah Alam Bogor

Sekolah Alam Bogor ini terletak di Jakarta dan menggunakan 3 konsep alam iaitu :

Alam sebagai ruang belajar

Alam sebagai media dan bahan ajar

Alam sebagai objek pembelajaran

Sementara proses pembelajaran di Sekolah Alam Bogor ini bersandarkan kepada 4 tiang iaitu:



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Pengembangan akhlak melalui teladan (Learning by Qudwah)

Pengembangan logik dan daya cipta melalui Expreriental Learning

Pengembangan kepemimpinan dengan kaedah Outbond Training

Pengembangan kemampuan Interpreneur.

Gambar 1: Sekolah Alam BogorSumber : felita2822vania.blogspot.com

3.2 Sekolah Alam Bekasi

Sekolah alam bekasi juga terletak di Jakarta dan menggunakan 3 asas kurikulum iaitu : Pengembangan Akhlak, dengan kaedah belajar "Tauladan"

Pengembangan Logika, dengan kaedah belajar "Action Learning"

Pengembangan Sifat Kepemimpinan, dengan kaedah belajar "Outbound Training"Sementara proses pembelajaran dan pengajaran bagi Sekolah Alam Bekasi ini berdasarkan 3 kaedah iaitu:

Menerapkan kaedah SPIDER WEB. Dengan berasaskan tema ataupun projek, proses belajar dikembangkan secaramenyeluruh ke semua bidang ilmu dengan tujuan akhir mengenal pengatur Alam SemestaDialah Allah SWT.

Melalui Proses Accelerated Learning, siswa belajar dengan melibatkan semua potensi dirinya

Penerapan Active Learning ,siswa diajak untuk Fun, Fresh and Friendly dalam belajar dan aktif dengan kegiatanobservasi dan eksplorasi.



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Gambar 2 : Sekolah Alam BekasiSumber : www.sekolahalambekasi.com

3.3 Sekolah Alam Ciganjur

Sekolah alam ini juga terletak di Jakarta, berada di tengah kota metropolitan menjadikan sekolahini semakin terkenal dan semakin di ingini oleh para ibu bapa untuk menyekolahkan anak-anakmereka di institusi prasekolah yang terbaik. Sekolah Alam Ciganjur ini mengenengahkan 3konsep pembelajaran dan pengajaran iaitu:

1. Akhlaqul Karimah :Menjadikan anak memiliki akhlaq yang baik dengan kaedah utamanya keteladanan yang berdasar pada Al-Qur‘an dan Hadits

2. Falsafah IlmuPengetahuan : menjadikan anak memiliki pemikiran logik yang baik, menghormati alamlingkungannya serta dijadikan media pembelajaran dengan kaedah action learning dandiskusi.

3. Kepemimpinan/ Leadership : menjadikan anak memiliki semangat kepemimpinan yang baik dengankaedah out bound dan dynamic group.

Pembelajaran dan pengajaran di sekolah alam ini menggunakan modul tema Spider Web, bukanmengikut per bab matapelajaran dan dengan pendekatan modul ini, siswa mampu mengaitkan pelajaran dengan nyata serta mengitkan hubungan antara pelajaran yang di terima. Di sekolahini bukan hanya siswa yang belajar , malahan guru turut belajar dari para pelajar, bahkan orang

http://www.sekolahalambekasi.com/






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tua juga turut belajar dari guru dan siswa. Para pelajar tidak hanya belajar di kelas, tetapi mereka belajar dari mana sahaja dan dari siapa sahaja. Mereka tidak hanya belajar dari buku, tetapi juga belajar dari alam sekelilingnya. Mereka bukan belajar untuk mengejar nilai markah atau nilaikedudukan di dalam kelas, tetapi mereka belajar bagi memanfaatkan ilmunya dalam kehidupanseharian.

Gambar 3 : Pembelajaran di luar kelas di Sekolah Alam CiganjurSumber : wongawam.blogspot.com

3.4 Sekolah Alam Depok

Konsep Sekolah Alam ini berdasarkan kesedaran bahawa pendidikan harus mengacu ke arahtujuan asas penciptaan manusia di bumi, iaitu sebagai Khalifatullah fil ardh (pemimpin di muka bumi) dengan pra syarat :

Memahami cara tunduk kepada Allah SWT

Memahami cara tunduk makhluk lain/alam semesta kepada Allah SWT(sunnatullah)

Memahami memimpin makhluk lain/alam semesta sesuai dengan hokum Allah SWT.

Konsep diatas di adaptasikan dengan menggunakan 3 konsep iaitu :

Kurikulum Akhlaq (efektif),meliputi: penghafalan dan penghayatan Al-Qur‘an dan Sunnah, kejujuran, menjagaamanah, rendah hati, keberanian, kesabaran, mampu bersyukur, berdikari, ekspresi, cintailmu, kestabilan emosi, memaafkan dan meminta maaf, simpati, ingin memberi dan berkongsi, mampu bekerjasama, motivasi tinggi, disiplin, lapang dada, bertanggungjawab, mengenali dirinya sendiri dan kemampuan berinteraksi dengan alamdan lingkungan.



54

Kurikulum Logika Ilmu Pengetahuan (Kognitif) pembelajaran berdasarkan tematik yang diwujudkan dalam Spider Web, yang mencakupi pengetahuan umum, Ad-din, pengetahuan alam, matematik, kreativiti dan seni.

Kurikulum Leadership (Pshicomotorik)

meliputi: Outward Bound, Life skill, Renang dan Kewirausahaan

Aplikasi kurikulum tersebut disokong dengan 3 tiang utama bagi proses pembelajaran dan pengajaran iaitu :

Keteladanan guru

Fun learning

Active learning

Gambar 4 : Aktiviti luar kelas , Sekolah Alam Depok.Sumber : www.sekolahalamdepok.com

3.5 Sekolah Alam Natur Islam

Pada Kurikulum Sekolah Natur Islam semua kelebihan dari konsep pendidikan yang ada padasistem sekolah-sekolah lain seperti :

pembelajaran Islam dan Al Quran yang intensif

pembelajaran melalui alam terbuka dan aplikasinya

kebebasan dalam berekspresi dan berdikari

Konsep tersebut dijadikan satu kesatuan dalam sistem pendidikan Sekolah Natur Islam.Semua itu dirangkumkan dalam satu kurikulum yang memadukan semua aspek pengetahuanyang diperlukan anak murid, dimana dalam setiap subjek pelajaran, nilai Quran dan hadith

Rasulullah SAW senantiasa hadir. Selain itu, Sekolah Natur Islam ini mengikuti , standardDiknas( seperti kementerian pelajaran) diterapkan sebagai standard minimum sekolah tersebut bagi mempersediakan para pelajar menghadapai dunia luar sekolah.

Sekolah ini juga juga memiliki kurikulum yang mengatur pengajaran akhlak, serta kurikulumyang mengajar tentang life skill bagi para pelajar. Termasuk didalamnya outbond yang mengajaranak untuk mampu mengatasi masalah dan bertanggung jawab, serta 3 jenis olahraga yangdianjurkan Rasulullah SAW iaitu :

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55

berenang,

berkuda

memanah.

Gambar 5: Sekolah Alam Natur IslamSumber : www.oursani.com

4.0 Kesimpulan

Salah satu bentuk sistem pendidikan pada saat ini yang mula berkembang di Indonesia adalah pendidikan sekolah alam. Sistem pendidikan sekolah ini berbeza dari sekolah formal secaraumumnya. Kurikulum yang diterapkan di sekolah ini disusun oleh kakitangan pengajar agar

sesuai dengan kemampuan para pelajar. Sistem pendidikan di sekolah ini menggabungkan teoridan penerapannya. Pembelajaran di Sekolah Alam menggunakan model lama spider web, tidak per Bab mata pelajaran. Dengan model ini, siswa mampu mengaitkan pelajaran dengan dunianyata dan juga dapat saling mengaitkan hubungan antara pelajaran yang mereka terima. DiSekolah Alam bukan hanya para pelajar yang belajar, guru juga belajar dari murid dan ibu bapa juga belajar dari guru dan para pelajar. Mereka tidak hanya belajar di kelas, tetapi mereka belajardari mana saja dan dari siapa saja. Selain belajar dari buku, para pelajar juga belajar dari alamsekelilingnya. Anak-anak bukan belajar untuk mengejar nilai, tetapi untuk memanfaatkanilmunya dalam kehidupan seharian. Suatu tema ditegaskan dalam semua mata pelajaran. Dengandemikian pemahaman siswa terhadap akar pembelajaran bersifat integratif, komprehensif danaplikatif sekaligus juga memahami kemampuan asas yang ingin ditumbuhkan kepada pelajar-

pelajar Sekolah Alam adalah kemampuan membangunkan jiwa keingintahuan, melakukanobservasi, membuat hipotesis, serta kemampuan pemikiran ilmiah. Dengan kaedah spider web mereka belajar tidak hanya dengan mendengar penjelasan guru, tetapi juga dengan melihat,menyentuh, merasakan, dan mengikuti keseluruhan proses dari setiap pembelajaran. Di sini para pelajar juga diarahkan untuk memahami potensi asasnya sendiri. Setiap anak dihargaikelebihannya, dan difahami kekurangannya. Dengan begitu, di Sekolah Alam, berbeza dengan pendapat guru itu bukanlah hal yang tabu tetapi itu merupakan pembaharuan dalam pembentukangenerasi yang lebih intelektual dan outspoken.Ini merupakan anjakan paradigma yang perlu di

http://www.oursani.com/






56

ambil bagi sistem dan modul pengajaran dan pembelajaran prasekolah yang baru di Malaysia bagi melahirkan generasi yang lebih intellectual, critical, outspoken, independence dan

expression. Selaras dengan hasrat kerajaan dalam menjayakan Projek Permata Pintar, titik tolak permulaan dalam pembaharuan dan pencapaian bermulanya di sini.

Rujukan

Lewis, C. A. 1975. The Administration of Outdoor Education Programs. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt

Haas, Malka, (v72, n6, 1996) "Children In The Junkyard", Childhood Education, , Associationfor Childhood Education International, Wheaton, MD.

Komunitas Sekolah Alam. 2005. Menemukan Sekolah yang Membebaskan-Perjalanan

Menggapai Sekolah yang Mendidik Anak Menjadi Manusia Berkarakter Moore, Robin,. Vol. VIII, 1996."Compact Nature: The Role of Playing and Learning Gardens

on Children's Lives" , Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture.Moore, Robin, C., Herb, Hong, H. 1997. Natural Learning: Creating Environments for

Rediscovering Nature's Way of Teaching , Berkeley, California, MIG Communications.Priest, S. 1988. The ladder of environmental learning . Journal of Adventure Education, 5(2),23-25

Trianto , M.Pd. 2010. Model Pembelajaran Terpadu-Konsep, Strategi, dan Implimentasinya

dalam Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan.(KTSP) Kuroyanagi, T. 1981. The Little Girl at The Window.



57

Green Building Design Features For A Better Smart School: Lesson Learnt

From Geo and Leo Office Buildings

S.N.Kamaruzzaman 1 , R.Sulaiman1 & L.Chi-Hin1

1Building Performance and Diagnostic, Faculty of Built Environment,

University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala LumpurCorrespondence email: [email protected]

Abstract

There are many evidences based on previous researches that buildings are responsible for the globalwarming and climate changes due to the carbon footprint, which resulted not only from the constructionactivities but also throughout buildings lifecycle. As for schools, people need to build new buildings as tocater the growing demands of young generation. Apart from new constructed buildings, the existing onealso need to be upgraded and improved from time to time as to be equivalence with current demandespecially in terms of comfort and energy efficiency. Contrary to office building, Malaysia does not havea standard for an energy efficient school building or so-called green school building. Therefore, this paperfocuses on the Green Building Design being applied in the office buildings with the aim that it can be a basis for a smart and green school building. The focus of the research will be on the relationships betweenthe design applied and level of energy efficiency performance in GEO and LEO buildings. The findingsshows that orientations, shading devices, interior layout, roof and walls insulation, ventilation system andinnovative windows are some of the solutions for an effective smart building.

Keywords: Green building, passive design features, energy efficient,

1.0 Introduction

On 24th July 2009, The Prime Minister of Malaysia, Dato‘ Sri Mohd Najib has launched Green

Technology Policy 2009 stressing on energy efficiency and green building design that thecountry heading towards in the future. Some of the approaches taken were setting up a greentechnology agency, promoting foreign investments, allocating incentives for students who pursuing green technology, and provision for R&D (Oh et. al, 2010)

A sustainable building, or green building is an outcome of a design which focuses onincreasing the efficiency of resources used (energy, water, and materials) while reducing building impacts on human health and the environment during the building's lifecycle through better orientation, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal (Frej, 2005). Asuccessful green design is a building that cleans its own air, save its own water, and produces itsown energy, makes it off grid from power generator stations that emit greenhouse gases and heat.

A green design also covers installation, verification and monitoring of HVAC, lighting and otherequipments and the use of renewable energy.

The term ―green‖ is essentially a synonym of sustainable, but it is frequently used moreloosely than the term sustainable (Resnick, 2009). While the green building movement inMalaysia is still in its infancy, the green building revolution is happening around the globe,which fuels by the understanding of the impacts on the environment and human health. Thisrevolution is further fueled by the consciousness of the limited time for the world to counteract




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy




58

against the dangers of climate change and global (Yudelson, 2007). The revolution can betracked down to numerous causes over the years, just as the seeds of the independence ofMalaysia were planted decades before the country erupted into open rebellion.

Malaysia was listed as the bottom 10 country of cleanliness in climate index. The design

of our buildings will determine the energy efficiency of the buildings. However, the green building design concept is still not popular among the construction field. There is a lack ofawareness among the commercial financial institution and the absence of viable projects on the benefits of this design. This condition may contribute to the growth climate changes as well asglobal warming and thus indirectly affect the welfares of human race in the next generation.

The Green Building Index Malaysia defined a green building as a building designed to beefficient of resource use, while reducing building impact on human health and the environmentthroughout the building‘s lifecycle. Whilst Frej (2005) defined green building as ―an outcome ofa design which focuses on increasing the efficiency of resource use – energy, water, andmaterials – while reducing building impacts on human health and the environment during the

building‘s lifecycle, through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, andremoval‖ (p. 4).

The Green Building Index (GBI) rating system year 2009 assesses the impact of a new building on its environment based on the six criteria of Energy Efficiency, Indoor EnvironmentQuality, Sustainable Site & Management, Materials & Resources, Water Efficiency, andInnovation (Oh, 2010)

Looking back to the literatures (Resnick, 2009;Frej, 2005; McDonald, 2005; Yudelson,2007; Cole et al, 2000; Kats, 2003), the more common terms used by the industry to discussabout the ―environmental friendly‖ building matters are ―Sustainability‖, ―Green Building‖,―Holistic Whole Building Design‖ and others. However there is few or no definition that had been set by the industry about the term ―Green Building Design‖. In this paper, the term ―GreenBuilding Design‖ is used to reflect the initiatives and approach of the Malaysia industry. Thereason why the term ―Green Building Design‖ is used in this paper is to identify the passiveapproaches that integrate in an innovative building to achieve an energy efficient vision. Inwhich the term ―Passive Approach‖ is often related to the ―Design‖ of one building. In addition,such passive approaches were one of the major criteria to realize the Green Buildings that willthen advanced to Sustainable Buildings and Regenerative Buildings. It was from thus intentionand relations that the ―Green Building Design‖ is being derived. Therefore, the term ―GreenBuilding Design‖ in this paper, and thereon after throughout the whole project, is defined as: the passive design approaches integrated in a building that to achieve the objectives of a GreenBuilding, in the context of reducing negative impacts on the environment and ecosystems.Hence, Green Building Design in Energy Efficiency (EE) means that the passive designapproaches integrate into a building in order to achieve a very low energy consumption state andutilizing the still conventional energy spring from fossil fuel efficiently.

In order to deeper clarify the title, Green Building Design is the elements that are permanently attached to or part of the building design such as building orientation, buildingenvelope, shading device, innovative windows, roof and wall insulation etc. These features are



59

often related to the passive cooling, lighting and ventilation of a building, which in turncontribute to the EE of the building.

A review on passive design listed that passive cooling, ventilation, day lighting, roof andwall insulation and interior space layout are the features that widely implemented in green

building design (Azizi and Adnan, 2008). The concept of Green Building Design is a vitalapproach to achieve EE vision in a building. By integrating this concept early in the design stagewill greatly reduce the cost for development as well as maintenance.

Normally to assess whether these green features are benefitted in achieving an energyefficient building, the management will look into the building‘s energy consumption. The energyconsumption in buildings for a green building is given in terms of the Building Energy Index orBEI. Based on Ahmed (2008), the Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication(MEWC) or previously known as the Ministry of Energy, Communication and Multimedia(MECM) before the year 2004; introduced the Guidelines for Energy Efficiency in Non-Domestic Buildings in 1989 which was meant to be a building code of practice. The guidelines

now have been renamed as the Malaysian Standard MS 1525:2001 and further improved in 2007.

Further, the Green Building Index in Malaysia was introduced on Jan 3, 2009 (Oh andChua, 2010). It holds the distinction of being the first and only non-governmental and profession-driven green-rating tool developed for the tropical climate. The GBI‘s ultimate goal isto reduce the carbon footprint of Malaysia‘s urban cities. With this index in place, buildings inMalaysia can now be assessed and guided to reduce and minimize their impact on theenvironment. Based on Oh et al (2010), the index rates green buildings on six criteria which areenergy efficiency (35%); indoor environmental quality (21%); sustainable site planning andmanagement (16%); materials and resources (11%); water efficiency (105); and innovation (7%).Depending on the score, buildings will be rated accordingly as as platinum (86+), gold (76 – 85),silver (66 – 75) and certified (50 -65).

From the six key criteria, Energy Efficiency represents the highest marks. This criterionencompasses the design (25%); commissioning (5%); and also verification and maintenance(5%). Thus, we can see that Energy Efficiency is the crucial part of making a building green orsustainable; yet the design decides the energy efficiency of a building.

In hot tropical climate like Malaysia for instance, the cooling load for buildings is usuallyat its highest at mid day. This makes the mechanical equipment work harder to keep theoccupants comfortable, which leads to greater electricity and hence energy consumption (Jain,2009). Every 1K rise in the daily maximum temperature leads to 2 to 4% increase in peak urbanelectricity demand for cooling starting from the 15-20 °C (59-68 °F) temperature range (Akbari,2001). Thus, it is important for us to make sure that these increments would not lead to higherenergy consumption and thus the effort of making energy efficient building is just a waste.

2.0 Materials And Methods

This research adopts qualitative method, which only carefully selected buildings will be studied by interviewing their managing department and analyzing previous records and documents. No



60

structured questionnaire survey to the public will be conducted due to the lack of knowledgeabout green among the public sector. However, semi-structured and open end questionnaireswere prepared for interview sessions. The questionnaires are shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Questionnaires used for the case studies

Case study selection was based on three criteria. Energy Efficient : To include buildings that consumes energy efficiently.

Green Building Design : To include buildings that integrates passive approaches into thedesign such as building orientation, interior space layout design, roof and walls insulation etc.

Building type/function : To include buildings focus on a specified function.

Observations were carried out in order to identify the location of green design integrated in thesubject buildings; what is the level of comfort inside the building; and how such design helps toreduce the energy consumption of the building. Photographs were taken for visual purpose.

3.0 Results And Discussion

Despite the most advance EE features integrated in the GEO Building, the building was onlyGBI certified, instead of Gold or Platinum award. The limitation in the research is that theavailable energy performance of the studied buildings was not up to date. The data obtained fromthe LEO Building was data monitored in 2005. While the buildings have been fine-tuning fromtime to time in order to achieve a better energy performance, therefore the data such as the building energy index (BEI) is believed to be energy efficient than the data shown in the thischapter. However, such fine-tuning often involved only with the active EE approach and human behavior. Hence, the data studied can be considered still pertinent for this research.



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The PTM Green Energy Office Building (GEO Building), previously known as Zero EnergyOffice (ZEO Building), located in Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, is an administration-cum-research office for the Malaysia Energy Centre. The GEO Building is officially the first andonly completed GBI Certified building to date in Malaysia, which is why it was chosen to be thecase study. Though being a pilot project, the building marked another milestone towards greater

promotion and adoption of sustainable building concept in the Malaysian Building sector.According to PTM‘s officer, it is the only such building in Malaysia that integrates the EnergyEfficiency (EE) and Renewable Energy (RE) in one working demonstrator building to date.

Meanwhile the LEO building is the first government building to be built with green buildingdesign in context of energy efficiency. As a showcase building like the GEO Building, the LEOBuilding demonstrates the EE features so that other buildings can replicate such measures, makeit public or private sector. Although the LEO Building is not a certified Green Building by anyavailable Green Building Rating System, it was chosen to be one of the case studies of thisresearch due to its most advances EE Green Building Design features in the region to date. The building displays integration of the best EE designs, which will be discussed together with the

GEO Building in the next section. The buildings are shown in Figure 2 and their background istabulated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Building background

PTM GREEN ENERGY OFFICE

BUILDING

LEO BUILDING

Building Owner Pusat Tenaga Malaysia KETTHA

Gross Floor Area 4,000 m2 38,606 m2

Total Number of Storey

(excluding roof-top and

basement)

3 6

Commencement Date

of Building OperationSeptember 2004 September 2004

Primary Use Administration-cum-research office forthe Malaysia Energy Centre

Administration &Research for KETTHA

Differences (BIPV) panels are all integrated into the building design and connected to the National Electricity (TNB) grid whichcontribute to Zero Energy Office

Did not integrate activeSolar Technology whichonly lead to Low EnerqyOffice



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(a) (b)

Figure 2: The GEO (a) and LEO (b) buildingsSource: Pusat Tenaga Malaysia and KETTHA

3.1 Green Building Design Elements

Table 2 below shows the integration of several passive green designs that enables the buildingsachieve very low energy characteristics. The table shows the different approach but yet still fallunder the same passive design features.



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Table 2: Green Building Design Elements in the PTMM GEO and LEO building

PTM GREEN ENERGY OFFICE BUILDING LEO BUILDING

Overview

integrates passive green design

integrates EE active system (ie EE office equipment; EEIT Network & server room; EE air conditioning andventilation; floor slab cooling; Chilled Metal Ceilings; Ice

storage cooling system; and controls & sensors)

integrates several passive green design

Active EE system in the building includes innovative air-conditioning system; lighting system; energy efficientoffice appliances; comprehensive energy managementsystem; as well as mechanical ventilation system

Installed with solar photovoltaic‘s system that generateDirect Current (DC) and will be diverted to local loads in

the buildingRainwater harvest system from the secondary roof helps toreduce water consumption.

Building orientation Façade facing north and south Orientated to the North and the South

Sun shading devices Large overhang at west facing windows

Eastern façade does not have any windows or doors facingdirectly to the east to avoid direct sunlight

Larger shading on the eastern façade

Exterior shading over the windows

Windows designDouble-glazing windows at north and south facing façade

Double-glazing windows and internal blinds at west facingfaçade

50% light transmission and 25% heat transmission

See Figure 3a and Table 3

Punch hole window façade in the lower floors, and curtainwall windows with exterior shading louvers in the upperfloors. (Figure 5)

Windows area are about 25-39% of the façade area

no windows on the western façade but with 12mm thicklight green tinted glazing

Interior layout Open space concept with all the workstation are positionednear the windows where daylight is available

Meeting rooms, facility room and stores are located at thecentre

Ground level is reserved for the publics

Lower ground is mostly consist of M&E rooms, with otherfacilities

Open space concept, where all the workstations are

concentrated along the border as well as the atrium area inorder to have the maximum daylight

Secondary functions are consigned to the inner part, whereartificial lighting is needed.

Daylight designSet to 100% daylight during daytime

Integrates mirror light shelf, roof light and skylight systemrespectively inside the building

See Figure 3b

Managed to achieve 65% visible light transmission andallows only 51% of the heat

Using a combination of exterior shading and tinted glazing

The atrium allows daylight access to the central of the building

See Figure 6



64

Roof and wall

insulationAdequate insulation at the roof and wall particularly thewestern and eastern façade

The building is airtight in order to achieve low cold airleakage

100mm thermal insulation in East and West walls; 200mmroof insulation, 200mm thermal insulation in ground floorslab

See Figure 4

Insulated with 200mm aerated concrete block with 15mm plaster on both sides, together with light colours on theexterior surface

The envelope of the building uses lightweight concretewalls that have an insulation value 2.5 times better thanthat of a conventional brickwall

Flat roof of the building is 100mm thick reinforcedconcrete with 50mm thick polystyrene insulation ofinsulation

Canopy roof attached above the roof surface standing as asecondary roof

Green landscaping along the boundary of the roof

Ventilation system District cooling system; mainly mechanical ventilation Stack ventilation (Atrium)

Others

Skylight system; Assisted day lighting

Natural ventilation system in the LEO Building through itsthermal flue at the roof top, which creates the thermalstack effect.

Black painted walls and vents of the thermal flue chimney



65

(a) (b)

Figure 3: The glazing system in GEO building (a) and the daylight design (b)

Figure 4: Roof and wall insulation of GEO Building

Table 3: Typical values of the double-glazing windows

DescriptionHeat % Light %

U-Value

W/m2K

Single 85 85 6

Single, tinted 25 20 5

Double 75 75 3

Double, spectrally selective, low-emissive,gas filled

25 50 1



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Figure 5: Punch hole windows façade of the LEO Building

(a) (b)

Figure 6: (a) Interior space layout design of GEO Building and (b) The atrium of the building

3.2 Energy Performance

Due to the limitation of the research, the detail up to date energy performance of this buildingwas not available to obtain. However, the Pusat Tenaga Malaysia (PTM) claims that the BEIachieved by the building is 65 kWh/m2/year. It is the lowest BEI in Malaysia to date. Referringto the illustrated energy index in Figure 6, the air-conditioning system is still the highest energyconsuming factor, but obviously much lower than the conventional buildings as well as the LEOBuilding. Resulting from the daylight design of the building, the lighting system consumes onlyless than 5 kWh/m2/year from the total energy consumption, which very much less than the other buildings.

The EE features performance of the LEO Building has been monitored by MECM themselvessince October 2004. The data is covering the period from 1st January 2005 to 31st December2005 (Table 4 and Figure 7) which is all available from the KETTHA official website. Theaverage electricity consumption was 4,532 kWh/day while the total monitored energyconsumption was 6,000 kWh/day. Derived from the total energy consumed in the building, themonitored building energy index (BEI) is 114 kWh/m2/year, based on an air-conditioned area of



67

19,237 m2 and actual operation of 2,930 hours in the first year of observation. A study conducted by Malaysia Energy Centre in 2003 on government buildings with conventional designillustrated that energy consumption is typically 62% air-conditioning, 18% lighting and 20% plug loads. In contrast, the energy for air-conditioning represents 45%, lighting 21% andequipment 34% of the total energy consumption of the LEO Building.

Figure 7: Comparative Building Energy Index of typical, LEO and GEO Building

Table 4: Energy Data in 2005 for LEO building



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Figure 8: Breakdown of Energy Consumption in the LEO Building

Both being the government‘s showcase buildings in terms of Energy Efficiency, the GEOBuilding and LEO Building demonstrated equality in the Green Building Design approach,which they share common passive design in several items such as the building orientation, building envelope shading, day lighting design etc. However, the GEO Building overwhelmedthe LEO Building in some cases. In order to be certified by the GBI rating system, the GEOBuilding had been installed with most advance innovation such as the spectrally selectivedouble-glazing windows and BIPV panels. Yet by having the innovative atrium design, the LEOBuilding has a better natural ventilation system than the other, which comforts the occupants physiologically and psychologically.

Overall, the daylight design of the GEO Building surpasses other buildings. The energy

consumption of lighting system in the GEO Building is obviously smaller than the other buildings. This indicates that the integration of mirror light shelf, roof light, reflective ceiling,and skylight system was a success, whereby the system promotes day light throughout the building and then lower the requirement of artificial lighting.

Both of the buildings also emphasized on the building orientation and interior spacelayout design in order to reduce the cooling load and artificial lighting system that require moreenergy. Though the LEO Building is having the site limitation, the architects tried their best toorientate the building envelope. The interior space layout design helps reduce the energyconsumption by promoting day lit into the buildings.

Against these findings, it is ascertain that each of the features could not make a bigdifference in achieving Energy Efficiency, but to integrate all them into one whole GreenBuilding Design. It is undeniable that this integration showcases the success of Green BuildingDesign through the readings of Table 5.

Table 5 exhibits the comparison of monitored Building Energy Index (BEI) among theconventional government office building with GEO Building and LEO Building. By utilizing theGreen Building Design approach, the LEO Building reduces the energy consumption down to



69

50% from the typical conventional buildings. On the other hand, the GEO Building surpasses allof the buildings by reducing the energy consumption down to 30%.

Table 5: Comparison of monitored BEI among conventional government office building,GEO Building and LEO Building

Building

Element

Conventional

Government Office

Building

GEO Building LEO Building

Monitored BuildingEnergy Index

(kWh/m2/year)200 - 300

65 (excl. PVgeneration)

114

4.0 Conclusion

Based on the two subjects in the case study chapter, it can be concluded that the Green BuildingDesign that can be realized, and proved effective, in a Green Building and EE Building were the building orientation; shading devices; roof and walls insulation; daylight design; ventilationsystem; and interior space layout design. However, these features will not give a significanteffect, but incorporate all of them together into one building‘s design.

The paper reveals the efficacy of Green Building Design in context of Energy Efficiency.Compare to the BEI of the conventional government office building, which is 200 – 300kWh/m2/year, the LEO Building is 114 kWh/m2/year and GEO Building is 65 kWh/m2/year.This is a thrilling result that serves to motivate all the building industry players to involvethemselves in building green and sustainability.

5.0 Recommendation

As school is a prior asset to deliver the best education system, it is strongly recommend having afuture research on having Green School Building Standard. Study from the two subject buildingsin the previous discussion shown that Green Building Design has a short payback period such as10 years compare to the age of building up to 100 years. Therefore, the government needs tochange their mindset to get prepared for the emergence of Green School Building and alleviatethe development of green environment. Early formal education can only be obtained fromschool. It shows how important schools need to be maintained in an energy efficient approach aswell as to prolong their life-cycle.

McDonald‘s (2005:57) concluded that ―Despite the commitment of the private sector tosustainable development, it is clear that it is unlikely to be delivered without a partnership withgovernment and the support of an appropriate fiscal and regulatory framework‖. Hence, the public sector policy makers play an important part in realizing the vision of sustainability andgreen.



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References

Ahmed, A.Z. 2008. Integrating Sustainable Energy in Buildings: A Case Study in Malaysia,FAU Conference, 14-15 May 2008, Copenhagen, Denmark

Akbari, H., 2001. Energy Saving Potentials and Air Quality Benefits of Urban Heat Island

Mitigation. DOE Scientific and Technical Information, Availableat:http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/860475-UIHWIq/860475.PDF Azizi, A.A., Adnan, Y. 2008. Incorporation of Innovative Architecture Features in Office

Building Design Toward Achieving Operational Cost Saving – The Move to EnhanceSustainable Development. Centre for Urban & Regional Real Estate, Faculty of BuiltEnvironment, University of Malaya

Cole, R.J., Lindsey, G., Todd, J.A. 2000. Assessing life cycles: shifting from green to sustainabledesign, Proceedings: International Conference Sustainable Building 2000, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 22-25th October 2000

Frej, Anne, B. 2005. (ed), Green Office Buildings: A Practical Guide to Development.Washington, DC: ULI – The Urban Land Institute, United States.

Jain, A. 2009. A step towards urban building information modeling: Measuring design and fieldvariables for an urban heat island analysis. M.B.S. dissertation, University of SouthernCalifornia, United States.

Kats, G. 2003. The costs and financial benefits of green buildings. A Report to California‘sSustainable Building Task Force, United States.

Malaysian Standard. MS 1525. 2001. Code of Practice on Energy Efficiency and Use ofRenewable Energy for Non-residential Buildings. Department of Standards Malaysia.

McDonald, R. 2009. The economics of green building in Canada: Highlighting seven keys tocost effective green building. MA unpublished dissertation. Royal Roads University(Canada) Available from http://ezproxy.um.edu.my:2112 (publication number AATMR36607; accessed October 27, 2009)

Oh, T.H., Chua, S.C. 2010. Energy efficiency and carbon trading potential in Malaysia.Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14, 2010, pp 2095 – 2103

Oh, T.K., Pang, S.Y., Chua, S.C. 2010. Energy policy and alternative energy in Malaysia:Issues and challenges for sustainable growth, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 14, Issue 4, pp 1241-1252

Resnick, K. 2009. ―Sealing the envelope: How urban New England communities can mitigateclimate change by encouraging energy efficient home renovations‖. M.A. diss., TuftsUniversity. Available from http://ezproxy.um.edu.my:2112 (publication number AAT1463906; accessed October 27, 2009).

Yudelson, J. 2007. Green building A to Z: Understanding the language of green building. NewSociety Pub

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71

A Model of Uncertainty in Refurbishment Design Process

S.A.F. Al -Zawawi , L.P.Wah, A.S.Ali*

Building Performance and Diagnostic Group

Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Tel: +603-7967 4494 Fax: 603-7967 5713*Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Refurbishment project is growing gradually in Malaysian construction industry. The refurbishment worksincluded upgrading or alteration on existing building to improve building facilities and extend the building lifespan. However refurbishment work is complex compare to newly built construction.Uncertainty is a major characteristic of refurbishment work. Complexity contributes into the uncertaintiesvariables in design process and during construction. The objectives of this paper are to determine thefactors of uncertainties; to find out the relationship between uncertainties variables and performance; andto produce a predictive model based on uncertainties variables and performance. This researchimplemented quantitative method to gather data and study the relationship between variables. Theresearch started with an overview of refurbishment and followed by variables identification and project performance. In order to obtain the data and information on uncertainties variables, 80 sets ofquestionnaires were distributed to architects firm which directly involved in refurbishment design process. The data were collected from architects that involved in refurbishment projects located in KlangValley with minimum project size of RM 500,000. The relationship between performance and theuncertainty variables was obtained through the correlation test. In relation to that, two regression modelswere produced in order to obtain the most accurate model. From those variables, 4 variables were foundsignificantly correlated with the performance variable which is cost variance. The variances were percentage of provisional sum of total contract, design data, time frame for design and client‘scommitment.

Keywords: Uncertainties, refurbishment, design process

1.0 Introduction of Building Refurbishment

Quah (1988) defined refurbishment as―upgrade, major repair works, renovations, alteration, conversion, and modernization ofexisting building, but exclude routine maintenance and cleaning work.‖

Another brief description given by Faizah (2007) from CIOB that defined refurbishment

as: ―refurbishment also include rehabilitation, extension, improvement, conversion,modernisation, fitting out and repair which is undertaken on existing building to permit its reuse

for various specific purpose.‖

The refurbishment project in Malaysia is gradually increasing. The growth shown thatrefurbishment projects are slowly utilized by the Malaysian construction industry. Theincreasing of number in the refurbishment projects are shown in Table 1.







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Table 1: Total Refurbishment Projects as of December 2009

TYPE OF

WORKTOTAL NUMBER OF PROJECTS

2007 2008 2009

Upgrading 448 548 608

Expansion 351 282 471

Repair 268 249 257

Renovation 263 287 215

TOTAL 1330 1336 1551

Source: Malaysia, CIDB (2009)

Building is major asset and needs services in internal building to support the building

operations. Langston (2008) mentioned that building needs maintenance and restoration work toensure the building lifespan can be prolonged. Refurbishment is required for buildings that facedobsolescence, deterioration and abandonment because the building cannot cope with the current building use. According to Rahmat (2005), the increase number of aging building and rapidchange of technology in Malaysia construction, the design process is very essential inrefurbishment. Refurbishment project will managed differently in order to reduce theuncertainties.

Yi et al. (2008), Ali et al. (2009) highlighted that refurbishment characteristic is complex.Yi et al., (2008) further explained that the complexity of refurbishment involved technical,technological, ecological, social, comfort and esthetical. Basically refurbishment involves many

complex works before and during the refurbishment. A proper planning is needed in order tocomplete the project in time and fulfil the client‘s requirement.

Reyers and Mansfield (2001) said that the scope of refurbishment is wide which coverscomplete demolition and rebuild to retained façade. The scope included financial size of projects,decision making according to statutory sources and other professional bodies. The partiesinvolved on refurbishment seem to be giving impact to feasibility and design stage. The benefitsof refurbishment are:

a) Consideration efficiency gains in term of reduced construction time b) Lower total projects costs compared with new-buildc) The more effective use of urban land via existing stock retention

d) A positive contribution to international requirements for urban environment protection and sustainable development via increased usage of recycled and reusedcomponents and materials and enhanced embodied energy conservation

(Mansfield, 2009)

It can be concluded that refurbishment give benefits to economic, environmental andsocial benefits. In economic benefits, the refurbishment cost will be lower than a new built



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construction. For environmental benefits, the increase of building quality gives goodenvironment to the building user such as safety and health.

2.0 The Design Process Of Refurbishment Projects

Hassan (1996) quoted in Baldwin et al., (1999) defined that building design as:―a process which maps an explicit set of client and end -user requirements to produce, based onknowledge and experience, a set of documents that describe and justify a project which would

satisfy these requirements imposed by the domain or the environment‖. The design processinvolved:

3.0 Performance And Uncertainties in Refurbishment Design Process

A success project depends on the performance throughout the construction stage. However thereare few factors that contributed to the performance of project. Kamrul et al. (2008) stated that a project performance should be determined by overall performance rating where it is time andcost performance. Chan (2001) had done a study on time-cost relationship of public sector projects in Malaysian construction industry and concluded that most Malaysia projects have

inter-relationship on time and cost performance. The project performance of will affect eachother in order to produce a good quality of work.

According to Frimpong et al. (2003), poor technical performance such as design workwill cause cost overrun. Though, most of the project cost overrun happened during constructionstage. This is because inflation of material cost. Sadi et al. (2006) stated that financial problem ina project will affect the project performance. He further explained that changes in design andscope; delay in decision making and approvals by owner will affected project performance.

Stage A

Inception

Stage B

Feasibility

Stage C

Outline Proposal

Stage D

Scheme Design

Stage E

Detail Design

Stage F

ProductionInformation

Stage G

Bills ofQuantities

Stage H

Tender Action

Stage J

Project Planning

Stage K

Operation onSite

Figure 1: Traditional Design and Management Process

Source: RIBA and Plan of Work



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Chan and Mohan (2002) mentioned that construction time is essential for construction project and its benchmark is for assessing performance of a project. Kamrul et al., (2008)concluded that major causes of project delay are long duration of contract or procurement; civilworks and land acquisition; and consultant employment.

As a result there is an inter-relationship between cost and time performance. It will affecteach other. A project cost can be function of a project time. The cost is dealing among the parties involved. Therefore cost planning is important to avoid cost overrun.

Kirkham (2007) concluded that a major characteristic of refurbishment work isuncertainty. The uncertainty will affect the time and cost performance of a project. Salihudin etal., (2009) quoted from Kartam (2001) construction industry is involves with numbers ofuncertainties and it has high risk due to the nature of construction activities, processes,environment and organization. Reyers and Mansfield (2001) stated that the refurbishment projecthas more technical and economic uncertainties and higher risk compared to newly built

construction. Uncertainties occurs prior refurbishment work.

Throughout the study, the author had identified eight uncertainty variables thatrelated with refurbishment design process. The variables are:

a) Insufficient design data b) Lack of communication between client and architectc) Refurbishment design feed) Sufficient time frame for designe) Building usagef) Lack of client attributesg) Ease of accessh) The percentage of provisional sum of total contract.

Insufficient design data

Design data is information obtained prior design process and perform the data into client‘srequirement. The data needed to be collected before design stage. Kirkham (2007) concludedthat refurbishment has high level of uncertainty, not only in the client requirements but also in physical data. It will extend the construction period. Baldwin et al., (1999) said that data is the‗fuel of design‘ that needed for design team to perform the tasks. Without the ‗fuel‘ the designteam is unable to complete the task given. Besides that the current condition of the building willaffect the ‗fuel of design‘. Quoted from Clancy (1995) in Ali et al. (2009) said that the accuracyof data is important as the data of existing building. This will leads to inaccuracy due toincomplete information. Limited data will leads to delays in time and produced poor quality ofwork. After obtaining documented data, Andi and Minato (2004) said that site survey is neededin order to observe the current condition and compare with documented information such as as- built drawing. Accuracy of the information is important in order to produce a high quality ofdesign. Insufficient information will affect the performance of design.



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Lack of communication between client and architect

Communication is a process to share ideas or understanding among parties involved. Baldwin etal., (1999) stated that changing in design needed communication among the parties involved.Well communication will produced a good design. Andi and Minato (2003) noted that client

expects communication among client, architect and contractor will give chances to learn morefrom each other. Besides that, they said that lack of feedback from contractor will affect thedesign quality. Opinion is needed to improve the quality of the design. Based on the experienceof client and contractor will produced a good quality design. Communication is important inorder to run a project smoothly. Without a good communication among parties involved, the project might fail due to unachievable objective and project requirements. Communication brings pros than cons.

Refurbishment design fee

Andi and Minato (2003) found out the fee is depends on economic condition of the country and

services provided by the architect. This would conclude that services provided will affect the feeor cost. This would be the uncertainty of design fee as different services have different charges.Besides that, Kirkham (2007) reviewed that safety and cost has close relationship. To ensure thesafety of a project, many safety facilities need to be provided. The expenses in safety willcontribute into refurbishment fee. If the expenses were high then the refurbishment cost willincrease as well. The fee mainly be provided by the client. Thus, architect and other partyinvolved should perform well in order to fulfilled the requirement and reduce the claim from theclient. The performance of project is very important to ensure the successful of the project. If themanagement were planned well, the project will complete within budget and in good quality.

Sufficient time frame for design

Time is essential for every task. According to Andi and Minota (2003) time is one of the factorsthat affect the quality of design works. If there is insufficient time to prepare the design work forthe project, the project will delay and may lead to poor design quality. The design should becomplete in time or early to provided sufficient times for any changes before work commencedand submission for planning authority. Baldwin et al., (1999) stated that schedule is important ina project. The schedule needs to be followed for a smooth running project and produced asuccess project. Time frame can be the uncertainty in design process. If the time given for design process is insufficient, it will affect the quality of design. To produce a good quality design,client needs to give sufficient time frame for architect to complete the required design.

Building usage

Current building operation will affect uncertainty in design process. Different type of buildingoperation will face different problem and uncertainty. According to Ali et al. (2009) different building has its complexity on design and the design has to fulfil the government statutory inorder to produce good performance. If the building size is small then it will be the uncertainty because might not have space for material storage and might have obstructed the ways of



76

building occupants. Although building operation will contribute to uncertainty, it can be avoidwith good planning and management after observation from site survey.

Lack of client attributes

The involvement of client in a project is very significant. The architect will transform the data based on the requirement of the client. Beside contribution during design stage the involvementduring construction is essential as well. Andi and Minato (2003) said that involvement forarchitect, client and contractor in construction will give chances to improve the design quality.During discussion, parties involved will share their opinion based on the experience gained. Theopinions are important because architect might not have enough experience in site work as theirexpertise is in design. Client‘s commitment will affect the performance. If the client did not giveany commitment throughout the project it might produce a poor quality of project and the clientmight face losses in the project.

Ease of access

Compare to newly built construction the accessibility to the working area is much more difficult.This is because the existing condition of the building might have some obstruction. The designneeds to consider on the openings, staircase and building structure. For example, the column orwall could not be demolished because it might affect the entire building structure. In addition,the transfer of material to the site is uncertain in accessibility of the building. The considerationon transferring large size of material could not be transfered from opening. This needed to beconsidered during site survey. In design process, ease of access is essential because Kirkham(2007) founded out the obstruction is one of the uncertainty during construction. Mitropoulousand Howell (2002) said that accessibility is one of the problems that needs time and cost toovercome it. Therefore architect needs to consider this limitation in the refurbishment design process.

The percentage of provisional sum of total contract

According to Standard Method of Measurement (SMM), provisional sum defined as:―a sum provided for work or for costs which cannot entirely be foreseen, defined or detailed at

the time the tender documents are issued.‖

According to Rayers and Mansfield (2001) reported that if the project value increase, the provisional sum will be decreased. However these only apply to large size project because smallsize project will have more uncertainty. Provisional sum should be included in the tenderdocument to avoid the uncertainty. The provisional sum to cover the uncertainty work occurredthroughout the construction work. If the provisional sum is high this will leads to poor project performance.

4.0 Research Methodology

The uncertainty variables could be found from literature review and it can be derived to somequantitative evaluation. In this research, quantitative approach is used by implement postal or



77

email questionnaire survey for data collection. Balvanes and Cupati (2001) mentioned thatquestions in questionnaire will be the variables for analysis. The data from questionnaire wereanalysed by Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0 and the relevant data will be performed to help in producing predictive model of variables. There are 80 sets ofquestionnaire sent out to architect firms that were involved in refurbishment design process.

From 38 replied questionnaires only 32 questionnaires are valid for data analysis and theresponse rate is 40%. The questionnaires represent project with minimum size of project RM500,000 in Klang Valley. Table 2 shows almost 34% of respondents are principal architect andmostly were involved in the industry more than 6 years.

Table 2: Respondents Job Title

PROFESSION PERCENTAGE (n=32)

Principal Architect 34.4

Senior Architect 31.3

Architect 21.9

Others 12.5TOTAL 100.0

5.0 Analysis Of Data

According to Pallant (2003), correlation is used to show the strength and the direction of linearregression for dependent and independent variables. Hinton et al., (2004) and Pallant (2003) saidthat the Pearson correlation coefficient is between -1 to 1. This shows that the variable can bedetermined exactly by knowing the value on the other variable. Pallant (2003) noted that Pearsonis designed for continuous variables and the test statistic value is more than 0.3 (n>0.3) and thesignificance (p) value should be less than 0.05.

Table 3: Pearson Product-Moment Correlation between measured of uncertainty variable andtime and cost performance

Cost Performance

Design Datan .365

p .040

Time Frame for

design

n .618**

p .000

Client's Commitmentn .405*

p .022

% of Provisional Sum

of Total Contract

n .409*

p .020



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The results shows that time performance found to be less correlation with uncertaintyvariable. As a result the cost performance is more suitable to show the relationship between the performance and uncertainty. In this case, cost performance is chose to be the dependentvariable. As a result, it shown the correlation between cost performance are design data (n=0.36, p=0.040), time frame for design (n=0.618, p=0.000), client‘s commitment (n=0.405, p=0.222)

and percentage of provisional sum of total contract (n=0.409, p= 0.020). In order to generate amultiple regression, the independent variables- design data, time frame for design client‘scommitment and percentage of provisional sum of total contract with correlation with dependentvariable which is the cost performance are the data for the regression.

6.0 Multiple Regression

According to F.N. Kerlinger and E.J. Pedhazur (1973) multiple regression is defined as ―a

method of analyzing the collective and separate contributions of two or more independentvariables, X i , to the variation of s dependent variable, Y .‖ Anuar et al., (2006) quoted from Hairet al., (1998) mentioned that multiple regression used widely in prediction and explanation.

Therefore multiple linear regression model could be written as:

y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + …… + βk Xk + ε

Wherey is dependent variableX1, X2… Xk are independent variabley = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + …… + βk Xk is the deterministic portions of the modelβi determines the contribution of the independent variable Xi ε is random er ror

With the multiple regression above, the uncertainty variable can be derived into the regressionand produce a prediction model. Besides produce prediction model R 2 can be read from themodel summary and coefficient table produced from the process.

There are two regression models were produced and presented as:

Regression 1

CP = 8.055 – 1.199 PS + 0.679 DD -0.480 TF – 0.401 CC

Coefficient of multiple regression, R 2 = 0.294 (29.4%)

Regression 2

CP = 9.063 – 1.071 PS – 0.526 CCL

Coefficient of multiple regression, R 2 = 0.211 (21.1%)

Where,CP = Cost PerformancePS = Percentage of Provisional Sum of Total ContractDD = Design Data



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TF = Time Frame for DesignCC = Client‘s CommitmentR 2 = (Difference between Total and Error Sum of Squares)

Measure of the variation of the observed values around the mean= ∑( Ŷi –Ÿ)2

∑( Yi –Ÿ)

2

Yi = the observed dependent variableŶi = the fitted dependent variable for the independent variableŸ = mean (Yi = ∑ Yi / n)

Regression 1 used Enter method where the variables were selected manually based on thecorrelation (Table 3). While regression 2 used Stepwise method that the variables selected by thesystem according to its significance.

7.0 The Validity Of Regression Model

Table 4: Checking Assumption of Regression 1ITEM VALUE VALUE

Collinearity Diagnosis

Tolerance

Variance Inflation Factor

(VIF)

Design Data 0.785 Design Data 1.274Time Frame for design 0.580 Time Frame for design 1.723Client‘s Commitment 0.779 Client‘s Commitment 1.284% of Provisional Sum ofTotal Contract

0.738 % of Provisional Sum ofTotal Contract

1.356

Table 4: Checking Assumption of Regression 2

ITEM VALUE VALUECollinearity Diagnosis

Tolerance

Variance Inflation Factor

(VIF)Communication withClient

0.984 Communication withClient

1.016

% of Provisional Sum ofTotal Contract

0.984 % of Provisional Sum ofTotal Contract

1.016

Checked on the assumptions confirmed that they were not violated. The data above shows themodel multicolliearity problem where checks had been made through value of tolerance (not lessthan 0.1) and variance inflation factor, VIF (not greater than 10).

8.0 Conclusion

From the study the objectives were achieved. Based on literature reviews, eight variables areidentified as uncertain variables. The result of analysis shows that there is some variable withsignificance different concerning on the uncertainty variables. The result of the test shows thereare four significant correlations between the uncertainties towards the design performance. Thereare two prediction model generated using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The first



80

model was less significance due to the independent variables is selected manual from theobservation. The result with four independent variables model is not that significance becausethe significance not near to 0. Then the second model is produced where the independentvariables are selected by SPSS. The result selected two independent variables that is moresignificance compare to the first model. Therefore two models were presented in the research.

Regression 1

CP = 8.055 – 1.199 PS + 0.679 DD -0.480 TF – 0.401 CC

Regression 2

CP = 9.063 – 1.071 PS – 0.526 CCL

References

Andi, Minato, T. 2003. Design Documents Quality in Japanese Construction Industry. International Journal of Project Management , 537-546.Ali, A.S., Kamaruzzaman, S.N., Salleh, H. 2009. The Characteristic of Refurbishment Project in

Malaysia,. Facilities, Vol. 27 , 56-65.Baldwin, A. N., Austin, S. A., Hassan, T. M., Thorpe. 1999. Modelling Information Flow during

the Conceptual and Schematic Stages of Building Design. Journal of Construction

Management and Economics , 155-167.Chan, D.W.M., Mohan, K. 2002. Compressing construction durations:Lessons learned from

Hong KOng building projects. Journal of Project Management , 23-35.Frimpong, Y., Oluwoye, J, Crawford, L. 2003. Causes of delay and cost overruns in construction

of ground projects in a developing countries; Ghana as a case study. Journal of Project

Management , 321-326.Kamrul, A., Indra, G. 2010. Analysis of Cost and Schedule Performance of International

Development Projects. International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 28 , 68-78.Kerlinger, F.N., Pedhazur, E.J. 1973. Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research. United State:

Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.Kirkham, R. 2007. Ferry and Brandon's Cost Planning of Building. United Kingdom: Blackwell

Publishing.Kumar, R. 2005. Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. London: SAGE

Publication Ltd.Langston, C., Wong, F.K.W., Hui, E.C.M., Shen, L.Y. 2007. Strategic Assessment of Building

Adaptive Reuse Opportunities in Hong Kong. Building and Environment, Vol. 46 , 1709-1718.

Mansfield, J.R. 2009. The Use of Formalized Risk Management Approaches by UK DesignConsultants in Conservation Refurbishment Projects, Engineering. Construction and

Architectural Management, Vol. 16 , 273-287.Faizah, N.K. 2007. Building Refurbishment Project in Malaysia. Shah Alam: Universiti

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Reyers, J., Mansfield, J. 2001. The Assessment of Risk in Conservation Refurbishment Projects.Structural Survey, Vol. 19 , 238-244.

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Comparison How Outdoor Learning Enhances EQ Skills Between Australia

and Singapore Education

S. Mi rr ahmi, N.M.Tawil, N.A .G. Abdullah, A.I. Che-Ani, N. UtabertaFaculty of Engineering and Built Environment,

University Kebangsaan Malaysiae-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Outdoor learning (0E) has positive impact on activities related to enhance emotional intelligence (EQ) inschool. This paper investigated the effect of outdoor learning curriculum on development of EQ betweenSingapore and Australia. Research also indicates that school can provide opportunities to develop socialand emotional intelligent. The advantage of learning outside the classroom have been recognized formany years in Australia and Singapore, student can learn new skills in outdoor learning.

. Key words: Outdoor learning, EQ, Australia, Singapore.

1.0 Introduction

Internationally, the past researchers have found that students require improved ability related tolearning for skills of work and employment opportunities. Goleman identified Emotionalintelligence (EQ) included self-awareness; self-regulation; motivation; empathy and social skills.The significant of these skills for youth has been increased in their personal lives and at school.Schools can provide to enhance these ability of social and emotional skills. Outdoor learning is ahuge educational source that can be gradually increased learning. Educators who scheme andmanage purposeful education activities in the report of outdoors that their students are moreinvolved, enjoyable and healthier learning. (Ministry of education in Singapore – MOE, 2006)

The current strategy of educational executed, it is getting more necessary for educating tooccur not only inside of school but also outside, at the vast outdoors. .( conference in Singapore).If a person has a high EQ level, then this indicates that the individual is able to experiencefeelings as they occur. Higher EQ furnishes a person with compassion, empathy, adaptability andself-control. If persons strengthen their EQ, then they also are more able to strike a healthy balance between personal needs and the needs of others. (Segal ,1997)Singapore has some places to suggest regarding to wealthy environment of education to satisfy, motivated and mindof curious for the young generation. In fact, they are great outdoor classroom. ( conference inSingapore)

Outdoor education and environmental education have variety event of the past in thecurriculum formal in Victoria; therefore, outdoor education would be reasonable places to progress substantiality in school of Australian. (Gough, 2007)

2.0 Defination of EQ on Outdoor Learning

The term ―emotional intelligence ―was first defined by Salovery and Mayer in 1990. The EQrelated to communication skills, time management, teamwork, leadership skills and business










83

acumen. (Salovery and Mayer, 1998). The ability of emotional intelligence were approximatelyfour times more important than IQ in stating professional achievement, even for those a background of scientific. Goleman says that emotional intelligence has five domains: self-awareness; self- regulation; motivation; empathy and social skills. (Goleman, 1998). Theevidence shows that emotional and social intelligence is unfixed at birth, and also can be

methodically improved in indivduals during learning and experience. (Pasi, 1997).

EQ is a learnable ability;so, it can be change. This shows that learning has a main role toenhance the students EQ levels that should developed working abilities of graduate students.(Riemer, 2003) Mayer and Salovy says that levels of EQ behaviors and EQ awareness aroundemotional intelligence be enhanced. (Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, 2004)The level of EQ in person‘s can have a significant impact on education. (Salovery and Mayer, 1998). Schools offera place to reach children with basic and essential life lessons. Goleman, 1995).

EQ skills education seems to be in a row with experimental learning and developmentapproach to studies; so, supporting students to study new abilities throughout activity of project

work and in this method will succeed more than lecture on EQ; theory lacking practice does notrun far. (Riemer, 2003). Team work and cooperation will improve produce EQ qualities and areespecially important abilities given the advanced environments of team-based in industry. (Segal,1997). Emotional intelligence was seen as being of main importance in teamwork or in themanagement of a group of people. (Szkutnik , 2002)EQ, throughout its emphasis on interculturalawareness, empathy self-awareness and social skills, be able to powerfully help interculturalcommunication competences. (Jansen and Riemer, 2002), EQ skills, particularly related toflexibility, adaptability, self- awareness and a higher level of motivation to learn, engage into thisform of education. (Riemer, 2003), EQ requires to be embedded within organizational system forit to be effective. (Fitzgerald, 2003), separating EQ learning into one subject will not get thedesired change as much as incorporating EQ elements across the curriculum. (Riemer, 2003).Social and emotional intelligence, then, includes various - dimensional and multi - faceted set ofawareness, abilities, attitudes, and behaviors that allow the successful management of a widevariety of important life responsibilities (Elias, Weissberg, Frey, Greenberg, Haynes, Kessler,Shwab-Stone, & Shriver).

NO The element of EQ

1 communication skills

2 time management

3 teamwork

4 leadership skills

5 business acumen

6 cooperation7 self-awareness

8 self- regulation

9 motivation

10 Empathy

11 social skills

12 intercultural awareness

13 intercultural communication



84

14 flexibility

15adaptability

16

Self control

Table 1: the element of EQ Source: Author

3.0 Comparison Background Of Outdoor Learning Between Singapore And Australia

3.1 Singapore

In Singapore, The majority of outdoor learning has been occurred in the shape of camping and journey in Singapore from 1980s. Although, a number of local undergraduate do investigate on

the precept of outdoor learning by Ho (1994), Chan (1998), Tay (1999). Recently, School inSingapore practice to have camping just three to four days per year in one group camp; however,it may not be enough not one bit. Students are required to undertake a long-term curriculum inorder to have increased learning. ( Abdul Rahman, 2009). Historian of education have found thatoutdoor education occur out of school grounds, in the area of camping, from formal curriculumof school outdoor, in contrast other subjects such as math, English, science or physical education,outdoor learning usually take place along way classroom of school outside wide different varietyof activity context. (Georgakis, 2010). Health and physical education was one of the remindmarginalized. It was started as a personality subject in higher level in 1975. And also, agricultureand science of environment have been launched in 1977.( Gough, 2007)

3.2 Australia

The government of Australian has been supported sustainable schools in the New South Walesstate (NSW) and Victoria (Vic), in approximately 100 schools in 2003. There were considered positive income. (Australian Government, 2008) and due to that Western Australia (WA), SouthAustralia (SA) and Queensland (QLD) have started AuSSI IN 2005. In addition, North Territory(NT) and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and Tasamina (Tas) have found in Sustainableschool in 2007. Presently, more than 2000 Australian‘s school engaged in AuSSI. (AustralianGovernment, 2008, cited in Davis et al,2009 ). The following of the outdoor education toimprove and replace political, social and condition of education between 1980s and 1990s.(Martin, 2008), In New South Wales Outdoor learning history ―socio-moral‖ a purpose of this

form of education and the physical activities f Outdoor education which is instituted in primaryand secondary schools and also in public and private schools in New South Wales. Most of theAustralian students engage in at the lowest one significant camping or outdoor learning so that ishypothesis of logical. (Neill, 2001, p.2).unction during 1890s to 1960s.( Georgakis, 2010).Outdoor learning in school of Australia has been admissible more than 25 years, Despite of thefact that Australia has been claimed over this time; and also, outdoor learning in curriculum ofsecondary school has been established as a journey in 1982 in Victorian Certificate of Education(VCE). (Gough, 2007 ). In Australia outdoor education is established in post World-War II in



85

1956. (Gass, 1998; Herbert, 1998 cited in Georgakis, 2010 ). Referring to John Rawling was ateacher of senior at first of 1980s in Victoria was incentive behind the primary 12 curriculum ofoutdoor education to be formally trained by a authority of state education in Australia. ( Martin,2008).

Table 2: The comparison of outdoor learning in Australia and Singapore Source: Author

4. Survey Of Eq In Singapore And Australia

4.1 Singapore

In Singapore, Mr Thaman Shanmugaratnam, who was the doing the Minister for Education,speaking on opening at the Co-Curricular Activities(CCA) conference in 2003, focused on therequired to provide students by rearing in them ability of life and attributes as suborns, a healthyand flexible approach to life and more of a soul of ‗can do‘, surviving recent economy. Ifoutdoor learning and experiences of camping could actually contribute to envelopment in thesefields of area, they definitely have vast value in economy of Singapore. Therefore, the opinionthat outdoor learning and experience of camping propose superior opportunities to improve theselife abilities is the foundation of the outdoor learning ingredient of the sports and healthinessschedule for the NothLight school. (khamis,2009). Plans of outdoor can supply a framework forassociation to enhance in areas as working in a group, resolve of problem, self- esteem, take ofrisk and communication between students. (khamis,2009) In singapore, The Physical Educationwants to improve skill of every student to do and enjoy a diversity of physical activities with perceiving [and]… support physical health and physical ability during regular taking part physical activities. (Singapore Ministry of Education – MOE, 2006)

outdoor learning Australia Singapore

1 Camping × ×

2 Journey × ×

3 Culture of countries

4 School summer ×

5 School ground

6 Traditional play ground

7 Natural environment × ×

8 Environmental science ×

9 Natural ecosystem × ×

10 sustainability ×11 International play ground

12 Primary school ×

13 Secondary school ×

14 Private school ×

15 Public school ×



86

4.2 Australia

Australia historians have established to encourage sport culture and society of style of society infront of focus on convict opening and endangerning environment of natural in this during time.(Cashman, 1995; Light & Rockwell, 2005 cited in Georgakis, 2010)

In South Eastern Australia, Outdoor education teacher explains that encouraging self-steem andteam working are investigated the education influence from take part in outdoor education.(Lugg & Martin, 2001; Polley & Pickett, 2003 cited in Martin, 2008)In New South Wales Outdoor learning history ―socio-moral‖ a purpose of this form of educationand the physical activities function during 1890s to 1960s. (Georgakis, 2010) The plan ofPhysical education was advanced social training in responsibility, imagination, health and self-confidence in the post World War II during in the 1952. (Georgakis, 2010). In Australia, Young people were supplied for inflexibility of World War I by education of health. And also it seemsto have created the aims and camping train and motivated the camping progression. (Georgakis,2010)

Table 3:Survey of element of EQ in school of Australia and Singapore Source: Author

5.0 Conclusion

Finally, the element of EQ skills can be encouraged to develop and motivated and how studentsare educated. EQ is a learnable skill in school and also can be changed. In additional, studentshave more employment opportunities in work space. In Singapore , educators‘ effort to make plan for the program of outdoor for Schools may need to look activity of environment directedthrough the 10 weeks curriculum and the objective of learning that they expect to get for the pupils; moreover, Studies in the future could also search on the nature group and the student‘srole with esteem to take part inside and interpersonal improvement. It may be useful to search atdifference among the initial journey experience to take part comparison by participants alreadytaking part to travel to learn something. (khamis,2009)

Element of EQ Australia Singapore

1 Self-esteem × ×

2 Communication × ×

3 sustainability ×

4 Working together × ×

5 Self-confidence ×

6 Ability of life ×

7 Flexible approach of life ×

8 Improve life ability ×

9 Take of risk ×10 Physical ability × ×

11 Physical health × ×



87

In Australia, Recently, for the program of primary and secondary school was not recognized inoutdoor learning. It was not a physical activity and it could not be observed in activity while itoccurred in out of school camps sites. (Georgakis, 2010). Outdoor learning curriculum couldexpand to inquiry into dealings between communities and regions as formed in the public interest by ground and catchment management, exercise planning.

5.0 Reference

Fitzgerald, M., 2003. Corporate EQ: creating an emotionally- intelligent workplace. HRProfessional, 20, 1, February/ March, 46-49.

Jansen, D.E. and Riemer, M.J. 2002. The importance of emotional intelligence in interculturalcommunication. Proc. 6th Baltic Region Seminar on Engng. Educ., Wismar/ Warnemünde,Germany, 79-82.

Georgakis, S., Light, R. 2010. The outdoor classroom: School camping as education in NSW 1890-1960s, Australian Journal of Outdoor Education. Milton. Vol. 14, Iss. 1; pg. 3, 10 pgs

Goleman, D. 1995. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ. New York:Bantam Books.Goleman, D. 2998. Working with Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.Gough, A. 2007. Outdoor and Environmental Studies: Yet more challenges to its place in the

curriculum. Paper presented at the 15th National Outdoor Education Conference. Sustainingour Spirit of Place, Ballarat.

Ho, C.C.C. 1994. Outdoor adventure provision in three types of schools in Singapore.Unpublished undergraduate dissertation, Loughborough University of Technology, England.

Student Development: Emotion versus Intelligence.http://www.qub.ac.uk/cap/studentdevelopment/news.htm

Khamis, Samsiah. 2009. Action Research In Outdoor Education – Using The Life EffectivenessQuestionaires (Leq-H) To Measure The Impact Of The Outdoor Module On CharacterEducation In Northlight School, Educational Research Association of Singapore (ERAS)Conference 2009, Unpacking Teaching and Learning through Educational Research,[email protected]

Kierstead, J., Human Resource Management Trends and Issues: Emotional Intelligence (EI) inthe Workplace. Public Service Commission of Canada (2001), http://www.psc-cfp.gc.cs/research/personnel/ei_e.htm

Lugg, A., Martin, P. 2001. The nature and scope of outdoor education in Victorian schools.Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 5(2), 42-48.

Margo, R. Ross. 2002. New roles for school psychologists: addressing the social and emotionallearning needs of students, School Psychology, National Association of SchoolPsychologists, vol:31.

Martin, P. 2008. Outdoor education in senior schooling: clarifying the body of knowledge,Australia Journal of Outdoor Education, 12(1), 13-23.

Ministry of National Development and Ministry of Education (2010), at the MOE KindegartenConference.

Pearce, T. Building personal skills into a master of engineering degree. Proc. Global Congresson Engng. Educ., Cracow, Poland, 369-372 (1998). Polley, S., & Pickett, B. (2003). The

http://proquest.umi.com.www.ezplib.ukm.my/pqdweb?RQT=318&pmid=72390&TS=1283762671&clientId=19238&VInst=PROD&VName=PQD&VType=PQD

http://www.qub.ac.uk/cap/studentdevelopment/news.htm






http://proquest.umi.com.www.ezplib.ukm.my/pqdweb?RQT=318&pmid=72390&TS=1283762671&clientId=19238&VInst=PROD&VName=PQD&VType=PQD



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nature and scope of outdoor education in South Australia. Australian Journal of OutdoorEducation, 7(2), 11-18.

Rahman, HA, The The Effect of Outdoor Education on Students‘ Social EmotionalCompetencies Development and Engagement in the Classroom,

Zhenghua Secondary School, Singapore Paper presented at ‗Outdoor education research and

theory: critical reflections, new directions‘, the Fourth International Outdoor EducationResearch Conference, La Trobe University, Beechworth, Victoria, Australia, 15-18 April2009.

Riemer, M.J. 2001. IQ versus EQ: Emotional intelligence and the graduate engineer. Proc. 5thBaltic Region Seminar on Engng. Educ., Gdynia, Poland, 79-82.

Riemer, M.J. 2003. The impact of emotional intelligence on communication in engineeringeducation. Proc. 6th UICEE Annual Conf. on Engng. Educ., Cairns, Australia, 203-206.

Salovey, P., Meyer, J.M. 1998. Emotional Intelligence. In: Jenkins, J.M., Oatley, K. and Stein, N.L. (Eds), Human Emotions: A Reader. Malden: Blackwell.

Segal, J. 1997. Raising Your Emotional Intelligence: A Practical Guide. New York: Henry Holtand Co.

Szkutnik, J. 2001. New trends in increasing the competitiveness of graduates. Proc. 4

th

UICEEAnnual Conf. on Engng. Educ., Bangkok, Thailand, 144-146.Tay, C.G. 1999. Outdoor adventure provision in primary schools in Singapore. Unpublished

undergraduate dissertation. Loughborough University of Technology, England.



89

Space Management - A Relation Of Workspace in the Office and Schools

Environment

S.N.Kamaruzzaman1, N.M.Salleh1,2, N.Razali1

1Building Performance and Diagnostic,

Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,2 Building Technology Department,School of Housing Building & Planning, University Science Malaysia,

6800 Penang, Malaysia

Abstract

In office space management, spatial is crucial to ensure that the space areas are utilized toenhance the workers productivity. Hence, space characteristic varies according to the spatialsetting, organization activities, health and safety matters, and the metaphoric and symbolicqualities of space. All information and qualities must be integrated in order to achieve the

productivity and efficient usage of space. Spatial information has made major advances in boththeories and application for studies in spatial management. This research aims to identify andevaluate the application of spatial information in office space management. It is also embraces anassessment on effectiveness of the application of spatial information in space management of anoffice workplace. Spatial information is a tool that utilizes the space data collection and processing of data in order to develop a new set of application in monitoring, managing andcontrolling the spatial. Space management of an office space requires experts such a qualifiedfacilities manager to ensure the space allocated for each task are suitable, ergonomic and safe forthe workers. Thus, this research can also becomes a reference to the space management inschools, whereas it directly gives impacts on learning process and the children performance inschools.

1. Introduction

The applications of spatial information in office space management allow the integrations ofinformation of such space ergonomics, workplace, furniture design, and ergonomics. Workplaceareas principles, materials, anthropometry, office layout security, services and other issuesregarding on office work space (Watkins, 2007). In office space management, spatialinformation is crucial to ensure that the space areas are utilized to enhance the workers productivity. Thus, the space characteristic varies according to the spatial setting, organization‘sactivities, and health and safety matters. It is also includes metaphoric and symbolic qualities ofspace. Although, the technology and information technology (IT) have been hailed as the key

influence on changing work styles, yet the workplace is being more required by people andneeds (Steiner, 2005)

In the early stage of space planning, stipulation for future development or sustainabilitymatters are commonly projected by the designers (Xia, 2004). However, in the real practice,matters that have been predicted by the designers fail to keep up with the dynamic changes ofspace function. Consequently, facilities manager need to perform an intermittent space re-arrangement in order to accommodate these changes. The re-arrangements of space are



90

depending on the information and data collected from the daily operations. Due to this, a spacemanagement system needs to be instigated to record and monitor the space management of theworking are and the facilities. Besides, system is benefit to maintain the space effectiveness andthe efficiency of daily functions.

2.

Literature Review

According to Lindahl (2004), four aspects has identified and remain in use as basis offundamental in workspace, thus include;

The work environment qualities that have mainly to do with health and safety

The metaphoric and symbolic qualities of space , it is part of ―corporate‖ image thatrelated to identity of company

The dynamic and contextual interdependence between the spatial setting and theeveryday actions carried out in the organisation

The quality and degree of participation in the processes of change and design.

Furthermore, IT application takes place in one of the elements that enhance the competitiveadvantage crossing over (Steiner, 2005). Laing (2004) has added technology as one of theaspects of the space management in the office and integrated with other elements as mentionedin figure 1. These four major interconnected themes will determine the future of the workplace.

Figure 1: Work Space Shaped by Four Key Factors

Source: DEGW Survey, Laing (2004)

Hence, in school environments perspectives, there is a relation to the implications of thespatial volume, et al. (1999), for example, found that differentiation in ceiling height was relatedto higher levels of cooperative behavior among preschool children. On the issue of space perception, Stankovic and Stojic (2007) reported that if some space is constructed and equippedin the right way, the development of a child‘s increased abilities is supported, and this allowed

the child‘s capacities to be confirmed by the child. Pertaining to playroom arrangement,Legendre (1999) found that the type of furniture arrangement did not change the joint use of playareas and the social interactions for the peers whose relationships were weak. In contrast, forchildren showing an emerging relationship, the playroom arrangement affected the quantity andthe quality of their social interactions.

Uline and Moran (2007) have reported that the combination of shared and personalspaces for student and teacher, can help to nurture an orderly and serious academic atmosphere.

INDIVIDUAL

WORKSTATION

WORKING ENVIRONMENT

FUTURE WORK SPACE



91

This is support by Zhang and Barret (2010) whereas the open plan classroom with effectiveactivity area makes the teaching situation flexible and share space is an extension of theclassroom‘s activities. Non-appropriate behaviors were observed in the poorly definedclassrooms where the classrooms are entirely in impropriete layout and lower floor area . While,it seemed that a well defined classroom would inhibit more appropriate behaviors (Abbas and

Othman, 2010), Class size is an important design and drives a host of costly facility-relatedissues that are part and parcel of the school building‘s planning, design, construction, cost,maintenance and operation (Schneider, 2002). It becomes a big factor in determining the numberof teachers needed and hence, it affects the education outcomes.

Good space management will stem from business trends that encourage work-style, such asknowledge-sharing, collaborative work, increased mobility and working productivity. These keyinfluencing factors need to perfectly synchronizing with best work practice to achieve successand it has become the major factor influencing workplace design. The main consideration inspace management is to acknowledge the need of the occupants rather than the building and physical space in order to give the positive impact to the organization as well as in school

environment predictions.

3. Research Objectives

This study aim to get the characteristic of space management in workplace. The objectives of theresearch are:i. to analyze the spatial information and its application in workplaceii. to correlate the significance of spatial information with space management in office and

classroom

4. Material And Methods

In the process to complete the objectives, data collection on observation and questionnaire byimplementing the Post Occupancy Observations are made. The two case studies mainly selectedare in high educational area which represented the workplace in the office and can be correlatedwith the classroom‘s and study‘s atmosphere.

4.1 Case Studies

Two case studies selected have the same function, but, in the different location and educationinstitution. The case studies selected, namely;

i. Facilities Management Department, University Technology MARA, Shah Alam,Malaysia (UiTM)

ii. Development and Estate Maintenance Department, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia (UM)

4.2 Post Occupancy of Evaluation (POE)

The POE processes encompassing of indication, investigations and diagnostic approaches. Thiswould be quantitative and qualitative methods to evaluate the efficiency of spatial information.



92

It‘s including the cross sectional information of observation and the questionnaire obtained fromthe occupants. The questionnaire was distributed to the management level and space occupants.

i. ObservationThe observation is done during two days site visit for each case study where itfocused on the application of spatial information system in space management. Then,

it will be relate to the questionnaire results.ii. Questionnaire DesignIt is a process to get the space end-user feedback on the application of spatialinformation system in space management which includes spatial needs, settings andspace usage efficiency. The questionnaire was distributed to the space end-user for atleast 30% of the office population. The questionnaire is consists of 16 questionswhich is divided into two sections, Part A pertains on the general background ofrespondent such as age, gender, disabilities, working years and work description.In part B, eleven (11) questions regarding space management, spatial information,

setting and needs. The respondent has been provided with an ―optional-answer‖ typequestion. These mean, the answer for the questions have been provided and the

respondents just need to tick the answer which is complied with them.Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 16.0 (SPSS 16) used to obtain thedescriptive statistics: Cross tabulation and Frequencies of the result

iii. Questionnaire OutcomesIn both case studies, 50 sets of questionnaires have been distributed as a sample for population at each case study

CASE STUDY Population Questionnaire

Distributed

Questionnaire

Unreturned

Questionnai

re Returned

Percentage

of Return

UiTM 55 50 12 38 74%

UM 60 50 16 34 68%Table 2: Percentage of returned questionnaire

5. Result And Discussion

Audit Section A

From the result presented in Figure 2, over 60% of respondents from both case studies arefemale. But in UiTM, the male respondents are more than 50%. Figure 2 shows that therespondent questioned in UM is 50% age 25years old, while the majority respondent in UiTM(44.7%) was age between 26-45%. As per Figure 4, there is no disabilities worker at UiTM, but

2.9% are recognized has the disabilities in UM. Figure 5 has stated that the working experiencefor both case studies have the common working experience of average 1-5 years. Figure 6 hasmentioned the different rate of space satisfaction, whereas 68% UM workers feel dissatisfiedwith their working space compared to UiTM where most of their workers are satisfied with thecurrent space.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_tabulation



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_frequency







93

jFigure 2: Respondent gender

Figure 3: Respondent age

Figure 4: Respondent disability

UiTM UM

53%18%

47%82%

Respondent Gender

Male Female

<25 26-45 36-45 46-55 >55

10.50%

44.70%

21.10% 23.70%

0%

50%

41.20%

8.80% 0% 0%

Respondent Age

UiTM UM

UiTMUM

0.00%2.90%

100.00%97.10%

Respondent Disabilities

Yes No



94

Figure 5: Respondent working experience

Figure 6: Respondent working experience

Audit Section B

Figure 7 investigated on the space rearrangement that has been done recently. The data retrievedin order to make the relation to the factor of productivity of every worker. Surprisingly, for bothcase studies, most the occupants have never made any space rearrangement.

Figure 7: Recent space rearrangement

<1 year

1-5 years

6-10 years

>10 years

5.30%

55.30%

39.50%

0%

44.10%

41.20%

11.80%

2.90%

Respondent Working Experience

UM UiTM

YES

NO

55.30%

17%

32%

68%

Space SatisfactionUM UiTM

<1 month

4-6 month

7-12 month

>1 years

Never

10.50%

23.70%

5.30%

11%

50%

23.50%

14.70%

5.90%

17.60%

38.20%

Recent Space Management

UM UiTM



95

The respondent s who have done the arrangement, Figure8, has mentioned that in UM itself, theworkers preferred to make the arrangement on file storage (58.82%) compared to UiTM, wheremost of the workers keen to change the desk‘s locations (26.32% ).

Figure 8: Matters of rearrangement

Majority of UiTM occupants do not need the spatial setting as compared to UM workers, whoneed more space. 50% of workers at UM need more space if they are giving any opportunity torearrange the spatial setting. These can be seen at Figure 9. These dynamic change will directlymay affect the task of delivery afficiency to perform an intermittent space rearrangement in orderto accommodate the changes.

Figure 9: Spatial setting

For both case studies, most of the occupants have a good quality of working efficiency (Figure10). Yet, they were considering on equipments as a main factor of productivity (Figure 11). But

26.32%

10.53%

0.00%

13.16%

50.00%

0.00%

58.82%

2.94%

0.00%

38.24%

Desk

Location

File

Storage

Dekstop

Other

None

Matters of Rearrangement

UM Percent UiTM Percent

More Space

More privacy

Own tools

Background music

Personal radio

Another workspace

No

31.58%

5.26%

7.89%

5.26%

0.00%

5.26%

44.74%

50.00%

23.53%

23.53%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

2.94%

Spatial SettingUM Percent UiTM Percent



96

in UM, space area became priority to enhance the productivity. This interrelates to the previousstudy IT and the equipments have been influence on changing work styles, yet the workplace is being more required by people and needs (Steiner, 2005). Hence, most of the end-users are preferto have a better space area and privacy (Figure 12).

Figure 10: Working Efficiency

Figure 11: Factor of Productivity

UiTM

UM

73.70%

70.60%

26.30%

29.40%

Current Working Efficiency

YES NO

26.32%

5.26%

52.63%

5.26%

10.53%

0.00%

38.24%

20.59%

17.65%

0.00%

0.00%

23.53%

Space area

Services

Equipments

Furniture design

Security

All the above

Factor of Productivity

UM Percentage UiTM Percentage



97

Figure 12: Working Efficiency

The characteristic of space management required facilities manager to considerate variousaspects; people, work performance, corporate image, cost and beyond the working space. Spacemanagement need to satisfy people‘s need rather than building. Space allocation should bedetermined by referring the work process and by its suitable work space for the specific task. Thearrangement of the space should be able to give a good impression to the end-user dealing withthe organization. The task beyond the building should be consideration where the influence ofouter views and facilities are concluded to give the impact to the space management.

The influences of the indoor physical environment upon children‘s behaviors are welldocumented in previous studies. They dealt with matters such as spatial definitions, spacerequirements pertaining to crowding and privacy, implications of the spatial volume and wallcolor, spatial perception, playroom arrangement, children‘s competency, and development(Abbas and Othman, 2010). Teachers perceive that cleanliness, orderliness, and the generalcharacter of a school building influences student behavior (Lackney, 1996). In a study of therelationship between building condition and learning climate in three Texas elementary schools,learning climate was perceived to be related to overall building condition, size and organizationof spaces (Lowe, 1990). Maxwell (1996) found that the physical environment is related tomeasures of competency

6. Conclusion

Space characteristic varies according to the spatial setting, organization activities, health andsafety matters, and the metaphoric and symbolic qualities of space. This study has revealed theused of spatial information which can be applied in space management to enhance the productivity. It will also becomes a benchmark and as a references to the school/ environment inorder to get the work and space adequacy to increased the performance and the productivity.

63.20%

10.40%

5.30%

5.30%

10.50%

5.30%

50%

8.80%

0.00%

0.00%

2.90%

38.20%

Space Area

Desk facing window area

Facing away from workstaion entry

Conventional desk configuration

Table desk with conference seats

Work are visually separated from rest of office

Work Preference

UM UiTM



98

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Kantrowitz, E.J., Evans, G.W. 2004. ―The relation between the ratio of children per activity area

and off-task behavior and type of play in day care centers‖. Environment and Behavior,Vol. 36 No 4, pp 541-557.Lackney, J.A. 1996. Quality in school environments: a multiple case study of the diagnosis,

design, and management of environmental quality in five elementary schools intheBaltimore City public schools from an action research perspective. UnpublishedPhDthesis, The University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI.

Laing, A. 2004. The future of the workplace is now, A survey of 20 leading European facilityexecutives, representing about 250, 000 employees, conducted by DEGW on behalf ofKnoll Legendre, A. (1999). Interindividual relationships in groups of young children andsusceptibility to an environmental constraint. Environment and Behavior, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp 463-486.

Lowe, J. 1990. ―The interface between educational facilities and learning climate in threeelementary schools‖, unpublished PhD thesis, Texas A and M University, CollegeStation, TX.

Maxwell, L.E. 1996. Multiple effects of home and day care crowding. Environment and

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Educational Facilities, Washington, DC.Stankovi, D., Stoji, J. 2007. Psycho-developing needs of children and spatial features for

children‘s stay. Architecture and Civil Engineering, 5(1), 71 – 75.Uline, C., Tschannen-Moran. 2006. ―The wall speaks: the interplay of quality facilities, school

climate, and student achiements‖, Journal of Education Administration, Vol. 46 No. 1, pp. 55-73.

Zhang,Y., Barret, P. 2010. Findings from a post-occupancy evaluation in the UK primaryschools sector. Facilities Journal, 28(14), 641-666.

Steiner, J. 2005. The art of space management: planning flexible workspaces for people. JournalFacilities of Management, Vol. 4 No.1, pp 6-22.

Watkins, C. 2007. A spatial consideration of organizational performance: an excess of presentation?. International journal of Productivity and Performance Management, Vol.56 no 1, pp. 76-89.

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99

Pengenalan Penjenisan Rumah Tradisional Orang Asli di Semenanjung

Malaysia

M. Surat 1 , A.R.Musa2, M.Y.A.Broughton3

1,2 Jabatan Senibina, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Dan Alam Bina,3

Muzium Warisan Akademik,Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul [email protected] , [email protected]

Abstrak

Masyarakat Orang Asli yang terdapat di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu terdiri daripada pelbagai suku kaumyang menetap di pelbagai daerah dan persekitaran yang berbeza. Keadaan ini telah menyebabkan setiapsuku kaum dari pelbagai kumpulan etnik Orang Asli tersebut juga mengamalkan gaya hidup yang berbeza antara satu sama lain. Gaya hidup dan persekitaran yang berbeza inilah yang telah melahirkangaya rupa rekabentuk rumah kediaman mereka.Desakan keperluan hidup juga telah menyebabkan mereka

membina rumah atau tempat perlindungan walaupun ada sesetengah daripada suku kaum inimengamalkan cara hidup berpindah-randah. Kaedah binaan rumah yang rata-ratanya boleh dikatakan bersifat sementara telah membuatkannya tidak tahan lama dan tidak memiliki nilai keindahan untukdiwarisi. Namun begitu usaha pihak kerajaan dalam menyediakan penempatan baru dengan rumah gayarupa ‗moden‘ kepada Orang Asli secara tidak sedar telah melenyapkan senibina tradisional Orang Asli tersebut. Justeru itu pencarian semula senibina tradisional rumah masyarakat Orang Asli dijalankandengan terlebih dahulu membuat penjenisan tersebut berdasarkan suku kaum yang terdapat diSemenanjung Tanah Melayu.

Kata Kunci: Senibina, orang asli, semenanjung.

1.0 Pengenalan

Masyarakat Orang Asli yang terdapat di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu terdiri daripada 3kumpulan etnik yang dikenali sebagai kumpulan orang Asli Negrito, Senoi dan Melayu-proto.Setiap kumpulan tersebut dipecahkan pula kepada 6 suku kaum yang menetap di pelbagai daerahdan persekitaran yang berbeza di Semenajung Tanah Melayu. Hal ini menyebabkan setiap sukukaum dari pelbagai kumpulan etnik orang asli ini juga mengamalkan cara hidup yang berbezaantara satu sama lain. Gaya hidup dan persekitaran yang berbeza inilah yang melahirkan gayarupa rekabentuk rumah kediaman mereka. Seperti juga bangsa lain di dunia rumah merupakanelemen penting dalam keperluan hidup, begitu juga kepada masyarakat Orang Asli diSemenanjung Tanah Melayu ini juga. Oleh kerana desakan keperluan hidup inilah yangmenyebabkan mereka membina rumah atau tempat perlindungan walaupun ada sesetengah

daripada suku kaum ini mengamalkan cara hidup berpindah-randah.

Sebagaimana masyarakat yang lainnya masyarakat Orang Asli juga mempunyai budayamereka yang tersendiri yang mencorakkan perjalanan hidup mereka. Dengan budaya inilahsebenarnya telah mewarnai gaya dan perwatakan senibina rumah kediaman dan pola penempatanmasyarakat Orang Asli ini. Tidak banyak ahli antropologi dan ethnologi yang memilih senibinatradisional orang asli sebagai topik utama dalam kajian mereka. Hal ini berkemungkinandisebabkan mereka beranggapan bahawa kajian antropologi ini tiada hubungkaitnya dengan



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senibina, hakikatnya senibina itu lahir daripada budaya dan berkait rapat dengan cara hidupmasyarakat. Lantaran daripada itu tiada kajian secara terperinci dijalankan dalam mengenalpastirekabentuk tradisional masyarakat Orang Asli. Oleh kerana kurangnya kajian terhadap pola penempatan dan senibina tradisional masyarakat Orang Asli ini telah menyebabkan kitakehilangan salah satu khazanah warisan bangsa jika usaha yang gigih tidak diambil. Oleh yang

demikian kajian ini dijalankan adalah sebagai usaha untuk mendokumentasikan danmengkelaskan senibina penempatan semulajadi masyarakat Orang Asli di Semenanjung TanahMelayu

2.0 Pendekatan dan Tatakaedah

Kajian terhadap penjenisan senibina tradisional masyarakat Orang Asli dijalankan secara berperingkat-peringkat. Tata kaedah kajian ini mengandungi 3 peringkat bagi memastikan kajianyang dijalankan berjalam lancar. Peringkat pertama kajian ini meliputi kajian pustaka di manasebelum kajian ini dijalankan maklumat mengenai masyarakat Orang Asli itu sendiri dikumpuldaripada bahan bacaan, majalah, pamplet dan sebagainya. Setiap kelompok dah suku kaum

orang asli dikenalpasti kelompok-kelompok mereka dan seterusnya mengenalpasti lokasi penempatan setiap suku kaum masyarakat Orang Asli ini. Selain daripada itu juga cadangan-cadangan dan pandangan daripada orang yang lebih arif mengenai Orang Asli dikumpulseterusnya digunapakai dalam hasil kajian ini. Segala maklumat yang diperolehi dan dikumpul pada peringkat pertama ini di cerakinkan dan kemudiannya isu-isu serta permasalahan kajiandikenalpasti.

Peringkat keduanya meliputi kajian kes dengan mengadakan kajian perbandingan sertatemubual. Segala maklumat yang diperolehi dicerakinkan. Peringkat kedua ini tata kaedah kajianini adalah melalui lawatan tapak ke penempatan orang asli dan muzium Orang Asli. Seterusnya peringkat ketiganya pula setelah maklumat daripada peringkat pertama dan kedua dicerakinkansatu kesimpulan dan cadangan dibuat.

3.0 Latar Belakang Orang Asli di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu

Masyarakat orang asli di semenanjung Tanah Melayu terdiri daripada pelbagai suku kaum yangmenetap dipelbagai kedaerahan dan mengamalkan cara hidup yang berbeza setiap suku kaum.Masyarakat orang asli di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu juga merupakan sebahagian daripadakaum bumiputera di negara ini. Jumlah Orang Asli menurut bancian yang di jalankan olehJabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli sehingga disember 2006 di dapati sebanyak 141 230 Orang Aslidi Semenanjung Tanah Melayu. Di mana masyarakat Orang Asli ini terbahagi kepada tigakumpulan kaum yang utama iaitu kaum negrito, kaum Senoi, Kaum Melayu-Proto. Daripada 3

kumpulan kaum utama masyarakat Orang Asli ini terdapat 6 lagi pecahan suku kaum bagi setiapkaum seperti yang ditunjukkan di dalam jadual 1



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Melalui hasil bancian dan kajian daripada Muzium Orang Asli di dapati bahawakedudukan penempatan masyarakat Orang Asli boleh dibahagikan kepada 3 bahagian diSemenanjung Tanah Melayu. Di dapati bahawa kaum Negrito kebanyakkannya dijumpaimenetap dibahagian utara Semenanjung Tanah Melayu yang meliputi negeri Perak, Kedah,Kelantan dah hanya sedikit sahaja kaum Negrito yang menetap di negeri Pahang. Seterusnya

kaum Senoi pula ditemui penempatan mereka disepanjang pinggiran banjaran titiwangsa dan disepanjang pesisiran pantai di Negeri Selangor atau dengan kata lainnya penempatan kaum Senoiini di bahagian tengah Semenanjung Tanah Melayu. Sementara itu pula kaum Melayu-Proto pulakebiasaannya penempatan mereka di bahagian selatan Semenanjung Tanah Melayu dan disepanjang persisiran pantai barat Johor dan kuala sungai.

Sebilangan besar masyarakat Orang Asli masih lagi mengamalkan adat resam dankepercayaaan kepada animisme iaitu kepercayaan kepada semangat dan penunggu yangdikatakan menjadi tempat mereka meminta pertolongan. Lantaran daripada itu kebanyakkandaripada mereka masih lagi berpegang teguh dan menjadi amalan bagi mereka untukmenjalankan upacara-upacara adat sama ada upacara berjampi, upacara jamuan pada hari-harikepercayaan tertentu mengikut suku kaum masing-masing.

Kaum Negrito Senoi Melayu-Proto

Sukukaum

Kensiu Temiar Temuan

Kintak Semai Semelai

Lanoh Semoq Beri JakunJahai Che Wong Orang Kanak

Mendrik Jah Hut Orang Kuala

Batek (Bukit) Mah Meri Orang Seletar

Gambarajah 1: Peta penempatan Orang Asli di Semenanjung Tanah Melayu

Jadual 1 : Suku Kaum Masyarakat Orang Asli Semenanjung Malaysia.



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4.0 Kaum Negrito

4.1 Latar Belakang Kaum Negrito

Secara tradisionalnya kaum Negrito dikatakan kumpulan kaum yang paling miskin kerana padadasarnya kaum negrito ini tidak mempunyai penempatan yang tetap. Hal ini kerana kaum Negrito mengamalkan cara hidup separa berpindah-randah (nomad), di mana kaum inikebiasaanya tidak membina rumah oleh kerana kehidupan kaum negrito ini yang sering berpindah randah inilah maka mereka lebih selesa dan mudah bagi mereka untuk membina pondok yang ringkas sebagai tempat perlindungan sementara bagi puak negrito ini. Kaum Negrito ini menjadikan sesetengah tempat sebagai tempat persinggahan mereka untukmendapatkan sumber makanan dan apabila sumber makanan disekitar kawasan itu telah habismereka akan meneruskan perjalanan mereka ke tempat yang baru.

4.2 Pondok Orang Negrito

Disebabkan cara hidup mereka yang sering berpindah-randah dari satu tempat ke tempat yanglain maka mereka hanya membina pondok yang ringkas berupa pisang sesikat dan dapatdisiapkan dalam masa yang singkat dengan menggunakan bahan binaan yang diperolehidaripada persekitaran mereka sebagai tempat tinggal mereka. Tempat tinggal yang merekadibina dengan menggunakan ranting-ranting kayu dan dahan-dahan pokok serta dilitupi dengandaun-daun yang terdapat disekitarnya. Pondok kaum negrito ini dapat digambarkan denganrupabentuk separa bulat dengan bahagian atap yang diperbuat daripada lalang ataupun jeramikering yang berbentuk melengkung.

Ruang dalaman pondok Negrito hanyalah terdiri daripada satu ruang sahaja. Pondok Negrito ini mempunyai pelantar yang berfungsi sebagai tempat tidur mereka. Pelantar ini dibinadengan kayu-kayu yang disusun dan diikat serta dilitupi dengan kepingan-kepingan buluh yangdileperkan sebagai alas tempat tidur mereka. Dinding pondok ini diperbuat daripada kulit kayu.Kulit kayu ini adalah daripada pokok kepong yang disusun memanjang dan diikat dengan bingkai pondok ini. Sementara bahan binaan bumbungnya adalah daripada daun ‘chucho‘ sejenisdaun daripada spesis pokok palma yang disusun dan diikat.

Gambar 1: Replika Pondok Negrito

Sumber : Muzium orang asliGambar 2: Penempatan Puak Negrito



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Penempatan tradisional kaum Negrito ini mengandungi beberapa bilangan pondok yangdi susun mengikut susunatur mereka yang tersendiri. Di antara bilangan pondok-pondok Negritoini terdapat tempat unggun api yang dijadikan sebagai ruangan untuk mereka memasak dan berfungsi untuk memanaskan badan pada waktu malam disamping untuk menghidari daripadaganguan haiwan. Kaum Negrito ini juga mempunyai adat mereka yang tersendiri dalam

mengasingkan kaum lelaki dan perempuan muda bagi menjaga hubungan antara generasi muda.Adat dan amalan ini pertama sekali di temui oleh I.H.N Evans dalam lawantan dan kajian beliauditengah hutan belantara penempatan kaum Negrito ini di Lenggong Utara Perak pada tahun1913 ( The Negrito of Malaya ) di dalam penulisan buku beliau ada menggambarkan mengenai pondok negrito ini.

4.3 Ran

Ran boleh ditafsirkan sebagai pondok yang dibina di atas pokok tetapi bagi masyarakat OrangAsli pula ran merupakan tempat berteduh atau tempat perlindungan sementara apabilamasyarakat Orang Asli ini pergi mengembara jauh ke dalam hutan dalam suatu jangka masa

yang lama. Ran seringkali di salah tafsirkan oleh kebanyakkan orang kerana ada yangmenganggap ran adalah rumah kediaman Orang Asli sebenarnya anggapan ini sama sekali tidak benar.

Hal ini kerana berdasarkan kajian dan lawatan yang dilakukan oleh I.H.N Evans di dalam penulisan buku beliau The Negrito of Malaysia ( 1973 ). Ran yang ditemui beliau adalah kira-kira dalam tahun 1915 adalah di Temenggor bahaggian utara negeri Perak. Ran ini di bina atassebilangan pokok lebih kurang 8 batang pokok dengan ketinggian ran lebih kurang 15 kaki dariaras tanah. Pemilihan pokok adalah penting sebelum ran ini dibina di mana kedudukkan pokok- pokok dipilih terlebih dahulu bagi memastikan penyokong ran adalah kukuh dan stabil. Pokokyang sesuai untuk dibina ran di atasnya adalah pokok yang tumbuh berdekatan dalam saturumpun dan dibina diantara dahan-dahan pokok kelihatan seperti sarang burung. Randihubungkan dengan sebatang pokok yang bertindak sebagai tangga seperti di dalam foto 3.Tujuan ran ini dibina tinggi di atas pokok adalah untuk tujuan keselamatan bagi mengelakkanserangan binatang buas. Menurut I.H.N Evans lagi di dalam lawatan beliau pada tahun 1915 ranyang ditemui beliau adalah daripada suku kaum Jahai.



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5.0 Kaum Senoi

Suku Kaum Semai tinggal bertaburan di kawasan Banjaran Titiwangsa, meliputi Perak Tengah,Perak Selatan dan Pahang Barat. Mereka hidup bermasyarakat.Sebuah kampung biasanyaterdapat diantara 60 hingga 300 penduduk yang diketuai oleh seorang Penghulu atau ―Batin‖yang di lantik dari golongan berpengaruh seperti pawang, bomoh dan ketua adat. Secaratradisinya mereka hidup dalam kumpulan kecil yang terdiri daripada 10 hingga 50 kelamin.Ketua keluarga atau orang tua dalam keluarga tersebut bangun lebih awal untuk menghidupkanapi bagi memanaskan badan dan memasak makanan. Mereka mengamalkan ekonomi tradisional berasaskan pertanian sara diri dan mengamalkan sistem bertukar-tukar makanan, perkhidmatandan keperluan lain secara berkongsi. Selain daripada itu memburu dan menangkap ikanmerupakan sebahagian daripada aktiviti yang dilakukan kaum ini manakala pada waktu petangsebelum senja, mereka melakukan aktiviti seperti berehat di rumah duduk berbual-bual.

5.1 Rumah Panjang Temiar

Masyarakat orang asli suku kaum Temiar merupakan kumpulan etnik Orang Asli daripadakumpulan Senoi. Suku kaum Temiar ini kebanyakkannya ditemui menetap di pedalaman negeriPerak seperti di Grik, Kuala Kangsar dan Kinta serta sebahagian kecil di negeri Kelantan iaitu di

Gua Musang. Suku kaum Temiar ini adalah satu-satunya suku kaum orang asli di SemenanjungTanah Melayu yang menetap di rumah panjang suatu ketika dahulu. Rumah panjang Temiartidaklah seperti rumah panjang Iban yang terdapat di Sarawak. Rumah panjang Temiar ini lebih bersaiz kecil dengan panjang rumahnya tidak melebihi 50 meter dan lebar rumahnya pula kira-kira 20 meter. Seperti rumah Melayu Tradisional, rumah panjang Temiar ini juga dibina denganlantai berpanggung, di mana kedudukan lantai kira-kira 3 meter daripada aras tanah.

Gambar 4 & 5: Menunjukkan Replika RanGambar 3: Tangga yang digunakan menaiki

ran



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Binaan utama rumah panjang Temiar ini menggunakan tiang kayu yang diperolehidaripada hutan sekitarnya. Manakala bahagian dinding dan lantai rumah panjang Temiar inidiperbuat daripada buluh yang dileperkan. Tangga bagi rumah panjang Temiar ini jugamenggunakan bahan binaan daripada buluh yang diikat menjadi tangga. Selain daripada buluh bahan binaan lain yang digunakan dalam pembinaan rumah panjang Temiar ini adalah seperti

nipah digunakan untuk bahagian atap rumah, bertam dan rotan digunakan untuk tujuan ikatan.

Susun atur ruang dalaman bagi rumah panjang Temiar ini pula dibahagikan kepada bahagian-bahagian atau bilik-bilik kecil di mana bahagian-bahagian ini menempatkan beberapa bilangan keluarga. Kebiasaannya rumah panjang Temiar ini dapat menempatkan kira-kira 3hingga 10 buah keluarga. Di tengah-tengah bahagian rumah terdapat ruang terbuka yang panjangyang juga bertindak sebagai koridor atau serambi kepada penghuni rumah panjang Temiar ini.Di tengah-tengah ruangan panjang ini terdapat ruang untuk unggun api ( fire hearth ) yangdigunakan bersama oleh penghuni rumah panjang ini. Rumah panjang Temiar ini dibinamengikut adat dan kepercayaan mereka di mana ruang untuk ketua atau tok batin mestilah

diberikan keutamaan dan sentiasa dipastikan ruang ini lebih baik dan cantik daripada ruang yanglainnya. Ruang ketua ini mestilah dilengkapi dengan tempat tidur yang di alas dengan buluh- buluh yang diratakan dan dilitupi dengan anyaman buluh-buluh kuning sebagai tempat alas tidur.

Menurut John D.Leary di dalam buku penulisan beliau yang berjudul Violence And The Dream People ( 1995 ) , K. Endicott, mengulas mengenai rumah panjang Temar ini. Menurut beliau suku kaum Temiar ini lebih cenderung tinggal di dalam rumah panjang berkemungkinan besar disebabkan oleh faktor keselamatan, kedudukkan lantai rumah ditinggikan dar kedudukanlantai adalah sebagai langkah keselamatan daripada serangan binatang liar dan pengudaraanyang baik. Di bawah bahagian rumah panjang Temar ini kebiasaanya menempatkan sekumpulananjing peliharaan yang berindak sebagai penjaga rumah dan haiwan pemburu.

5.2 Rumah Orang Semai

Semai merupakan suku kaum masyarakat Orang Asli dari kumpulan Senoi dan juga merupakansuku kaum masyarakat Orang Asli yang mempunyai bilangan penduduk yang tertinggi berbanding suku kaum lain masyarakat Orang Asli di Semenanjung Tanah Mealyu. Lazimnyamasyarakat Orang Asli Semai ini menetap di sepanjang sempadan Perak-Pahang iaitu di sekitarkawasan Batang Padang sehingga ke Cameron Higlands.

Gambar 6: Rumah Panjang Temiar

Sumber : Muzium Orang Asli

Gambar 7: Menunjukkan Replika Rumah Panjang

TemiarSumber: Muzium Orang Asli



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Terdapat 3 faktor utama yang mempengaruhi corak penempatan suku kaum Semai yang pertamanya adalah keadaan geografi, faktor ekonomi di mana kemudahan untuk merekamemperolehi sumber makanan dan faktor yang ketiganya adalah faktor agama dan kepercayaan.

Terdapat empat jenis tempat kediaman Kaum Semai:

1. Deg Semai (Rumah Kediaman)2. Deg Yeau (Rumah Yeau)3. Deg Pisang Sesikat (Rumah Pisang Sesikat)

5.3 Deg Orang Semai

Lazimnya Rumah Orang Semai di bina secara berpanggung dimana kedudukkan lantainya dibinatinggi dari aras tanah dengan ketinggian tiang penyokong kira-kira 4-6 kaki tinggi dari arastanah. Seterusnya saiz rumah Orang Semai ini pula kebiasaanya dibina pada purata saiz 9 x 12

kaki sehingga 23 x 32 kaki manakala ketinggian rumahnya pula kira-kira 12 – 20 kaki dari arastanah. Kedudukan setiap rumah atau jarak antara satu rumah dengan rumah yang lain dalam satu penempatan masyarakat Semai ini adalah berbeza dan mengikut keadaan dan bentuk permukaan bumi seperti di dalam foto 7 dan 8.

Ruang dalam rumah Orang Semai ini terdiri daripada ruang terbuka yang bertindaksebagai ruang utama kepada rumah. Ini di ketahui melalui heraki aras lantai kerana ketinggian

Gambar 7: Rumah kediaman Orang Semai di

kawasan berbukit di TapahGambar 8: Jenis Rumah kediaman Orang Semai

di Tapah pada permukaan bumi yang

Gambar 9: Jenis rumah Kediaman RumahOrang Semai yang mempunyaiserambi

Gambar 10: Jenis rumah Kediaman RumahOrang Semai pada permukaanyang landai



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lantai ruang ini adalah tertinggi daripada ruang yang lain. Seterusnya ruang untuk tempat tidur pula hanya dibezakan melalui perbezaan lantai dan dinding penghadang sahaja. Manakala ruangdapur pula merupakan elemen yang penting bagi rumah kediaman mereka kerana pelbagaiaktiviti di jalankan di dalam ruangan ini selain daripada memasak ruang dapur ini jugadigunakan untuk tujuan penyembelihan dan pembersihan haiwan buruan mereka maka oleh yang

demikian lantai bagi ruang dapur ini dibina jarang dan ketinggian lantainya lebih kurang pada 1‘6‘‘ bagi membolehkan pengaliran air yang baik semasa membersihkan haiwan buru mereka.

5.4 Rumah Yeau

Rumah Yeau berfungsi sebagai rumah untuk menunggu padi yang masak. Rumah Yeau inidibina setiap kali padi menguning untuk mengelakkan gangguna makhluk perosak seperti burung pipit, belalang, tikus dan sebagainya. Rupabentuk rumah Yeau adalah seperti rumah pisangsesikat tetapi yang membezakannya adalah dari segi ketinggiannya tiang dan lantainya dimana

rumah Yeau lebih tinggi berbanding rumah pisang sesikat.

Untuk mengelakkan daripada serangan makhluk perosak rumah Yeau ini akan dipasangtali ke kawasan ladang dengan objek-objek yang dapat mengeluarkan bunyi seperti tin 4 hingga 6 batang rotan diregangkan ke kawasan ladang dan diikatkan pada sebatang kayu yang di pakaikandengan pakaian. Tin-tin ini disusun dan apabila batang kayu ini digerakan tin-tin ini akan berlagadan mengeluarkan bunyi yang dapat menghalau haiwan perosak ini.

Gambar 11: Tempat Masak Rumah

Orang Semai di Tapah

Gambar 12: Menunjukkan Lantai DapurRumah Orang Semai Yang

Jarang

Gambar 11: menunjukkan jenis rumah Yeau.

Sumber: Muzium Orang Asli



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5.5 Rumah Pisang Sesikat

Lazimnya suku kaum Semai membiana rumah Pisang Sesikat adalah sebagai tempat berteduhdan berehat setelah penat bekerja mencari hasil hutan serta menyumpit. Selain rumah pisangsesikat ini dibina di dalam hutan yang dijadikan tempat persinggahan sementara ianya juga di

kawasan ladang dan juga di tepi sungai. Kekerapa rumah ini dibina bergantung kepada keperluandan tujuannya. Rupabentuk rumah pisang sesikat ini dapat digambarkan dengan bentuk atapnyamencerun dari permukaan tanah ke atas. Seterusnya atap condong ini pula disokong oleh 2 batang tiang dan lantainya pula membentuk runag segiempat yang dialas dengan belahan batang pokok bertam ataupun belahan buluh-buluh serta diikat dengan menggunakan akar dan rotan.

6.0 Kaum Melayu-Proto

Orang Melayu-Proto tinggal berjiran dengan Orang Melayu di Selangor, Negeri Sembilan,Melaka dan Johor. Adat resam dan kebudayaan mereka boleh dikatakan ada persamaan tertentudengan orang Melayu. Kebanyakkan perkampungan mereka kini terletak di dalam kawasan

bandar dan pinggir. 6 suku kaum di dalam rumpun kaum Melayu-Proto ialah Temuan, Semelai,Jakun, Orang Kanaq, Orang Kuala dan Orang Seletar.

6.1 Rumah Bot

Masyarakat Orang Asli yang tinggal dipersisiran pantai dan tebing sungai pada dahulunyadikenali sebagai orang laut atau orang lanun. Orang laut ini merupakan kaum daripada kumpulanmasyrakat Orang Asli Melayu-proto. Suku kaum masyarakat Orang Asli yang juga dikenalisebagai orang laut ini adalah daripada suku kaum orang seletar, orang kuala, dan orang semelai.Di mana suku kaum ini tinggal di kawasan perairan dan menjadikan pengangkutan bot sebagaitempat tinggal mereka. Orang laut ini juga akan turun ke darat untuk mendapatkan sumber bekalan makanan dan keperluan lainnya.

Tidak banyak bukti yang jelas dijumpai mengenai rumah bot masyarakat Orang Asli ini.Oleh yang demikian jangka hayat serta sejarah latar belakang rumah bot ini tidak dapatdiketahui. Hal ini berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh keadaan persekitaran dan penghijrahanmasyarakat Orang Asli daripada suku kaum ini serta akibat daripada penjajahan telah memaksaorang asli daripada suku kaum ini telah mengubah cara hidup mereka. Keadaan ini telah terbukti

Gambar 12: Rumah Bot

Sumber: Muzium Oran Asli



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apabila Sir Stamford Raffles telah berjaya menawan Singapura di dalam buku penulisan Skeat &Blagden di dalam buku Pangan Race of The Malay Peninsula Volume One ( 1906 ) adamenerangkan serba sedikit tentang rumah bot ini.

7.0 Binaan Lain

7.1 Rumah Sewang

Mengikut kepercayaan masyarakat Orang Asli suku rumah Sewang merupakan binaan yangterpenting dalam pembinaan sesebuah penempatan masyarakat Orang Asli. Tidak kiralah apa juga rekabentuk rumah Sewang ini walaupun dengan hanya pelantar dengan ruang yang terbukaataupun rumah yang dibina dengan anyaman buluh yang indah, rumah Sewang ini telah menjadikemestian kerana rumah selain daripada sebagai tempat pemujaan dan pengubatan rumahSewang ini juga bertujuan untuk upacara adat dan keramaian serta tempat bermesyuarat. Disamping halaman juga bertindak sebagai tempat berkumpul bagi penduduk kampung. Hal iniadalah untuk menyesuaikan dengan kehidupan orang asli, di mana biasanya menghabiskan

masanya di luar rumah, dan rumah hanya untuk, rehat, tidur dan makan. Rumah ini bertindaksebagai dewan berkumpul untuk masyarakat mereka dan rumah tetamu untuk orang luar

Rumah Sewang pula merupakan ciri yang terpenting dalam seni bina Orang Aslisehingga mempengaruhi orientasi susun atur rumah kediaman.. Rumah Sewang ini biasanyaditempatkan di tengah-tengah perkampungan atau selalunya bersambung dengan rumah batin.Untuk perkampungan yang berkelompok, dan terdapat halaman di tengah, rumah Sewangdiletakan di tengah-tengah halaman. Kemudianya, orientasi rumah kediaman, seharusnyamenghadap ke tengah halaman iaitu menghadap rumah Sewang.

8.0 Perbincangan dan Kesimpulan

Masyarakat pribumi yang terdapat di Semenanjung Malaysia terdiri dari pelbagai kaum yangmenetap di pelbagai daerah dan persekitaran yang berbeza. Setiap suku kaum juga mengamalkancara hidup yang berbeza diantara satu sama lain. Cara hidup dan persekitaran tersebut jugalah

Gambar 13: Rumah sewang yang menjadi tempat berkumpul masyarakat Orang Asli

suku kaum Semai

Sumber: Muzium Orang Asli



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yang membuatkan rekabentuk dan gaya rumah kediaman mereka juga turut berbeza. Sehinggakini mungkin telah banyak dibuat bancian, kajian dan penulisan tentang jumlah dan jenis sukukaum masyarakat pribumi tersebut serta kedudukan penempatan mereka tetapi mungkin masih belum ada kajian dan penulisan yang dibuat bagi membincangkan gaya atau perwatakan rumah-rumah kediaman setiap dari suku kaum tersebut serta pola tatatur perumahan yang telah mereka

bangunkan dalam sistem kemasyarakatan dan sistem ekonomi dalam kehidupan mereka.Mungkin mereka agak ketinggalan dalam pembangunan tamadun jika dibandingkan denganmasyarakat Melayu yang sama-sama tinggal ‗sebumi‘ dengan mereka, tetapi mereka juga telahmenunjukkan peningkatan dalam membangunkan kehidupan. Mereka juga mempunyai budayatersendiri yang mengandungi garispanduan, pantang larang, kepercayaan dan amalan kehidupan.Budaya tersebut jugalah sebenarnya yang berperanan dalam mencorakkan gaya dan perwatakansenibina rumah kediaman dan corak penempatan setiap dari suku kaum Orang Asli.

Rumah kediaman perlu dibangunkan berdasarkan amalan kehidupan penghuninya serta persekitaran dimana ianya dibangunkan. Kesimpulannya kita tidak boleh mengambil model pembangunan rumah kediaman dari tempat lain yang masyarakatnya memiliki budaya dan cara

kehidupan yang cukup berbeza lalu diberikan model pembangunan tersebut kepada masyarakat pribumi di Semenanjung Malaysia dengan harapan mereka juga akan maju sebagaimana pemilikmodel kepada pembangunan tersebut. Ini adalah pandangan yang meleset dan bertentangandengan konsep pembangunan dalam amalan senibina. Melalui senario yang telah dibincangkandi atas, adalah jelas bahawa masyarakat pribumi tersebut telah menolak pendekatan pembangunan yang telah ditawarkan kepada mereka dan sudah sewajarnyalah kita mencari suatu pendekatan yang lebih menepati citarasa mereka sekiranya kita benar-benar ikhlas untukmembantu mereka.

Rujukan

Mohamed Yusuf Bin Ahmad Adam Broughton. 2003. The Comparison To The LevelOf Beliefs Towards The Planning And Tradisionjal Architecture Between The Semai And

Mahmeri. Universiti Teknologi Mara.Permata, Pameran Tamadun Orang Asli, Universiti Pahang Malaysia. 2004. Portal Permata

Orang Asli. Mengenali Tamadun Orang Asli, http://permataorangasli.blogspot.com/ (accessed April 2009)

Jabatan Hal Ehwal Orang Asli, Masyarakat Orang Asli.http://www.jheoa.gov.my .(accessed April 2009)

Skeat, Walter William & Blagden, Charles Otto, 1906. Pangan Race of The Malay

Peninsular Vol. I & II Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.Evans, I.H.N. 1937. The Negritos of Malaya. Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.Rashid, M.N. Perbezaan Penempatan Dan Senibina Orang Asli Pendalaman Dengan Pinggir

Pantai ; Universiti Teknologi Mara, Fakulti Perancangan Dan Ukur Seni Bina.

http://permataorangasli.blogspot.com/


http://www.jheoa.gov.my/






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Scale of Measurement for Benchmarking in Building Maintenance

S.A.F.Al-Zawawi , L.C.Hsia, A.S.Ali*Building Performance and Diagnostic Group

Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya

50603 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603-7967 4494 Fax: 603-7967 5713

Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Benchmarking is a systematic procession of comparison for standard performance measurement of product, aims in identifying best practice that can be adopted for high-improvement on a particular product or service. Nowadays, there are many failures occurred on the building asset, causingdepreciation in asset performance especially in office or commercial buildings. Thus, benchmarking needto be implemented to increase the building asset performance, ensuring the building system is runningsmoothly. Hence, these paper aims to identify asset performance of office or commercial buildings aroundKlang Valley and develop a measurement scale in terms of maintainability. The steps carried out in this preliminary study includes selection of topic and formulation of research problem, formulation ofresearch proposal focusing on selection of research design, data collection method, data analysis,conclusion and recommendations for future research. Quantitative approach has been used in the datacollection. Questionnaires which consists of closed ended questions and open-ended questions has beenhighlighted and distributed to 30 respondents which consists of personnel with understanding andexperience in the building maintenance industry to answer the questionnaires. The respondents werechosen from 30 different commercial or office buildings around Klang Valley. Statistical Package forSocial Science (SPSS) were be used to interpret and evaluated the data collected from the respondents. Inthis paper, it was found that the asset performance of the commercial or office building around KlangValley in terms of economic, sustainability, efficiency, functional effectiveness, functional safety andcustomer‘s satisfaction were good condition while the cost effectiveness is fair. In terms of asset value,

there were in a poor condition. As to develop the scale, respondents‘ opinion mainly includesmaintenance cost, routine maintenance, noise level of equipment, energy saving, environmental friendlyand condition level of equipment.

Keywords: Benchmarking, Maintainability, Performance measurement, Asset performance

1.0 Introduction

Benchmarking is important in maintaining the building to ensure the building to perform, asstated by Al Najjar (2004) in his claim that it is important to identify properly performancemeasures required to achieve the organization objectives. He also noted that maintenance

measurement is essential for companies to recognize their planned goals and this can be utilized by benchmarking which is one of the never ending improvement tools.

As an effort to establish performance measurement, Nayak (1998) stated that benchmarking is seen as a tool for measurement performance for improvement in economicsector among the companies in the Australian industry. Energy Star (2008) noted the experienceof USAA Real Estate Co on how benchmarking can inform about the whole energy management process .The company went to benchmark 100 percent of its buildings and resulted in more than







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10 million in energy savings over a five-year period through 2007. As an example of benchmarking saves appreciable economic loss, Marriott Hotel relied on benchmarking forobservation and improvement of energy performance and as a result, Marriott Hotel save$4.5million annually in energy costs.

Meanwhile, KPI is also one of the tools to measure performance. The identification forKey Performance Indicator (KPI) helps in defining the roles and responsibilities for themaintenance to function against the assets for which they apply. According to Wireman (2005),when failures occurred in the facility, KPI dictated which assets need to be focused base on itsconsequence and impacts of failure and led to achievement of 12 percent return on net assets(RONA). It can be concluded that benchmarking indeed is a tool to help in cost-effective andtime-efficient in terms of man-power and resource-usage of an organization.

2.0 Research Objectives

There are three objectives identified and need to be achieved in this topic:

To review types of benchmarking and its advantages in building maintenance To identify the asset performance of the commercial building

To develop a standard graduated scale for asset condition in terms of maintainability of building

3.0 Benchmarking in Building Maintenance

Maintenance can be the largest part of any operational budget besides energy cost in a building.This shows the importance of maintenance management and its function since its totaloperational cost are grow over the years. Maintenance is important in all the work placecondition to ensure the building can be well-operated. Horner (1997) highlights that there exist

some policies from British Government whereby the requirement of building maintenanceapproach mainly focused on the housing sector.

Benchmarking in the other hand is a systematic process that can be adopted formeasurement performance of particular products, services or practices to determine the extent forachievement of high-improvement performance and this has been agreed by Wober (2002) who points out benchmarking as ―a systematic procedure of comparative measurement with objective

to achieve continuous improvement‖.

Horner et al. (1997) highlights there are two types of benchmarking mainly external andinternal benchmarking. Zairi (1996) states that internal benchmarking is a benchmark between

the partners in the same organization which resembles the marks of the particular company‘s benchmarking while external benchmark will be the comparison of different organization in thesame industry (Wober , 2002). Internal benchmarking need to be applied in a particularorganization before any external benchmark could take place. The external benchmarking coversa larger market compared to the internal benchmarking.

In terms of advantages, benchmarking is a technique to overcome a problem besidesensure continuous improvement and provide outputs that achieve the companies‘ set of goals,



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priorities and mission (Khurrum, 1999). This is supported by Sitnikov et .al (2008) quoted fromBoxwell (1994) which notes one of the benchmarking purpose is it can be an efficient way toimprove a product or services besides helping the manager to eliminate the trial or error of the process improvements and strives companies to make improvement in the shortest time.Therefore, benchmarking aims to provide never-ending improvement service to ensure the

objectives of the company are achieved.

Zairi (1998) also states that the purpose of benchmarking is to encourage the organizationfor never-ending learning besides upgrade the organization to a higher standard of performance.Sand (2004) mentions that benchmarking also aims to compare performance of companiesrecognized the company that operate most efficiently and rank the efficient companies referred.This shows that purpose of benchmarking is also to level up the standard of the company performance to ensure the organization can be brought to the world class to compete with theworld best in class products or services. Treasury Board of Canada (2006) in other wayhighlights that it can be used for the purpose of evaluating the information to ensure performancemeasures are compared effectively. Other advantages of benchmarking includes best practices

will be identified to ensure best in class performance can be observed during benchmarking project (Wireman, 2004).

Thus, benchmarking helps to provide a breakthrough for an organization to improve their business services to gain competitive advantage and achieve good performance in globalstandard. The continuous upgraded quality of facility in building through utilization of benchmarking not only helps in achieving best practices in terms of business strategy approach but it also lead the management team to the realization of continuous learning process in thecompany.

3.1 Maintainability

Maintainability refers to the measures during development and installation of manufactured product which could minimize stated maintenance, man hours, tools, logistic cost, skill levelsand facilities to ensure that the product can meet the requirement for its intended usage (Horneret al., 1997). Hence, maintainability can be referred as measures on how well the equipment can perform using appropriate procedures. Maintainability aims to minimize the life cycle cost besides increasing the equipments‘ performance in terms of reliability, supportability etc.

3.2 Economic

Grag (2006) mentions that there are two key conflicts needed to be taken into consideration in producing the economic life of capital plants which is the increased operation and maintenancecost of aging asset and the declined ownership cost in keeping the asset in service. Besides that,it also points that life cycle cost approach which includes costs of purchase, operating andmaintenance costs and disposal value need to be taken into consideration in economic-lifeexamples.



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3.3 Sustainability

According to Tsang (1998), sustainability refers to a term, method or even way of life. It allowscommunities to come out with a strategy whereby aspects of economy, environmental and socialcharacteristics will be taken into consideration.

3.4 Efficiency

In terms of efficiency measures, there are four categories mainly maintenance costs, labor, sparesand materials and planning and control. Maintenance costs can be measured through totalmaintenance cost which includes entire facility, each business unit and asset. Besides that, it alsocan be analyzed through maintenance cost per unit and the ratio of parts to labour expenditure(Moubray, 1997).

3.5 Functional Effectiveness

A truly-oriented maintenance organization need to put their concentration on the functionaleffectiveness whereby if this requirement is used, it will increase the accuracy of referring it asmeasures of ― primary functional effectiveness‖ rather than ―overall equipment

effectiveness‖(Moubray, 1997).

3.6 Cost Effectiveness

Mobley et al. (2008) mentions one of the most effective cost control systems is the conventional job-cost method which accumulate expense items for labor, supply and services on a specific jobnumber which in turn is the liability of a detailed division. The companies tend to continuouslyimprove the potential to enhance the cost-effectiveness of their operations in terms of physicalasset management (William et al, 1994).

3.7 Functional Safety

Safety in maintenance is an essential aspect needed to be considered whereby it much relies on alarger extent on the individual safety performance of its men. Maintenance department not onlyneed to be responsible of the safety of personnel but they should also need to be in-charge ofmechanical safeguards and maintenance services and maintaining equipment and services in asafe-operating manner (Mobley et al., 2008). Mobley et al (2008) further elaborate that assetreliability and employees‘ safety are closely related. It also mentions that maintenanceengineering is responsible for effective asset maintenance whereby it can maintain the functionin terms of required safety.

3.8 Asset value

Mobley et al. (2008) points that if the routine maintenance is delayed on equipment due to production demand or resource limitations, the company is in fact mortgaging the future value of



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the particular asset, causing a wasted asset must be replaced. Wauters (2005) mentions that thevalue of property is depreciated annually according to the allowable schedules.

3.9 Customers Satisfaction

Levitt (1997) states that customers can be internal or external departments, people or processesthat will be adversely affected by product failure. The best way to understand the customer‘sexpectation is to question them as this approach helps to gain response besides discussions can be done between customers and suppliers whereby the range of opinions can be exchangedWilson (2002).Patterson (1995) states that adaptation the best practices of others will help to beatcustomer‘s expectations

4.0 Research Methodology

There are two types of data collection methods mainly primary data and secondary data. Therewere 30 respondents consists of personnel have thorough understanding and experience in

building maintenance industry to answer the questionnaire. These respondents were selectedfrom the 30 commercial or office buildings around Klang Valley. The buildings which wereselected have few limitations as follow:

Benchmarking must be applied on the building asset

The building consists of commercial/office building

The buildings were located around Klang Valley

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to interpret and evaluated the datacollected from the respondents. The objectives and the results of findings were presented toensure the aims have been achieved.

5.0 Analysis And Discussion

There are two types of questions that have been asked in the questionnaire mainly closed endedquestions and open-ended questions. The multiple questions have been asked to the respondents.

5.1 Closed Ended Questions

Table 1 mainly summarized some of the highest answers of results gained from each multiplequestions asked to the respondents.

Table 1: Major answers gained from each multiple questions asked to the respondents.

Multiple Questions Major answer fromrespondents Percentage (%)

Position of the respondent Building executive 36.7

Years of experience of respondent More than 15 years 36.7

Average age of the building More than 15 years 66.7

Built area of the building More than 200000 sq ft 50.0

Frequency of maintenance work forchiller

Less than 5 years 76.7



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Number of chiller available 2-3 chiller 53.3

Size (cooling capacity) of chiller(tonnage)

201-500 tonnage 50.0

Cost of maintenance for chiller (peryear)

More than RM9000 83.3

Number of breakdown for chiller(per year)

Less than 5 times 86.7

To identify the asset performance of the chiller, there are 8 requirements taken into considerationmainly economic, sustainability, efficiency, functional effectiveness, cost effectiveness,functional safety, asset value and customers‘ satisfaction. Likert scale of rating 1 to 5 has beenused to rank and identify the chiller performance. Table 2 shows the results of the findings.

Table 2: Results of the Respondents Regarding the Asset Performance the Chiller

Asset

Performance

E (%) S (%) EF (%) FE (%) CE

(%)

FS (%) AV (%) CS (%)

Very poor 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.0 0

Poor 0 3.3 0 0 30.0 0 50.0 3.3Fair 36.7 23.3 16.7 16.7 40.0 20.0 23.3 26.7Good 63.3 66.7 76.7 66.7 26.7 56.7 6.7 60.0Excellent 0 6.7 6.7 16.7 3.3 23.3 10.0 10.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Based on the results of the questionnaire, most of the respondents rated that in terms ofeconomic, sustainability, efficiency, functional effectiveness, functional safety and customer‘ssatisfaction, the performance of chillers were in good condition. In terms of cost effectiveness,most of the respondents indicated the asset in fair condition .On the other hand, the performancein terms of asset value were mostly rated in poor condition.

5.2 Open-Ended Questions

Only one open-ended questions asked to the respondents which as shown in Table 3.

LEGEND

E- Economic FE-Functional Effectiveness AS- Asset value

S- Sustainability CE-Cost Effectiveness CS- Customer satisfaction

EF- Efficiency FS- Functional Safety



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Table 3: Open ended questions

From the results, it can be concluded that most of the respondents suggested that theaspect need to be taken into consideration to develop the scale value of asset condition in termsof maintainability includes maintenance cost, routine maintenance, noise level of equipment,energy-saving, environmental-friendly, level of equipment‘s technology, life cycle of asset and power consumption. Table 4 shows the results of the developed standard measurement scale afteramendment.

Table 4: Summary of the opinions gained by the varies respondentsNo Summary of Respondent’s Opinion

1.0 Maintenance cost

2.0 Routine maintenance

3.0 Noise level of equipment

4.0 Energy-saving

5.06.0

Environmental-friendlyLevel of equipment‘s technology

6.0 Conclusion

Based on the literature review, there are two types of benchmarking mainly internal and external benchmarking. The advantages of benchmarking includes it can lead to cost-saving and time-efficiency besides improve the quality of a product. Benchmarking helps the organization todetermine the aims and objectives of the organization and achieve the goals effectively in alower operating-cost at shortest time through comparison standard performance within varies products. As for the performance of asset, most of the chillers at the office or commercial buildings in Klang Valley are in good condition in terms of economic, sustainability, efficiency,functional effectiveness, functional safety and customer‘s satisfaction since routine maintenanceand frequent inspection by maintenance personnel. Chiller performance was ranked in fair

condition in terms of cost effectiveness since the use of chillers in the office or commercial building could lead to high electricity bill due to its high consumption. This eventually cause thecost for the payment of high electricity consumption could lead to reduction in cost effectivenessof chiller while most respondents state asset value of chiller is ranked in poor condition. Thiswas because once the age of chillers increased, the efficiency and functional effectiveness ofchillers will decrease; causing its performance cannot be functioned as it was first purchased.

What other aspect of rating requirement can be considered in the scale of assetmaintainability?



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Raouf, A, M. Ben Daya. 1995.Total Maintenance Management: A Systematic Approach, Journalof Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol 1 (1), pp 6-14.Bagchi, P. K. 1996. Role of Benchmarking as a Competitive Strategy: The Logistic Experience,

International Journal of Physical Distribution &Logistics Management, Vol 26(2), pp4-22.Ben-Daya, M., Duffuaa, S.O., Raouf, A, Knezevic, J., Daoud Ait-Kadi. 2009. Handbook of

Maintenance Management and Engineering, London: Springer.Benjamin, W. B. 1994. Engineering Maintenance Management, 2nd Edition, New York: Marcel

Dekker.Blanchard, B. S., Verma, D., Peterson, E.L. 1995 .Maintainability: A key to Effective

Serviceability and Maintenance Management, Canada: John Wiley and Sons Inc.Bryman, A., Cramer, D. 2005. Quantitative Data Analysis with SPSS 12 and 13:A Guide for

Social Scientists, Psychology Press.Chanter, B., Swallow, P. 2007. Building Maintenance Management, 2nd Edition, London:Blackwell Publishing.

Coding, S. 1992. Best Practice Benchmarking: A Management Guide, 1st Edition, New York:Industrial Newsletter Ltd.

Garg, A. 2006. Maintenance Management: Literature Review and Directions: Journal of Qualityin Maintenance Engineering, Vol 12, (3), Pg 205-238.

Garg, A., Deshmukh, S.G. 2006. Maintenance Management: Literature Review and Directions,Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol 12(3),pp 205-238.

Horner, R. M.W.1997. Building Maintenance Strategy: A new Management Approach: Journalof Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol 3,(4),MCB UP Ltd.

Horner, R.M.W., El-Haram, M.A., Munns, A.K. 1997. Building Maintenance Strategy: A NewManagement Approach, Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol 3(4),pp 273-280.

Kozak, M. 2004. Destination Benchmarking: Concepts, Practices and Operation, CABIPublishing.

Mobley, K., Higgins, L. R., Wikoff, D. J. 2008. Maintenance Engineering Handbook, 7thEdition, United States: The McGraw Hill Companies.

Mobley, R.K. 2002. An Introduction to Predictive Maintenance, 2nd Edition, United States:Elsevier Science.

Moubray, J. 1997. Reliability-Centered Maintenance, 2nd Edition, New York: Industrial pressInc.

Muthu, S., Devadasan, S. R., Ahmad. S, Suresh, P. Baladhandayutham, R. 2000. Benchmarkingfor Strategic Maintenance Quality Improvement, Benchmarking: An International Journal,Vol 7(4), pp292-303.

Nayak, B. 1998. Engineering Management Journal: Maintenance Improvement Opportunitiesand Benchmarking Practices in Australian Manufacturing Industry, Vol 14 (8), pp 814-833.

Pallant, J. 2007. SPSS Survival Manual: A Step by Step Guide to Data Analysis Using SPSS forWindows (Version 15), 3rd Edition, London: Allen & Unwin.



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Palmer, D. 2006. Maintenance Planning and Scheduling Handbook, 2nd Edition, United States:McGraw-Hill.

Patterson, James, G., Keppler, Kay. Mapson. 1995. Benchmarking Basics: Looking for a BetterWay, Course Technology Crisp.

Rostad, C. C., Schjolberg, P. 1999. Key Performance Indicators (KPI) Maintenance Engineering

in the Food-Processing Industry, Industrial Management Report, Norwey.Shohet, I.M. 2003. Key Performance Indicators for Maintenance of Health-care Facilities.Facilities, Vol 21(1/2), pp 5-12.

Sitnikov, Catalina, Vasilescu. G. 2008 June 7.A Global Vision over Benchmarking Process:Benchmarking Based Enterprises, Retrieved on 21 March 2010 from: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9482/.

Sungsoo, P. 2001. Benchmarks In Hospitality and Tourism, United States: The HaworthHospitality Press.

Tsang, A.H.C. 1998. A Strategic Approach to Managing Maintenance Performance, Journal ofQuality in Maintenance Engineering, Vol 4(2), pp 87-94.

Wauters, B. 2005. The added Value of Facilities Management: Benchmarking Work Process,

Facilities, Vol 23(3/4), pp 142-151.William, J. H., Davies. A, Drake, P.R. 1994. Condition-based maintenance and machinediagnostics, United Kingdom: Chapman and Hall.

Wireman, T. 2004. Benchmarking Best Practices in Maintenance Management, New York:Industrial press Inc.

Wireman, T. 2005. Developing Performance Indicators for Managing Maintenance, 2nd Edition, New York: Industrial Press.

Wober, K.W. 2002. Benchmarking in Tourism and Hospitality Industries: The selectionOf Benchmarking Partners, New York: CABI Publish.

Wong, W.S., Chan, E.H.W. 2000. Building Hong Kong: Environmental Considerations, UnitedStates: United League Graphic & Printing Co Ltd.

Yam.R.C. M, P. Tse, L. Li, F. Fung. (2000).Enhancement of Maintenance Management throughBenchmarking: Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering. Vol 6, (4), pg 230.

Yasin, M.M & Zimmerer, T. W. 1995. The Role of Benchmarking in Achieving ContinuousQuality, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol 7(4), pp 27-32.

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Zairi, M. 1996. Effective Benchmarking: Learning from the Best, 1st Edition, , United Kingdom:Chapmen & Hall.

Zairi, M. 1997. Practical Benchmarking: The complete Guide, 1st Edition, , United Kingdom:Chapmen & Hall.

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http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9482/







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Quality of Architecture in Use: Users Experience and Expectation to Usability

of Design in Learning Environment

S.N.Haron 1 , M.Y.Hamid2, A.A.A.Ghani3

1&3 PhD Student in Built Environment,Faculty Achitecture, Panning & SurveyinUniversiti

Teknologi Mara (UiTM Malaysia) 2 Faculty Architecture, Planning & Survey, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak, Malaysia [email protected] 2 [email protected] 3 [email protected]

Abstract

One of the main goals of quality architecture is to organize an informational domain into a usable design.It can be achieved when the design meets the end-users needs. There are different backgrounds andcategories of users, either is able or disable. Each of those users has their own needs when dealing withthe use of design. Consequently, to meet users need is through feedback from their experience andexpectation to the design. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the literature on ―usability concept and parameters‖ in a built environment. Later the researcher will suggest a possible usability concept in

evaluating the quality of physical environment, facilities and activities in other to meet the end-usersneeds. This paper will focus on three usability key factors: efficiency, effectiveness and user‘ssatisfaction. This overview will help a researcher in their research; to evaluate the quality of learningenvironment in Malaysia's public school. This usability concept is useful in improving the quality designand product outcome. It is relevant in achieving the Malaysia education philosophy and goals, which ismore valuable to the end-users; students and educators.

Keywords: Usability of design, Usability dimension, Users needs, Quality learning environment.

1.0 The Concept Of Usability

The concept of usability was first developed in the 1950s, for ICT and software development [1]. When evaluating the usability of buildings, the aim is to evaluate the relation between building, people and organization. The users‘ actions are unpredictable, and there is a long list of usertypes and groups. Users interpret and interact with the building with all their senses, theircultural and social baggage, and often (at least in parts) unconsciously.

Usability is the degree to which something – service, facilities, product or anything is easy touse and a good fit for the people who use it. It is whether a product is efficient, effective and

satisfying for those who use it, and it depends on what kind of goals the user holds. Thisdefinition derived from the international standard on usability ‗…. effectiveness, efficiency and

satisfaction with which a specified set of users can achieve a specified set of tasks in a particular

environment ‘ [2]. Usability also is the extent in measuring a service or organization in achieving

specified goals or mission [3; 4; 1].

1.1 Efficiency

The efficiency of the service provides is to test of how much effort and how fast does it take for auser to complete the task. The efficiency is based on a ratio of a system‘s service work outputand its work input. This can be seen through students‘ or users‘ experience with school















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environment, are they able to complete every procedure after receiving process of learning.These are all due to the accessibility and reachability factors.

1.2 Effectiveness

The effectiveness of the service provided is measured by how a user completes the tasks. Oftenwe interpret effectiveness as the ability to reach the target we have set up; to get the desiredeffects of something. Therefore, in school design the rule of space provision or space workflowand facilities arrangement should readily, be users friendly, functional, flexible in design becauseit will be used by various types of users both able and disabled people with different mission andvision. According to Shaw and Ivens 2002, the customer experience is a blend of company‘s physical performance and the emotional evoked, intuitively measured against customer (end-users) expectations across all the moments of contact [5].

1.3 User satisfaction

User satisfaction also in common language has to do within the fulfillment of a desire or a needthrough their feelings and attitude towards the service or product[6].The phenomenon of usersexperiences involved users emotion reflects the users' satisfaction and at the same time producesa high quality service[5;7].

2.0 Usability Concept In Built-Environment

Usability is a part of human behavior study or action. It recognizes humans are lazy, getemotional, and are not interested in putting a lot of effort into. Hence generally their prefer thingsthat are easy to do. It shows that usability is a focus to users how they can complete the task inthe easiest way with a short time. It means the service provide is learn ability, memorability andthose factors refers to the efficiency and the effectiveness of the service or product or task.

This is visibly seen through the perspective of Arge, 2004. The term usability describeswhether or not a product is fit for a specific purpose. Usability, or functionality in use, isconcerned with a building‘s ability to support the user organization‘s economic and professionalobjectives [4].

Figure 1: The Usability Triangle (Rothe, 2006 )( Source: Johanna Alho, (2008), Usability of Workplaces Phase 2, CIB W111 report)

USABILITY FUNCTIONALITY

ENVIRONMENT

SERVICEABILITY

SITUATION

USER



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Buildings last for a long time, and will have interactions with many user groups at differentmoments in time (Blakstad et al., 2008). This means that evaluation of the relation between people, and building is challenging. Working with usability, we should not only focus on theindividual level, but also at the impact of the building in the organizational context [1].Figure ,shows the usability dimensions that come from service design to achieve the user‘s goals and

design target.

Usability is all about users‘ experience, expectations and a space design of learning facilities.All in all, they reflect the society perspective, human beings and the patients. Usability evaluatesservice design with three parameters key factors; efficiency, effectiveness and users‘ satisfactionto achieve an organization goal with user friendly service design or specified goals [3;4;1].Usabilitykey concept is depending on usability attribute, which are users‘ values in culture, time contextand users‘ background, knowledge users‘ behaviors or actions[8;3;5] and customers‘characteristics, lifestyles, values and demographics.

2.1 Usability - Quality in Architecture in Use

Usability is to measure quality related to using of building [10].Never before has the world become so concerned with quality of learning environment. ―Quality involves the consistentdelivery of a product or service according to expected standards‖.‖ Standards‖ in this context arerelated to expectations and actual experiences with the product as perceived by the end-users.This definition was applied- involves three groups; ―customers (students and educators), andemployees (service providers) the support staff that interact in the provisional environment [20].In the relationship among these groups, the students‘ satisfaction was made the focus of alloperations with educators and employees working together as a team of decision-makers and providers.

Figure 2: Theoretical classification of usability dimensions and the new empirical classification.Source: Rasila (2010)

Hillier and Leaman (1976)[11] distinguished the main functions of the building in achievingquality of architectural design, which is spatial organizations of activities. They provide optimumsupport for the activities. They require available spaces, which are related to each other and asymbolic function. It can be viewed as a manifestation of specific ideas and expectations not

Efficiency

Accesibility

Flexibility

Learnability

Memorability

Amount/ tolerance/ prevention of

Efficiency

Accesibility

Flexibility

Learnability

Memorability

Amount/ tolerance/ prevention of

errors



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only of the designers, but also from users thus it will be a design of a cultural object intertwiningsocial and symbolic meanings [11].

Usability

attribute

evaluatio

n in Built

environm

ent

Rasila;2010 Voordt;2

005;2009

Jenso;2008 Alexander;2

010

McGee;2004

EfficiencyAccessibilityFlexibilityLearn abilityMemorabilityPrevention oferrors,NavigationFunctionalityAtmosphere

Visual designInteractionand feedbackSatisfactionServices capeFeeling secureSpace,Networ ks

Reachability & parkingfacilities,Accessibility,Efficiency,Flexibility,Safety,Spatial

orientation;Privacy,territoriality& socialcontact,Health & physicalwell-being,Sustainability

Adaptability- generality- flexibility- elasticity

Functionality

UsefulnessAccessibilit

yEstheticsIdentity

(internal)Image

(external)

EnjoyableMemorableValuable

Clear, Friendly,Understandable,Consistent, Logical,Efficient – fast &smooth, Productive,ideal ,Predictable,Organized, naturalEasy To Use, EasyTo Learn,Effective, Familiar,

Manageable, StressFree, Accessibility,Integrated,Precise,Informative, Problemsolving,Expected,Simple,Coordinate,Complete, Helpful,Dependable, Useful,controllable,customizable

Journeyexperience Qualityarchitecturein usedesign

Quality ofdesign – patient

focus

Qualitylearningenvironme

nt

Quality of useattributes

Table 1: Usability attributes and outcomes evaluation in Built environment Source: Author

Based on the body of usability research in the built environment the usability measurementsin achieving quality of architecture in use or service design shows that the outcomes of usersneeds and expectation and the indicators of measurement are same. From those results, we can

conclude that the requirements of end users are based on the overall usability of the design andthe result will impact the quality of the task or design. This scenario shows in figure 2 and table1.

However, in ensuring the quality of the design, there are some things to take into account.Three values have been continuously used which are cultural values, the utility and values of thefuture. Utility value refers to the extent to which a building or space with the potential to serve asrequired. Cultural value refers to criteria such as originality, expression, connection to theenvironment, as part of the history and value associated with the quality [11].



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2.2 Usability Attribute from users experience

As explained in detail about the concept of usability, it indicators are derived from userexpectations and needs. Hence in the previous study shows usability is to facilitate organizationgoals or aim or to help facilitate the end users in achieving their dreams or mission to complete a

task. Table 1 shows the attributes of usability assessment in achieving the quality of the task orservice from the evaluation of end users perspective and experience, which the value comes fromthe effectiveness, efficiency and users satisfaction.

In this article user mean those who actually use learning environment, service and activities,it, including student, educators and support -staff. Today built environment presenting complexchallenges to professional designer. Design is an evolutionary process that attempts to create beyond our best imagination to the real world. Design forms what we desire and what we needsometimes it follows by design trend but a good design considered the resources and human end-user participant.

In other way usability also is a component of user‘s participation or organization as the co-designer as they will experience the future space other than architect and experts in drivingdesign process. Previous research had shown that participants and allow opinions from the end – user in the design process, influence design outcome, which satisfied and more functional andfriendly [7;19].

The user's feedback throughout their experience, become an information or key answer toimprove the service performance[3;4].In order to do this, clients, designers or facilitiesmanagement must know how the space works and why. Understanding how things work andwhy requires us to analyze and explain [12].Therefore it is important to understand the concepts ofusability, in order to provide a better understanding of the users‘ experience and give positive

views to the organization

[9]

.

Furthermore, in many situations in the built environment, effectiveness design able to be seenafter the service delivered and space being utilized by the end users, only the users can judge orresponse to the service outcome. In this situation facilities management is needed in planningspace and facility to become more organized, at the same time the strategic facilities'management process is used to understand the organization flow and mission [13; 14] andconsequently, the use of space becomes more valuable [15]. Figure 3 shows the user s experienceand the expectation of what they want to perceive during their experience.



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Figure 3: Usability criteria and parameters of spatial designSource: Author

2.3 Usability of Learning Environments

The role of education in this century is very challenging because these areas have a greaterresponsibility for producing excellent students. Learning equipment and facilities design areessential to support positive learning environment. Usability of school design, which is meetingthe needs of students and educators or teachers, is important in achieving quality learningenvironment and school mission or goals. Consequently, it will affect on students learningoutcome [16; 17].

To improve the performance and educational aspirations, it may not necessarily be realizedwith the construction of new schools[18] but the mission can be achieved when designing andfacilitate the facilities by understanding user expectations, as well as provide a conducivelearning environment[17]. According to Alexander, 2010, quality learning environment can beachieved with considering the learning environment usability criteria; enjoyable, memorable andvaluable in improving or redesign the school, facilities and activities [18]. Figure 4 explain theusability of learning environment scenario in supporting the quality learning environment, whichis derived from the understanding of user‘s experience and usability concept.

Spatial orientation

/features /relationship

Efficiency

Accessibility

Flexibility

Learn ability

Memorability

Amount/ tolerance/

prevention

Navigation

Functionality

Atmosphere

Visual design/

How much effort do users

require to do this? / How long

it takes them to achieve it

Distance of each space –

minimum time taken to

reach the service and

relationship between each

space

Time spent (effort)-achieve

service; distance & size.

Design or facilities/

activities can shift the

attention.

EfficiencyFocus

Can users complete tasks,

achieve goals with the

product

Features –experience

journey to reach the

service

Guidance to reach the

service

Human Action to

design/space provided

Facilities /activities for-

support the expectation -

increase flexibility

Safety design and

Users feedback-

impact on

efficiency &

effectiveness

Effectiveness Satisfaction



128

Factors Affecting Students’ Performance In Calculus

B .Faridah , M.Y.Yuzainee, A.R.FadhilahDepartment of Engineering Science and MathematicsCollege of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional,

Km 7, Jalan Kajang Puchong, 43009, Selangor Darul [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],

Abstract

The poor students' performance in Advanced Calculus at degree level in UNITEN has been the subject ofdiscussion in Department of Sciences and Mathematics. In order to improve the performance in Calculus,a study needs to be done to look into the problem. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate thefactors affecting students‘ performance in Calculus. Using feedback from a sample of 125 students whohad taken the Advanced Calculus and Fuzzy Conjoint method adapted from Turksen Model, the resultsreveal that the students considered four most relevant factors affect their performance in AdvancedCalculus. The factors are examination difficulty level and time factor, basic knowledge related to the

advanced calculus course, teaching effectiveness and attitude problem. Hopefully, the result can helps theacademicians to find an approach and the method of teaching to assist students in the process of learningmathematics particularly in calculus.

Keywords: performance; factors, Advanced Calculus, Fuzzy Conjoint method.

1.0 Introduction

There have been many studies worldwide done on the performance of students in Calculus. Theirresults reveal that hard work, previous schooling, teaching method, family income and selfmotivation are among the factors that affect the student‘s grade. Most researchers agree thatgood performance in Mathematics, either at the school or college levels are so much affected bythe strong mathematical background obtained at preceding levels. Knowledge in calculus is acritical course for students to pursue studies in sciences, mathematics, engineering and manyother fields. The failure in calculus will disqualify students from pursuing the next college-levelof study especially in sciences related field as mentioned earlier. Furthermore, calculus tends toserve as the entry course for academic success for engineering majors as the nature ofengineering courses more likely to be quantitatively oriented. In addition, Mathematics‘ ability isthe strongest predictor of success in the field of engineering (LeBold & Ward, 1988)

In Finn (2010) article, he discussed on Treisman‘s finding on how students improved their poor grades in calculus by changing their way of study. According to Finn, Treisman found outthat class study groups improved the mathematics test score dramatically when they changedtheir study habits. This shows that the part of the factor affecting to the performance in calculusis the attitude of students related to way of study. According to LeBold & Ward, the reason ofstudents‘ failure in calculus does depend on what the students bring to the university, namelymotivation and prior preparation. Gillespie (1919) in his article did describe as ―…the nature of acourse in advanced calculus should serve a bridge between the works in elementary calculus…‖which shows that the relationship between advanced calculus and the elementary calculus.Calculus alike to other mathematics courses is taught according to topics which precede them, or












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method originally designed by Turksen and Biswas, in which the method is used for the analysisof consumer preferences.

The original Turksen Conjoint Model:

( , ) ( , )i

i B j A j

i

W y m x mW

The Fuzzy Conjoint Model adapted from Turksen is:

1

1

( , ) ( , )i

T i

R j B jT i

k

k

W y A x A

W

where,( , ) R j y A

= the estimated overall evaluation which is a weighted sum of the membershipfunctions of the fuzzy sets that represent the attribute evaluation;

W i =a crisp attribute

―relevant‖ weights (1-7); ( , ) = the degree of membership for respondent i for item A

according to linguistic label yi = 1, 2, . . . , T ; A=factors affecting the students‘ performance; T =the number of linguistic label.

In this study, the variable of linguistic for domain element is ―relevant‖. The crisp weight isa rating of attribute‘s relevant using rating Likert scaled ranged from 1: ―very irrelevant‖ to 7:―very relevant‖ as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Likert-Scale For The Fuzzy Linguistic Value Represent Level of Relevant

Scale Level of Relevent Fuzzy Linguistic Value

1 1 – very irrelevant 0.7 0.2 0.1 0 0 01 , , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 2 – irrelevant 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.1 0 01, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 3 – quite irrelevant 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.1 01, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 4 – neutral 0 0.1 0.7 0.7 0.1 01, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 5 – quite relevant 0 0.1 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.21, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 6 – relevant 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.61, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7 7 – very relevant 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.1 1, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Note : 0.16

means 0.1 at 6

The membership value degree calculated above, represents the fuzzy set of response given byrespondents is then compared to fuzzy set (Biswas, 1995). This can be conducted using fuzzysimilarity measure based on Euclidean distance of two fuzzy sets (Turksen, 1994). In someresults, there is fuzzy similarity degree between two fuzzy set. There are few formulas to



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determine the fuzzy similarity degree between two fuzzy sets. This study will make use of theformula of dot product based on Euclidean Inner Product formulated by Biswas (1995). Thefuzzy similarity degree between fuzzy set R and M is defined by:

),max(),(

M M R R

M R M RS

where,

1 2 1 2

1 2

( ( ), ( ),...), ( ( ), ( ),...) , .

, , ...

R R M M R x x M x x R M are vectors

X x x

The procedures of the analysis begin with:1) Obtained the level of relevant for all respondents on factors affecting students‘

performances based on seven linguistic values.2) Defined the seven scales measured for relevant into fuzzy set.3) Obtained the weights by dividing the measurement of respondent with sum of

measurement of all respondent.4) Obtained membership degree of every respondent by multiplying the weight and

every fuzzy set membership value accordingly.5) Obtained the overall membership degree by total up the membership degree of every

linguistic respect to linguistic value.6) Determine the overall linguistic value by obtained the fuzzy set similarity degree for

the overall measurement with seven fuzzy set value defined. The result of thisanalysis is determined based on the maximum similarity degree. (Adapted fromBiswas, 1995)

By using this method similarity values for each level of relevant are determined based on themaximum similarity degree among the level of relevant. For example, there may be a fewfactors have same level of relevant, such as ―quite relevant‖ but with the different linguistic

value. The hierarchy of the factors can be established by comparing the fuzzy set similarityvalue for each factor affecting the performance. The results are shown in Table 2.

3.0 Results And Discussions

The results show that the first four main factors play most significant role in the performance ofthe students in Advanced Calculus are examination difficulty level and time factor, basicknowledge related to the advanced calculus course, teaching effectiveness and attitude problem.These four factors are considered ‗relevant‘ and contribute to their performance in AdvancedCalculus. However, they did not think that examination phobia, peer's influence and extracurriculum activities have any significant to their achievement. This shows that they are matured

enough to overcomes the problem of examination phobia, peer's influence and extra curriculumactivities. The other four factors are considered quite relevant. Students believed that the factorsonly have small effect to their study. Table 2 shows the hierarchy of the factors contributing tothe performance in Advanced Calculus which analyzed by Fuzzy Conjoint Turksen Model(Biswas R. 1995, Dubois, 1991).



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Table 2 Hierarchy of the factors contributing to the performance in Advanced Calculus

FactorLinguistic

Value Linguistic Rank

Examination difficulty level and time factor 0.7860 Relevant 1

Basic knowledge related to the advancedCalculus course

0.7821 Relevant 2

Teaching Effectiveness 0.7748 Relevant 3

Attitude problem 0.6963 Relevant 4

Lack of interest of the subject 0.7138QuiteRelevant

5

Classroom conditions 0.6971QuiteRelevant

6

Personal Problem 0.6963QuiteRelevant

7

Taking more than one mathematics courses

during a semester 0.6953

Quite

Relevant 8

Peer's Influence 0.7540 Neutral 9

Extra curriculum activities 0.7539 Neutral 10

Examination Phobia 0.7213 Neutral 11

4.0 Suggestions

First factor that students believed have a significant effect on their achievement in the subject is―examination difficulty level and time factor‖ seems need to have lecturers‘ attention. Lecturersshould look into different method when constructing the questions for exam. They can utilize

Bloom Taxonomy level to prepare the questions. The examination paper should containquestions that need the student need to recall or remember the information, explain ideas orconcepts, use the information in a new way, distinguish between the different parts, justify astand or decision and create new product or point of view.

The syllabus for the foundation or diploma programs should include all the necessary topicsthat are adequate for the students to undertake Advanced Calculus during the degree year.Advanced Calculus is one of the mathematics courses that enquire students to visualize theconcepts in three dimensional systems. Thus the different, innovative and interesting approachesused by the lecturers will further enhance the students understanding of the course. Teachingeffectiveness would probably include the use of teaching aids, the details presentation of the

lectures and the involvement of students during tutorial classes. Attitude problem is anotherfactor that may cause a student to obtain either good result or otherwise. This includes classattendance, study in group or self-study. Lecturers should motivate their students to study ingroups because it was proven by the previous study that this method helps to improve students‘achievement in calculus and other subjects.

We are proposing a replacement test to be given to the first semester degree students beforeenrolling in Advanced Calculus course. With the increasing number of credit transfer students



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(either locally or abroad) the placement test will be a good selection criterion to determinewhether the students should be given credits transfer or not. Those who fail the test will have toenroll in a course that emphasizes basically on differentiations and integrations. Specialsyllabuses for the course need to be designed to cater for the above need.

5.0 Conclusion

Examination difficulty level and time factor, inadequate knowledge pertaining to calculus andteaching effectiveness contribute significantly to the performances of the students in advancedcalculus. Weak mathematical background and basic knowledge may also lead to students‘ failurein Calculus. Students with strong mathematical background obtained during the foundation,matriculation or diploma years seemed to excel in calculus at the degree level.

Discussion with students shows that students spend fewer hours outside classes doingcalculus and unfortunately those who spend the necessary time seemed to lack an understandingof how to structure and organize their efforts. They didn‘t have a comprehensive strategy for

learning and retaining the materials, nor did they recognize the important of working consistentlyand regularly. We too believe that adherence to blind route learning is the source of students‘weak calculus performance. In order to further enrich a diverse academic environment, an activeeffort should also be made by lecturers to encourage groups study among students, updateteaching method and the usage of teaching aid.

As shown in the finding, the other factors might affect the students‘ performance althoughthey are not significant. Efforts should be made to eliminate these factors so as to improve thestudents‘ performance in calculus.

References

Biswas, R. 1995. An Applications of Fuzzy Sets in Students‘ Evaluation. Fuzzy Sets and System,74,187-194.

Dubois, D., Koning, J.L. 1991. Social Choice Axioms for fuzzy set Aggregation, Fuzzy Sets andSystems,43,257-274.

FinnWing. 2010. Improving Education by Making Academic Culture More Accessible. Brain andEducation Web Paper 2. Second Essay.

Gillespie, D. C. 1919. Advanced Calculus or Differential Equations. The AmericanMathematical Monthly, Vol. 26, No. 5 (May, 1919), pp. 189-190.

Green, Srinivasan. 1990. Conjoint Analysis in Marketing: New Developments with Implications

for Research and Practice, Journal of Marketing. pp 3-19.Haaijer, R., Wedel, M. 2003. Conjoint Choice Experiments: General Characteristics and

Alternative Model Specifications. In A. Gustafsson, A. Herrmann & F. Huber (Eds.), Conjoint Measurement Methods and Application Third Edition (3 ed., pp. 371-412);Springer.

LeBold, W. K., Ward, S. K. 1988. Engineering retention: National and institutional Turksen, I. B., Wilson I. A. 1994. A Fuzzy Preference Model for Consumer Choice," Fuzzy Sets

and Systems, vol. 68,pp. 253-266.



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Lokasi IPT turut menjadi salah satu faktor pemilihan ke universiti bagi pelajar. Ada pelajar memilih universiti yang berdekatan atau berjauhan dengan tempat tinggal ibubapa.Terdapat pelajar dan ibubapa yang mementingkan kualiti program yang ditawarkan oleh IPT.Ianya penting kerana kualiti program dapat menjamin kebolehpasaran pelajar setelah mereka

tamat pengajian. Populariti dan reputasi sesebuah universiti turut menjadi faktor pemilihan keIPT oleh pelajar. IPT popular seperti Universiti Malaya, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,Universiti Sains Malaysia dan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia yang menjadi pilihan pelajarkerana IPT ini telah lama bertapak dan terkenal di Malaysia. Reputasi IPT adalah pentingterutama untuk pengikhtirafan ijazah yang bakal diterima. Prasarana dan persekitaranuniversiti turut menjadi faktor pemilihan oleh pelajar dan ibubapa pelajar kerana ianya amat penting untuk perkembangan dan pembelajaran yang cemerlang untuk pelajar. Selain itu,terdapat pelajar yang memilih sesuatu IPT kerana mengikut rakan sepengajian dan mengikut pilihan ibubapa. Pelajar mengikut pilihan rakan sepengajian kerana ingin sama-sama belajar atauatas sebab peribadi.

Pembangunan yang pesat dalam negara ini turut mempengaruhi perkembangan pendidikan negara. Pelajar cemerlang bertambah setiap tahun menjadikan persaingan untukmendapat tempat di universiti semakin tinggi. Membuat keputusan memilih sesebuah universiti bagi meneruskan perjalanan pendidikan bagi seseorang pelajar adalah suatu perkara yangmerumitkan, memandangkan pelajar turut perlu memikirkan akibat dan cabaran yang mereka perlu hadapi semasa pengajian di universiti nanti. Pelajar perlu membuat penelitian yang baikdengan sebab musabab yang munasabah dan bersesuai dengan diri mereka sendiri. Misalnya, jikamemilih universiti yang popular berkemungkinan mendapat saingan hebat dan mungkin jugamenjejas peluang pelajar bagi mendapat tempat di universiti berkenaan. Jika memilih universitiyang lokasinya terletak berjauhan daripada keluarga mungkin menyusahkan mereka untuk pulang ke kampung. Pemilihan universiti amat berkait rapat dengan kursus yang akan diikutioleh pelajar bagi mencapai cita-cita mereka. Untuk itu mereka perlu memikirkan syarat-syaratkemasukan bagi membolehkan mereka mendapat kursus atau program yang mereka impikan.Keadaan kewangan turut memberi kesan kepada pemilihan mereka terhadap sesebuah universiti.Pelajar tidak boleh terburu-buru membuat keputusan agar apa yang dihajati dapat dicapai denganmudah tanpa menyesal di kemudian hari.

2.0 Pelajar Pra-Universiti

Pada tahun 1999, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) menubuhkan Matrikulasi KPM yangmenawarkan kursus pra-universiti kepada pelajar lepasan SPM. Kini terdapat lebih daripada7,000 pelajar yang mengikuti kursus Matrikulasi KPM yang layak memohon masuk ke IPT(Perangkaan KPTM 2009). Ini menjadikan peluang untuk mendapat tempat di universiti pilihansebagai satu saingan hebat di antara pelajar lepasan matrikulasi dan tidak ketinggalan pelajarlepasan Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia (STPM). Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) yangditubuhkan pada tahun 1996 turut menyediakan kursus pra-universiti yang dikenali ProgramPengajian Tahun Asas pada Jun 2004,bagi memenuhi keperluan dan syarat KPM.

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat faktor-faktor yang menjadi keutamaan pelajar pra-universiti semasa membuat pemilihan universiti bagi melanjutkan pelajaran mereka. Diharap



136

juga, hasil kajian ini membantu pelajar lain dalam memilih universiti, terutama pelajar yangmasih keliru dalam membuat pilihan tempat untuk melanjutkan pelajaran. Pihak universiti,kaunselor, pendidik, pelajar, ibu bapa dan masyarakat umum juga boleh menjadikan hasil kajianini sebagai panduan dalam mengenalpasti universiti pilihan. IPT boleh menggunakan keputusankajian ini untuk mempromosikan universiti masing-masing terutama institut pengajian tinggi

swasta (IPTS) bagi menarik lebih ramai pelajar dan menjadikan universiti mereka sebagaiuniversiti pilihan. Selain kaedah pemasaran yang hebat, pihak universiti perlu meneliti apafaktor yang menyebabkan pelajar memilih universiti mereka.

3.0 Kajian Literatur

Kajian yang dijalankan ke atas pelajar-pelajar Tingkatan Empat di sekolah menengah oleh Nadzri Mohamad (2000) terhadap pembuatan keputusan kerjaya dalam pemilihan bidang dantempat untuk melanjutkan pengajian, mendapati secara keseluruhan pelajar tidak begitumenumpukan kepada keperluan asas sesuatu bidang pengajian. Pengetahuan pelajar tentangsesuatu bidang yang ditawarkan oleh pusat pengajian tinggi juga kurang memuaskan. Beliau juga

mendapati pelajar-pelajar ini tidak mengambil berat tentang apa yang akan dilakukan di masaakan datang. Justeru, hasil kajian mendapati ada pelajar yang telah membuat pilihan kursus yangtidak ditawarkan dipusat pengajian yang dipilih. Walaupun demikian, daripada aspek membuatkeputusan, pelajar dilihat mempunyai pendirian yang baik apabila meletakkan keinginan sendirisebagai asas keputusan dengan meletakkan minat dan kemampuan diri sebagi amat penting.Untuk aspek tempat melanjutkan pelajaran, memperlihatkan universiti yang popular menjadi pilihan utama pelajar-pelajar Tingkatan Empat ini.

Sementara itu, Wong Pak Hui (2002) yang menjalankan kajian ke atas pelajar TingkatanEmpat tentang pembuatan keputusan dalam pemilihan ke universiti awam (IPTA) dan universitiswasta (IPTS) , mendapati faktor yang diutamakan untuk kedua-dua jenis IPT adalah serupa iaitu jenis kursus yang ditawarkan dan yuran pengajian menjadi faktor utama dalam pemilihan tempatuntuk melanjutkan pelajaran ke universiti. Walaupun yuran sudah dijangkakan sebagai salahsatu faktor utama di IPTS namun yuran yang jelas diketahui sebagai lebih murah di IPTA jugamenjadi faktor utama dalam pilihan ke IPTA pelajar. Memandangkan pelajar yang menjadiresponden dalam kajian beliau adalah dari kawasan bandar, maka hasilnya memperlihatkan IPTyang berada di lokasi bandar menjadi pilihan utama pelajar ini. Menurut Hairunnaja (2007) peluang pelajar masa kini untuk melanjutkan pelajar ke IPTA mahupun IPTS adalah terbentangluas tanpa mengira latar belakang kewangan keluarga pelajar memandangkan adanya kemudahan biasiswa dan pinjaman pendidikan kepada pelajar yang layak. Ini memberi ruang kepada pelajardaripada keluarga yang kurang mampu. Norngainy(2004) yang menjalankan kajian ke atas pelajar pra-universiti tentang pemeringkatan faktor pemilihan universiti mendapati kursus yangditawarkan oleh sesebuah universiti dan syarat kemasukan menjadi faktor penting bagi pelajar pra-universiti untuk melanjutkan pengajian mereka. Beliau mendapati pelajar lebihmementingkan kursus yang dipilih berkait rapat dengan kerjaya pilihan mereka, dan syaratkemasukkan dianggap penting bagi memastikan diri mereka mendapat tempat di universiti yangdipilih.



138

Pelajar diminta untuk memberikan nilai kepentingan bagi setiap faktor berpandukan kepadaskala tujuh (7) nilai mata yang diberikan. Jadual di bawah adalah contoh borang soal selidiktersebut.

Jadual 1 : Jadual Penilaian Kepentingan Faktor

Faktor Kepentingan1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Syarat Kemasuk an /

2. Kualiti Program yangditawarkan

/

3. Prasarana dan persekitaranUniversiti

/

4. Yuran berpatutan /

5. Lokasi Universiti /

6. Reputasi Universiti /

7. Populariti Universiti /

8. Mengikut Kawan /9. Kehendak Keluarga /

10. Biasiswa dan pembiayaan /

Model Konjoin Kabur ini melihat secara keseluruhan pilihan pelajar namun analisaterhadap setiap faktor akan dikaji secara berasingan untuk mendapatkan nilai kekaburan masing-masing, kemudian perbandingan akan dibuat ke atas kesemua faktor berdasarkan nilai kaburyang diperolehi.

4.1 Takrif Set Kabur

Manusia sentiasa berada dalam situasi yang memerlukannya membuat keputusan. Adakalanyaianya agak mengelirukan dan diselangi dengan kekaburan seperti sangat suka atau agak suka dansebagainya. [Zimmermann(1991)]. Dubois (1991) dan Wang(1997) dalam bukunya menyatakan―set teori klasik‖ ditakrifkan sebagai satu kumpulan elemen. Setiap elemen samada unsur kepadasuatu set ataupun sebaliknya. Kenyataan ini terlalu tepat dan jelas, sedangkan keadaan sebenarada kekaburan dalam sesuatu penentuan. Teori set kabur yang diperkenalkan oleh Zadeh(1965)adalah bertujuan untuk menyelesaikan masalah ketidaktepat yang tidak dapat dijelaskan olehteori set klasik(jelas). Untuk kajian ini, Model Konjoin Kabur yang diadaptasikan daripadaModel Tuksen mampu memberi penyelesaian secara keseluruhan untuk setiap individu. Inikerana analisa yang dibuat sememangnya melibatkan keseluruhan individu dan keputusan yangdicapai adalah keputusan secara menyeluruh. Set kabur dalam A dalam set semesta U adalah

dicirikan dengan fungsi keahlian µ A(x) yang mengambil nilai dalam selang [0,1]. Kekuatankeahlian x dalam A adalah bergantung kepada nilai µ A(x). Apabila nilai menghampiri nilai 1maka darjah keahlian yang dimilikinya adalah tinggi dalam A . Set kabur A dalam U bolehdiwakili oleh pasangan tertib bagi unsur x dan nilai fungsi keahliannya iaitu,

, A

A x x x U



139

Jika A nilai diskret, fungsi keahlian ini ditulis sebagai

A x A

x

dan jika A nilai selanjar,

fungsi keahlian ditulis sebagai

A x A

x

.

4.2 Pembolehubah Linguistik

Pembolehubah linguistik mempunyai nilai berbentuk perkataan atau kata sifat. Contohnya, perkataan ―tinggi‖ dinyatakan dalam bentuk linguistik dan perkataan sangat tidak tinggi, tidak

tinggi, tinggi dan sangat tinggi merupakan nilai linguistik yang dinyatakan bagi menunjukkansifat sebenar seseorang. Sementara itu, ketinggian dalam bentuk berangka pula boleh dinyatakanseperti 140 cm tinggi, 157 cm tinggi atau ketinggian 5 kaki 2 inci dan sebagainya(Norngaint,2004). Pembolehubah yang mempunyai nilai berbentuk kata sifat adalah dikenali sebagai pembolehubah linguistik dan ditakrifkan seperti berikut:Pembolehubah linguistik dicirikan dengan (X,T,U,M) iaitu:

X adalah nama bagi pembolehubah linguistik. ( tinggi, cantik, berat dan sebagainya) T adalah set nilai linguistik yang mungkin bagi X. (tidak tinggi, sangat tinggi)

U adalah domain secara kuantitatif bagi pembolehubah linguistik X misalnya U = [1,190].

M adalah hukum semantik yang menghubungkan setiap nilai linguistik T dengan setkabur dalam U. Contohnya, M adalah hubungan antara tidak tinggi, tinggi dansangat tinggi dengan fungsi keahlian seperti rajah di bawah.

0 30 120 18060 90 150

1

Tidak Tinggi

Tinggi SangatTinggi

Tinggi/cm

F u n g s i K e a h l i a n

Hubungan Fungsi Keahlian Dengan Ketinggian

160

Rajah 1: Contoh Hubungan Fungsi Keahlian Dengan Ketinggian (Adaptasi daripada Norngainy,2004)

4.3 Model Konjoin Kabur daripada adaptasi Model Turksen

Model konjoin kabur Turksen yang asal adalah berbentuk seperti

( , ) ( , )i

i B j A j

i

W y m x m

W

Model Konjoin Kabur daripada adaptasi Model Turksen ini adalah seperti berikut:



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Nilai skala Tahap Kepentingan Nilai Linguistik Kabur

7 sangat penting 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.1 1, , , , , ,1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Catatan :0.1

6 bermakna nilai 0.1 pada skala 6

4.5 Darjah Kesamaan Antara Dua Set Kabur

Terdapat beberapa formula bagi menentukan darjah kesamaan antara dua set kabur.Untukanalisis kajian ini, formula hasil darab bintik (dot product) yang telah digunakan oleh Biswas(1995) digunakan bagi menentukan darjah kesamaan antara dua set kabur R dan M dalam setkabur x. Darjah kesamaan ditakrifkan sebagai

( , )max( , )

R M S R M

R R M M

dengan ,

1 2 1 2

1 2

( ( ), ( ),...), ( ( ), ( ),...) , .

, , ...

R R M M R x x M x x R M adalah vektor

X x x

adalah darab bintik

4.6 Proses Analisis

Proses analisis menggunakan model yang diadaptasikan dengan Model Konjoin Kabur Turksenini bermula dengan:

1. Mendapatkan tahap penilaian dengan menyenaraikan semua penilaian respondenterhadap faktor yang dikaji, pengukuran berdasarkan tujuh nilai linguistik.

2. Mentakrifkan set kabur dengan mentakrifkan skala pengukuran penilaian responden 7

nilai linguistik kepada set kabur.3. Mendapatkan pemberat dengan membahagikan penilaian setiap responden dengan

jumlah penilaian semua responden.4. Mendapatkan darjah keahlian setiap responden dengan mendarabkan pemberat dengan

setiap nilai keahlian set kabur yang sepadan dengan penilaian responden.5. Mendapatkan darjah keahlian keseluruhan dengan menjumlahkan darjah keahlian setiap

nilai linguistik terhadap nilai linguistik berkenaan.6. Menentukan nilai linguistik keseluruhan dengan mendapatkan darjah kesamaan set kabur

keseluruhan penilaian dengan 7 set kabur untuk nilai linguistik yang ditakrifkan. Nilailinguistik bagi penilaian keseluruhan responden ditentukan dengan mengambil darjahkesamaan maksimum.

(Adaptasi daripada Norngainy,2004)

4.7 Menentukan Keutamaan Bagi Keputusan Linguistik

Setelah nilai linguistik bagi penilaian keseluruhan responden diperolehi bagi semua faktor,Terdapat beberapa faktor yang berada pada nilai linguistik yang sama, contohnys pada nilailinguistik ― penting ‖. Oleh itu, perbandingkan darjah kesamaan bagi setiap keputusan yang



144

takrifan Set Kabur (Jadual 3). Menggunakan Model Konjoin Kabur, hasil analisis diberikandalam Jadual 4 dibawah.

Jadual 4 : Keputusan menggunakan Kaedah Model Konjoin Kabur

Faktor Nilai Linguistik Linguistik Keutamaan

Kualiti Program yang ditawarkan 0.9454 Sangat Penting 1Reputasi Universiti 0.9435 Sangat Penting 2

Prasarana dan persekitaranUniversiti

0.9270 Sangat Penting 3

Yuran 0.8596 Sangat Penting 4

Biasiswa dan pembiayaan 0.8583 Penting 5

Lokasi Universiti 0.8480 Penting 6

Populariti Universiti 0.8146 Penting 7

Syarat Kemasukan 0.7913 Penting 8

Kehendak Keluarga 0.7349 Agak Penting 9

Mengikut Kawan 0.7117 Agak Penting 10

Berikut adalah jadual perbandingan keputusan yang diperolehi menggunakan kedua-duakaedah iaitu Model Konjoin Kabur dan Min statistik. Perbandingan antara dua kaedahmenunjukkan ada persamaan yang ketara dari segi susunan keutamaan tetapi berbeza mengikuttahap kepentingan. Ini menunjukkan kaedah Model Konjoin Kabur yang digunakanmenghasilkan keputusan yang boleh dipercayai.

Jadual 5 : Perbandingan Keputusan menggunakan Kaedah Model Konjoin Kabur dan Minstatistik.

Faktor Kaedah

SangatTidakPenting

TidakPenting

AgakTidakPenting

Neutral

AgakPenting

PentingSangatPenting

Keputusan

KualitiProgram

Konjoin 0.0266 0.0766 0.1676 0.2798 0.5802 0.8438 0.9454SangatPenting(0.9454)

MinStatistik

6.43 (SD = 0.92) Penting

Reputasi


MinStatistik

6.33 (SD =1.12) Penting

Prasarana dan persekit




145

a-ran MinStatistik

6.28 (SD = 1.13) Penting

YuranKonjoin 0.0633 0.1384 0.2442 0.3594 0.6052 0.8061 0.8596

SangatPenting(0.8596)

MinStatistik 5.85 (SD = 1.47) Penting

Biasiswa dan pembiayaan

Konjoin 0.0698 0.1390 0.2396 0.3551 0.6067 0.8583 0.8078Penting(0.8583)

MinStatistik

5.53 (SD= 1.88) Penting

LokasiKonjoin 0.066 0.1567 0.2820 0.432 0.6846 0.848 0.841

Penting(0.8480)

MinStatistik

5.75 (SD = 1.25) Penting

Popular iti

Konjoin 0.1056 0.2231 0.2820 0.5336 0.7308 0.8146 0.7404Penting (0.8146)

MinStatistik

5.12 (SD = 1.55)AgakPenting

SyaratKemasuk-an

Konjoin0.1187

0.2563

0.4196

0.5985 0.7549 0.7913 0.6791Penting(0.7913)

MinStatistik

4.87 (SD = 1.53)AgakPenting

Keluarga

Konjoin 0.1734 0.3268 0.4864 0.6423 0.7349 0.7204 0.588AgakPenting(0.7349)

Min

Statistik 4.41 (SD = 1.66) Neutral

Kawan

Konjoin 0.2236 0.3822 0.529 0.654 0.7117 0.6754 0.5357AgakPenting(0.7117)

MinStatistik

4.08 ( SD =1.69) Neutral

Keputusan ini menunjukkan pelajar mengutamakan kualiti program yang ditawarkandipilih sebagai faktor paling penting memandangkan ijazah daripada sebuah program yang berkualiti dan diikhtirafkan oleh badan-badan akreditasi menjamin kemudahahpasaran,kebolehpasaran dan masa depan mereka setelah tamat pengajian. Ini selari dengan keputusan

yang perolehi oleh Norngainy(2004) terhadap pelajar Matrikulasi KPM. Faktor kedua yang paling penting adalah reputasi universiti memandangkan pelajar mengutamakan kemampuansesebuah universiti menyediakan tenaga pengajar yang berkelayakan serta berpengalaman.

Faktor seterusnya difikirkan sangat penting adalah prasarana dan persekitaran universitimenunjukkan pelajar mementingkan keselesaan dan kemudahan yang disediakan oleh universiti bagi memastikan mereka boleh belajar dengan baik dan tenang. Prasarana dan persekitaran pembelajaran amat penting bagi membolehkan pelajar belajar dengan baik tanpa gangguan dari



146

anasir-anasir persekitaran yang merosakkan pembelajaran dan sikap pelajar. Prasarana yangtidak lengkap sedikit-sebanyak boleh menjadikan pembelajaran yang tidak efektif. PersekitaranIPT yang berdekatan dengan kota juga boleh mengganggu pengajian pelajar di sampingmempengaruhi sikap pelajar terutama pelajar yang berasal dari luar bandar.

Yuran menjadi faktor keempat pentingnya menunjukkan pelajar turut prihatin terhadap bebanan masalah kewangan yang mereka dan keluarga mereka akan hadapi, tanpa mengirasamada mereka mendapat pinjaman pelajaran atau tidak. Keputusan analisa ini jugamenunjukkan kematangan pelajar dalam menentukan masa depan mereka, di mana kehendakkeluarga dan mengikut kawan dianggap agak penting sahaja oleh pelajar ini. Lokasi, popularitidan syarat kemasukan difikirkan penting sahaja. Sebelum ini kajian pernah dibuat ke atas pelajarTingkatan Empat oleh Nadzri Mohamad (2000) dan Wong Pak Hui (2002), yang menunjukkan populariti dan lokasi universiti dianggap penting bagi meneruskan pengajian keperingkatuniversiti.

Diharap dengan hasil kajian ini memberi panduan kepada pelajar-pelajar lain khasnya

pelajar Matrikulasi, pelajar Tingkatan 5 dan 6 dalam pemilihan universiti untuk meneruskan pengajian mereka ke IPT. Juga diharapkan faktor-faktor yang dianggap penting oleh pelajarPengajian Tahun Asas UNITEN ini dijadikan kriteria universiti semasa mempromosikanuniversiti bagi menarik minat pelajar memilih ―universiti pilihan‖ dimasa akan datang. Pihakuniversiti, kaunselor, pendidik, pelajar, ibubapa, masyarakat umum dan stake holders lain juga boleh menjadikan hasil kajian ini sebagai panduan dalam melihat faktor-faktor pemilihan keuniversiti di Malaysia.

Rujukan

Dubois ,D., Koning, J.L. 1991. Social Choice Axioms for fuzzy set Aggregation, Fuzzy Sets andSystems,43,257-274.

Hairunnaja N. 2007. Membimbing Remaja Memilih Pendidikan dan Kerjaya.PTS Professional.Publishing Sdn. Bhd.

Nadzri Mohamad. 2000. Pembuatan Keputusan Kerjaya: Analisis kabur Pemilihan Bidangdan Tempat Pengajian. Satu kajian kes di dua buah sekolah di Perak . Latihan Ilmiah.Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Norngainy, M.T. 2004. Pemeringkatan Faktor Pemilihan Pelajar Matrikulasi ke Universiti Menggunakan Model Set Kabur Pembuatan Keputusan Berkumpulan. Latihan Ilmiah.Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Perangkaan Pengajian Tinggi Tahun 2009. 2010. Bahagian Perancangan dan PenyelidikanKementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia.

Ranjit, Biswas. 1995. An Applications of Fuzzy Sets in Students‘ Evaluation. Fuzzy Sets and

System, 74,187-194.Wang, L.X. 1997. A Course in Fuzzy System and Control. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall

International.Wong, P.H. 2002. Proses pembuatan Keputusan Dalam Pemilihan Universiti Menggunakan

Proses Hierarki Analisis. Satu kajian kes ke atas pelajar tingkatan 4 di tiga buah sekolah di

Selangor . Kajian Ilmiah. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.Zadeh, L.A. 1965. Fuzzy Sets, Information and Control, vol.8, 338-353.



152

No. Piawai Objektif pemeriksaan

1 JKR Menentukan tahap ketersedian serta mengenalpasti kecacatan &rekabentuk/ pembinaan yang memberi kesan kepada senggaraan& operasi, kefungsian & keselamatan

2 ASTM Mempraktikkan amalan penilaian bangunan bagi meningkatkan

kualiti hartanah dan laporan penilaian dengan cadangan dan jangkaan serta membangunkan garis panduan piawai industri bagi penilaian

3 QLASSIC Menetapkan tanda aras terhadap tahap mutu dan kualiti dalamindustri pembinaan, mewujudkan sistem penilaian kualiti setara bagi kualiti kemasan kerja bagi projek bangunan berdasarkanstandard yang diluluskan dan menilai prestasi kontraktor berdasarkan kualiti kemasan kerja disamping mengumpul data bagi tujuan analisis statistik

4 CONQUAS Mendapatkan sistem penilaian berpiawai bagi projek pembinaan,menilai kualiti melalui pengukuran kerja pembinaan berdasarkan

standard mutu kerja dan spesifikasi, pendekatan persampelan bagimenggambarkan keseluruhan projek serta penilaian kualitidilakukan secara sistematik dengan jangkauan kos dan masa yangmunasabah

5 RICS Memeriksa keadaan hartanah bagi mengenalpasti kecacatan sertamembuat penilaian harga pasaran semasa serta kos baikpulih yangmempengaruhi nilai pasaran

6 SIRIM Mengenalpasti dan mengukur tahap kebolehkhidmatan terhadaptiga kategori fasiliti tandas iaitu bangunan atau ruang tandassediada, yang akan dibina serta yang akan diubahsuai atauditambah-baik

Jadual 3 Objektif pemeriksaan berdasarkan piawai penilaian bangunan

Berdasarkan kepada hasil analisis di atas, jelas menunjukkan bahawa objektif pemeriksaan harus menitikberatkan tahap kebolehkhidmatan dan ketersediaan ruang tandasdisamping mengenalpasti kecacatan yang boleh menjejaskan kesihatan, keselamatan, kefungsian,senggaraan dan operasi. Secara tidak langsung ia selaras dengan pendapat Preiser dan Vischer(2005) yang mensintesiskan keperluan pengguna kepada tiga tahap keutamaan iaitu:

i. Prestasi kesihatan, keselamatan dan kawalan;ii. Prestasi fungsi, efisyen dan aliran kerja;

iii. Psikologi, sosial, budaya dan astetik.

Tahap prestasi merupakan perkara pokok dalam memastikan kriteria yang dibangunkandapat mencapai objektif pemeriksaan. Berdasarkan sintesis kajian, sebanyak lapan kriteria pemeriksaan telah dipilih sebagai set lengkap komponen penilaian iaitu struktur, senibina,mekanikal dan elektrikal, kerja luaran, kemudahan bangunan, kebolehsenggaraan dan operasi,kesihatan dan keselamatan serta kefungsian. Peranan dan skop pemeriksaan tersebut perludifahami oleh pemeriksa yang terdiri daripada Juruukur Bangunan. Berdasar kajian literatur



153

terhadap enam piawai tersebut, berikut adalah hasil analisis perincian kriteria tahap prestasiseperti yang ditunjukkan didalam Jadual 4.

No. Kriteria

Pemeriksaan

Perincian Tahap Kualiti Fokus

1 Struktur Integriti struktur yang mempunyai impakkecacatan serta kos membaik-pulih meliputistruktur konkrit bertetulang, struktur keluli, konkrit pra-tegasan termasuk pelbagai produk struktur pasang-siap (IBS).

Elemen pemeriksaan

2 Senibina Banyak melibatkan bahan siapan dimana kualiti,kekemasan dan mutu kerja menjadi keutamaanseperti lantai, dinding, siling, pintu & tingkap, bumbung, kelengkapan/peralatan dan longkang.

3 M & E Melibatkan keseimbangan kos dan prestasi bangunan meliputi kerja elektrikal, sistem

penyaman udara & pengudaraan mekanikal, perlindungan kebakaran, sanitari & perpaipan sertakelengkapan asas M & E.

4 Kerja

Luaran

Meliputi kerja am luaran seperti laluan, sistemsaliran, jalan, parkir, taman permainan, pagar,kolam renang, lanskap kejur & rumah pencawangelektrik.

5 Keudahan

Bangunan

Kemudahan bangunan yang khusus perlu diperiksaoleh pakar berkenaan yang terlatih. Terhad kepadakemudahan asas seperti bekalan air, pembetungan,sistem perpaipan dan alat pencegah kebakaran.

6 Keboleh-senggaraan

Mengenalpasti kecacatan yang mempunyaiimplikasi dan boleh menjejaskan operasisenggaraan di masa akan datang. Semakanterhadap manual dan senarai sistem sebagaidokumen rujukan semasa operasi senggaraan dan pengurusan aset.

Aspek pemeriksaan/ penanda aras

7 Kesihatan &

Keselamatan

Pematuhan terhadap keperluan khas sepertikehendak menentang kebakaran, keperluan OKU,alam sekitar, kawalan pencemaran, kesihatanawam dan lain-lain.

8 Kefungsian Keupayaan sesuatu komponen, elemen dan sistem

menjalankan fungsi khusus sebagaimanadirekabentuk dan prestasi umum bagi perkaitansetiap subjek.

Jadual 4 Perincian kriteria tahap prestasi berdasarkan piawai pemeriksaan

Mengambil kira pandangan Hollis dan Gibson (2005) serta Hoxley (2002), teknik pemeriksaan secara atas ke bawah mengikut arah putaran jam turut diadaptasikan sebagai prosedur penilaian ruang tandas. Prosedur ini disokong oleh Ramly (2004) dan Noor (2010) bagi



154

membolehkan setiap kriteria pemeriksaan dapat dinilai dengan teliti dan mengelakkan kecuaiansemasa mengenalpasti kecacatan.

4.0 Kesimpulan

Pemeriksaan ruang tandas amat penting untuk dilaksanakan bagi menjamin perkhidmatan berkualiti dan kepuasan pengguna. Pemeriksaan bukan sahaja memastikan tahapkebolehkhidmatan dapat dicapai malah turut membolehkan ruang tandas tersebut menepatifungsi rekabentuk yang menyumbang kepada kepuasan pengguna. Melalui kriteria pemeriksaanyang spesifik, pengurus fasiliti/senggaraan mampu mengenalpasti keutamaan yang mestidimasukkan ke dalam program penilaian. Dalam penulisan ini, kriteria pemeriksaan ruang tandasdibangunkan dengan melihat kepada objektif utama penilaian. Secara teori, kriteria pemeriksaan perlu menepati keperluan objektif utama, dibangunkan secara padanan kepada piawai penilaian bangunan dan bersifat holistik. Kriteria pemeriksaan merupakan komponen asas yang sangat penting semasa membuat penilaian prestasi keadaan ruang tandas.

Rujukan

Ahmad, M.A. 2008. Pembinaan Perisian Pemeriksaan dan Pemantauan Kerja-kerja

Penyenggaraan Bangunan. Tesis Msc., Universiti Malaya.ASTM. 2009. Designation: E 2018 – 08. Standard Guide for Property Condition Assessments:

Baseline Property Condition Assessment Process. ASTM International., United States.Bilbo, D.L. 2009). Facilities maintenance management practice in large public school, Texas.

Facilities, Vol.27, No.1/2.Chandler, I. 1995. The generation and use of stock condition surveys, Journal of the Institute of

Maintenance and Building Management. Vol. 1, No. 1.Che-Ani, A.I., Ali, A.S., Tawil, N.M., Tahir, M.M., Abdullah, N.A.G. 2010. The Development of

a Condition Survey Protocol (CSP) 1 Matrix for Visual Building Inspection. TheConstruction, Building and Real Estate Research Conference (COBRA) of the RoyalInstitution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) 2010, Dauphine Universite, Paris, France. 2-3September 2010 (online).

Che-Ani, A.I., Tawil, N.M., Zakiyuddin, M.Z., Tahir, M.M., Ramly,. A., Jamil. M. 2009. Pengukuran Keberkesanan Fasiliti Perumahan Bertingkat Bukan Kos Rendah. ProsidingSimposium Alam Bina Serantau 2009. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. pp.87-94.

CONQUAS. 2008. Construction Quality Assessment System, 7th Eds., Building and ConstructionAuthority (BCA). Singapore.

Hollis, M., Gibson, C. 2005. Surveying Buildings, Fifth Edition., Coventry. RICS Books.Imprint., United Kingdom.

Hoxley, M. 2002. Condition Inspections of Residential Property: A procedural Framework .,Journal of Structural Survey. Volume 20. Number 1. Pp. 31-35. MCB University PressLimited.

JKR. 2009. Laporan Pemeriksaan Tahap Ketersediaan Penggunaan Bangunan., CawanganSenggara Fasiliti Bangunan (CSFB). Sektor Kejuruteraan Senggara. Jabatan Kerja Raya(JKR)., Kuala Lumpur.



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MALAYSIAN STANDARD. 2006. MS 2015: PART 3:2006., Public Toilet – Part 3: Rating

Criteria., Department of Standard Malaysia (DSM)., Malaysia. Noor, Z.M. 2010. Impak Pembinaan Baru Terhadap Fizikal Bangunan Sekitar: Kajian Keretakan

Bangunan-bangunan Di Taman Wawasan, Pusat Bandar Puchong, Selangor., Tesis MSc(Tidak Diterbitkan). Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Preiser, W.F.E., Vischer, J.C. 2005. The Evolution of Building Performance Evaluation: An Introduction., Assessing Building Performance., Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Oxford,United Kingdom. pp.3-14.

QLASSI. 2006. Quality Assessment System For Building Construction Work ., Standard IndustriPembinaan, CIS 7:2006., Lembaga Pembinaan Industri Pembinaan Malaysia (CIDB).,Kuala Lumpur.

R, Yussof. 2010. The Facility Condition Assessment For Higher Education Buildings In

Malaysia., Prosiding Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengurusan Fasiliti Kampus Pendidikan,Penerbit UKM, Bangi. pp. 72-84.

Ramly, A. 2004. Panduan Kerja-kerja Pemeriksaan Kecacatan Bangunan. Building & UrbanDevelopment Institute (BUDI)., Hizi Print Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia.

RICS. 2009. RICS HomeBuyer Service 2009 (3rd Edition Practice Note)., Royal Institutions ofChartered Surveyors (RICS)., United Kingdom.Taival, D. 2007. Financing options to meet building performance dan organization goals, US

Business Review, Vol. 10, No 5.Wordsworth, P. 2001. Lee‘s Building Maintenance Management . 4th Editions. Oxford: Blackwell

Science.



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Mendefinisikan Semula Rekabentuk Pembelajaran di Luar Kelas di

Malaysia: Pengajaran Dari Pendekatan-Pendekatan Frank Llyod Wright

Dalam Penyusunan Ruang dan Landskap

N.Utaberta , N.Spalie, N.A.G.Abdullah, M.M.Tahir

Jabatan Seni Bina, Fakulti Kejuruteraan dan Alam Bina, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

[email protected] , [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstrak

Obkektif utama kertas kerja ini adalah untuk memulakan dan meluaskan perbincangan tentang rekabentukdan fasiliti pembelajaran di luar kelas di Malaysia. Cubaan dalam mengambil pengajaran dari arkitek dariAmerika yang terbaik iaitu Frank Lloyd Wright. Perbincangan tersebut akan mengandungi empat bahagian. Bahagian yang pertama akan membincangkan masalah semasa dan situasi dalam pembelajarandi luar kelas di Malaysia, manakala bahagian yang kedua pula cuba untuk meneroka dan mengkaji semulamengenai definisi pembelajaran di luar kelas beserta kepentingan dan karakter dalam persekitaran

pembelajaran. Bahagian yang ketiga akan menfokuskan ke atas pendekatan Frank Llyod Wright dalam penyusunan ruang dan landskap, sementara bahagian yang terakhir akan membuat analisis dan perbandingan yang akan membuahkan pendapat dan rekomendasi bagi rekabentuk fasiliti pembelajaran diluar kelas di Malaysia. Dengan pemahaman dari pendekatan persekitaran yang telah ditubuhkan olehFrank Llyod Wright di atas di harapkan kita dapat membina semula dan mendefinisi semula sebahagianrangka kerja dan garis panduan untuk rekabentuk fasiliti pembelajaran di luar kelas di Malaysia.

Kata kunci: Rekabentuk Fasiliti Pembelajaran di Luar Kelas, Frank Lloyd Wright, Penyusunan Ruang dan

Landskap.

1.0 Pendahuluan

Tujuan utama dari penulisan kertas kerja ini adalah untuk memberikan sebuah pendekatan alternatif darirekabentuk bilik darjah yang sedia ada di Malaysia. Kajian ini berusaha mengambil beberapa pengajarandari pendekatan organik yang dilakukan oleh salah satu arkitek terbesar di Amerika Syarikat iaitu FrankLloyd Wright. Pengajaran ini sendiri akan memfokuskan kerangka perbincangannya dalam dua aspek penting dalam reka bentuk fasiliti pembelajaran luar kelas iaitu rekabentuk ruang dan landskap.Diharapkan melalui perbandingan dan analisis terhadap pendekatan dan pelbagai bangunan Wrightsebagaimana disebutkan sebelum ini akan membuahkan sebuah kerangka rekabentuk dan bahasa seni binayang lebih baik sebagai rujukan bagi rekabentuk fasiliti pembelajaran luar kelas yang lebih baik diMalaysia.

2.0 Definisi Pembelajaran Di Luar Kelas

Terdapat pelbagai definisi yang diungkapkan dalam mempamerkan pemahaman terhadap‗outdoor learning‘ yang bermaksud pembelajaran di luar kelas. Definasi ini terbahagi kepadadua iaitu ‗ Psychosocial definitions‘ atau diklafisikasikan sebagai ‗Definisi Psycososial‘ dan‗ Environmental Definitons‘ atau diklasifikasikan sebagai ‗Definisi Alam Sekeliling‘.Berdasarkan C. A. Lewis, 1975, The Administration of Outdoor Education Programs. Dubuque,IA: Kendall-Hunt, pembelajaran di luar kelas dari segi psycososial ialah “appeals to the use of

the senses - audio, visual , taste, touch, and smell - for observation and perception.” iaitu percubaan terhadap penggunaan deria pancaindera- pendengaran, penglihatan, rasa, sentuh, dan










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―The real body of our universe is spiritualities-the real body of the real life we live. From the

waist up we‘re spiritual at least. Our true humanity begins from the belt up, doesn‘t it? Thereincomes the difference between the animal and the man. Man is chiefly animal until he makes

something of himself in the life of the spirit so that he becomes spiritually inspired-spirituallyaware. Until then he is not creative. He can‘t be.―10

Perkara ini sangat jelas kelihatan dari rumah-rumah Praire dan kebanyakan bangunan awam yangdirekabentuk oleh Frank Lloyd Wright yang secara konsisten diterapkan hingga ke akhir hayatnya.

Bangunan merupakan hasil pengeluaran tangan manusia harus tunduk dan menyesuaikan agardapat berdiri di atas karakter dan kekuatan dari lingkungan alam dan binaan di sekitarnya. Bangunanharus mampu mempunyai pengadaptasian dengan konteks yang ada di sekitarnya. Perkara seperti iniyang menjadikan bangunan-bangunan Frank Lloyd Wright bersatu dengan tapaknya, tidak menjadikannyasecara sombong berteriak untuk menunjukkan dirinya, akan tetapi kelihatan bersuara secara harmonidengan apa sahaja yang ada di sekitarnya.

Gambar 1: Pelbagai bangunan karya Frank Lloyd Wright yang mencerminkan kekuasaan dan penghormatan terhadap alam dan lingkungan tempat bangunan tersebut dibina.

Sumber: Heinz, Thomas A (2002). The Life and Works of Frank Lloyd Wright. Kent: Grange Books Plc.

―Young Wright saw that nature was a wonderful teacher and had answers to many question thattheoretical learning could not explain nearly so well.‖11

Hasil daripada kajian tentang kehidupan Frank Lloyd Wright sebelum ini,didapati kita akan dapatmenyelusuri asal dari pemikiran dan konsep ini. Persekitaran masa kecil, perhatian dari ibunya dan pengalaman selama bekerja di ladang pakciknya membentuk , melatih pemikiran dari Frank Lloyd Wrightuntuk menghargai dan melihat alam asli sebagai sebuah elemen yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dalam perancangan sebuah rekabentuk. Ia merupakan sebuah faktor utama yang menentukan sebuah rekabentuk.

10 Wright, Frank Lloyd, Truth Against the World, hal 27011 Blake, Peter (1960), Master Builders, hal 270.



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Gambar 1:Fasiliti outdoor learning perlu memanfaatkan dan menghormati alam sekeliling.

Pendekatan alam ini yang dimaksudkan dengan kata-kata Wright;

―Why is any cow, red, black or white, always in just the right place for a picture in any

landscape? Like a cypress tree in Italy, she is never wrongly placed. Her outlines quite down sowell into what ever contours surround her…‖16

Rekabentuk fasiliti yang menghormati alam tanpa menghilangkan struktur alam yang sememangnyaterbentuk secara semulajadi kerana bagi Wright alam semulajadi itu merupakan―The only body of God

that you can see‖.

Pemanfaatan alam semulajadi dalam sistem pembelajaran juga merupakan satu pengadaptasian pendekatan Wright yang menghormati alam semulajadi kerana di situ terdapat beribu jawapan kepadasemua persoalan.

―Young Wright saw that nature was a wonderful teacher and had answers to many question thattheoretical learning could not explain nearly so well.‖

17

Bagi Wright, membentuk suatu bangunan harus bermula dari alam semulajadi. Membina sebuah strukturdengan intergrasi alam dan manusia tanpa merosakkan lingkungan alam sekitarnya.

― We must conceive and integrate: begin again at the beginning to build the right kind of building

in the right way in the right place for the right kind of people.‖18

4.3 Kesimpulan

Pengajaran serta pelajaran dari rekabentuk Wright dalam pengaplikasian rekabentuk fasiliti pembelajaran di luar kelas sedikit sebanyak telah mengilhamkan satu proses

16 Lihat Wright, Frank Lloyd. An Autobiography. hal 23.17 Blake, Peter (1960), Master Builders, hal 270.18 Wright, Frank Lloyd (1949), Genius and Mobocracy, hal 13



166

Figure 3. Neziraga mosque plan and section (left), and 3D perspective (right)

Neziraga mosque is the other selected building for the case study as illustrated in Figure3. Its location is closed to Mostar Old Bridge. This mosque has a single pyramid roof form with

one minaret. The mosque was built in 1550 but it was closed in 1930 and later torn down in1950, left derelicted not until it is reconstructed in 1999 under UNESCO rehabilitation plan andIRCICA‘s (Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture) Mostar 2004 programme withcost of USD453,000. The mosque name is taken from the name of a person, Neziraga who was alocal novel family from a highly respected Vucjakovic family (Serageldin, 1989). It is located atelevated hill platform east of Neretva River at distance of 150 meter from the old bridge ofMostar. This mosque has a design of simple plan unit layout comprising basic square plan with pyramid roof type. This single pyramid roof covers the main prayer hall. The most discretecharacteristic of this single plan design is that it has a dominant pyramid roof. This mosque has asquare plan design with 10.2m width and 10.2m length. Its height is 7.77m with its roof‘s heightat 2.59m.

4.0 Method of Simulation

The scope of this survey is to simulate the indoor‘s lighting performance of Karadjoz Be g and Nezigara mosque in Mostar and to do comparative analysis of the results bewteen these twomosques. This simulation is conducted on 21st June 2010 on the day of the summer equinox‘soccurrence when the sun path is at its highest latitude of the northern hemisphere along theTropic of Cancer. The temperature ranges from 15oC to 22oC (mean temperature 18.3oC) with itsaverage humidity at 78% (TuTiempo 2010). The sunrise and sunset time are 5:06am and 8:32pmrespectively which has the longest day time 15 hours 28 minutes and 14 seconds (Sunrise-sunset2010). This daylight simulation is a computer-based calculation of the amount of daylight insidethe building using 3dStudio Max proggramme. Before simulation analysis is conducted, threedimension drawings of these two mosques are created using AutoCAD software based on one toone scale illustrating exact measurement of the building form with reference to the mosque‘s twodimensional AutoCAD plan and section. After that, these three dimension drawings are importedto 3D Studio Max 2010. A daylight system is created in this programme, and a camera view isset to the top view (perspective) before lighting analysis can be generated. A specific localdaylight system is inserted in this programme using the available weather data file of Banja Luka(44°49'N and 17°11'E), the nearest a city to Mostar (43.34 N latitude and 17.81 East longitude).This weather file is downloaded from weather data files (*.EPW) (EnergyPlus 2010), whichcontain annual data for typical climatic conditions at this site. It will provide data with respect tothe local climatic condition.



167

Figure 3. Selected 5 points inside the building for Karadjoz Beg (left) and Neziraga (right)mosque

A light metre is created by setting points of incidence which show the illuminance level.Each subdivision represents a point at which incident illuminance normal to the grid (0.5 m x 0.5m) will be measured (calculated). It provides overlaying a grid of illuminance results. Thissimulation is created after identifying a light meter at human body level 450 mm (when sitting onthe ground while praying and listening to the Friday‘s sermon) above the ground floor plan of themosque. The results are based on its reference to this light meter‘s setting with modification ofthe daylight system to the selected weather file (Landry & Breton 2009). Selected points on theimaginary grid plan layouts are used in the measurements during this simulation. Duration of thissimulation is only scoped to 12 hours with one hour interval for each measurement taken from

6:00am to 6:00pm on 21st June 2010. The simulation does not taken account to the time ofsunrise and sunset when the measurements are collected. Each hour is represented by lightinganalysis calculation per frame in one rendering image at resolution 1024 x 768. This analysis isto test indoor illuminance level by simulating the realistic atmosphere from weather file‘s data atselected 5 points (P1=entrance door; P2 centre prayer hall; P3=mihrab; P4=right side prayer hall;and P5=left side prayer hall) inside the building for each mosque (Figure 5). The results for eachselected points is collected and then converted to tables and line charts. These results allows usto have comparative analysis of lighting performances between Karadjoz Beg and Neziragamosque. This analysis refers the measurable scale of the illuminance level as follows: (Schlyter2010) and (Wikipedia 2010)

Table 1. Lighting scale of measurement

Scale Illuminance (lux) Level

1 0 Total darkness

2 1 - 79 Dark

3 80 - 199 Hallway brightness

4 200 - 500 Brightness for reading or office area



168

5 501 - 1000 Intricate work for brightness

6 1001 - 10000 Maximum brightness from sunlight toindoor area

7 10001 - 100000 Outdoor area brightness100000 lux is the maximum

measurement.

5.0 Results of the Analysis

The results are illustrated in Table 2 and 3, and Figure 4 to 9. Results of the analysis comprisecomparative study between Karadjoz Beg and Neziraga mosque as follows:

(a). Point 1Figure 4 shows that the illuminance at Point 1 (location near the mosque entrance) for both of themosques has the brightest level compared to the other 4 locations ranging from 922 to 33.5 lux.The study finds that the average illuminance level at Karadjov Beg mosque is higher than that at

Neziraga mosque. The afternoon sunlight from 10:00 am to 2:00pm provides higher illuminancelevel than those in early morning and late evening sunlight. There is no intersecting point in theLine Chart of Point 1 that indicates both mosques have the same illuminance level during thesimulation except at near 7:00am with about 370 lux. The average illuminance level at KaradjozBeg mosque is 462 lux more than twice higher than that of Neziraga mosque (186 lux). KaradjozBeg has brighter illuminance level than Neziraga mosque in all hourly simulation from 7:00 amto 6:00 pm. Neziraga mosque has a very bright illuminance level (922 lux) at 6:00am whichindicates that it receives direct morning sunlight at Point 1. Neziraga mosque evenly distributed brightness level from 7:00am to 4:00pm ranging from 119 (minimum) to 184 lux under Scale 3with an average of 156 lux. On the other hand, Karadjoz Beg mosque has better evenlydistributed illuminance level throughout the simulation process from 6:00am to 5:00pm ranging

from 310 (minimum) to 606 lux (maximum) under Scale 4 and 5 with an average of 491 lux. Themorning and evening sunlight provides higher illuminance level than those in late eveningsunlight.

Figure 4. Line chart of Point 1



170


(d). Point 4Figure 7 shows that the illuminance at Point 4 (location near south-west wall) at both of themosques has the illuminance level ranging from 25 to 239 lux. The illuminance levels atKaradjoz Beg mosque from 8:00am to 3:00pm are high above 200 lux and evenly distributed(between 210 and 240 lux) compared to those at Neziraga mosque ranging from 160 to 190 lux.The average illuminance level at Karadjov Beg mosque is 192 lux higher than that of Neziragamosque (124 lux) with the difference of 68 lux. The illuminance level in Karadjoz Beg mosqueis 145 lux at 6:00am and the level gradually increases to 239 lux at 11:00am reaching to itsmaximum point, before it has gradual drop to 211 and 144 lux at 3:00pm and 5:00pm. At 6:00pmit has sudden decrease to 38 lux. The illuminance level in Neziraga mosque however has itsmaximum point (189 lux) at 10:00am before having gradual decrease to 160 and 99 lux at 2:00and 4:00pm respectively, and to its minimum point of 25 lux at 6:00pm. Almost all of theilluminance levels at Karadjoz Beg mosque fall under category Scale 4 compared to those at Neziraga mosque under Scale 3.


(d). Point 5Figure 8 shows that the illuminance levels at Point 5 (location near north-east wall) in both of themosques range from 21 to 203 lux. The illuminance levels from 7:00am to 3:00pm in KaradjozBeg mosque have more than 150 lux with its maximum of 203 lux at 10:00am. The illuminancelevels at Neziraga mosque however have less brightness compared to those in Karadjoz Beg

0

200

400

I l l u m i n a n c e

Point 4 Jun-21

Neziraga Karadjozbeg



172

distributed illuminance levels in its indoor area compared to those in Karadjoz Beg mosqueas is illustrated in Figure 9 and 10, and Table 2 and 3. Most of its illuminance levels fallunder category Scale 3 at Point 1, 2, 4 and 5; and Scale 2 for Point 3. Most of its illuminancelevels besides are less than 150 lux at Point 2, 3 and 5.

Figure 9. Line chart of Karadjoz Beg mosque at Point 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5

Figure 10. Line chart of Neziraga mosque at Point 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5

(c). The result shows that pedentive dome design provides evenly distributed illuminance level toall locations inside the mosque whereas pyramid roof design has poor evenly distributedilluminance level especially at the location near to mihrab with low illuminannce and atother locations after 4:00pm in comparison to its other locations under category Scale 2(considered as dark).

(d). Design with good illuminance level is necessary in this region. The recorded temperatureduring summer equinox ranges between 15.8oC to 27.6oC (Worldweather 2010). Having

sufficient natural sunlight is important especially for morning sunlight to increase the indoortemperature from 18oC to 28oC as recommended by World Health Organisation (1990).Pedentive dome mosque design obtains higher illuminance levels than pyramid domemosque design.

Table 2. Indoor lighting performance of Karadjoz Beg mosque

Karadjoz beg

-300700

I l l u m i n a n c e

Neziraga mosque

June - 21

po:1 po:2 po:3

po:4 po:5



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mosque 21-6

6:00 7:00 8:00 9:0010:0

0

11:0

0

12:0

0

13:0

0

14:0

0

15:0

0

16:0

0

17:0

0

18:0

0

1309.

7380

464.6

550606.

4569.

6550.

8588.

3542.

2453.

8480.

7397.

3111.

6

2 154.8

254.2

267.1

292.7

307.9

266.8

253.1

266.9

246 222.8

203 163.6

47.2

3109.

8175.

8178.

7175.

5198.

7197.

8182.

5198.

5186.

7162.

8136.

593.4 31.1

4145.

1181

226.5

240 247239.

1207.

2221.

4217.

9210.

6179.

7144.

338.4

5115.

6178.

6191.

9197.

5202.

9181.

9169

185.3

175156.

2128.

787.6 29.9

Table 3. Indoor lighting performance of Neziraga mosque

Neziraga mosque21-6

6:00 7:00 8:00 9:0010:0

0

11:0

0

12:0

0

13:0

0

14:0

0

15:0

0

16:0

0

17:0

0

18:0

0

1922.

4120 152.4

162.6

184.1

174.5

164.4

175.5

164.7

142.1

119.2

91.6 33.5

2 76.3 109.8 127.3132.

9140.

2128.

5115.

5118.

1106.

284.7 67.4 42.3 18.3

3 63.5 109.8 107.9123.

3101 75 70.4 73.5 67.2 53.6 39.4 25.4 11.2

488.1 128.6 160.1

180.

6

189.

2

177.

1

162.

5

172.

7

160.

3

130.

599.1 61 24.9

5 85.6 153.9 164.5159.

3159.

3153.

7128.

8135 124

101.2

78.2 50.4 21.2

7.0 Conclusion

This study concludes that single pedentive dome design has better lighting performance thansingle pyramid dome design. It has good evenly distributed illuminance level at all locationsinside the mosque in comparison to single pyramid roof design. This result supports theargument why pedentive dome is very popularly choosen for the mosque roof form in Bosniawhen this type of dome was introduced by the Ottoman master builders from Asia Minor. By

applying pedentive roof form, it gives inspiration to the master builders to design a mosque withexcellent natural lighting performance transmitted into the mosque at various angles to provideevenly distributed illuminance level at all locations. The design creates vast interior space planlayout without obstruction by walls and columns providing excellent sunlight penetration into the building (Goodwin 1993). This offers the master builders besides to explore lighting design as asource of expression leading toward a sense for a place of worship with a presence of divinityinside the building. Location near the mihrab is the most important because it is the place where



174

congregational prayers five times a day, sermon and lectures (kuliah) take place, therefore;having good illuminance levels at this area is necessary.

8.0 Acknowledgement

This paper is under Research University Grant supported by Universiti Sains Malaysia. Thankyou to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Spahic Omer who is the co-researcher (Bosnian side) for the assistance providing research materials and information.

9.0 References

Chel, A., Tiwari, G.N., Chandra, A. 2009. A modified model for estimation of daylight factor forskylight an experimental validation using pyramid shape skylight over vault roof mud-housein New Delhi (India). Applied Energy. 86, pp. 2507-2519.

Chel, A., Tiwari, G.N., Singh, H.N. 2009. A modified model for estimation of daylight factorfor skylight integrated with dome roof structure of mud-house in New Delhi (India). Applied

Energy. 87, pp. 3037-3050.Goodwin, G. 1993. Sinan Ottoman Architecture and its Values Today. London: Saqi Books.Hillenbrand, R. 1994. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning . Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press.Jayewardene, S. 1989. Conservation of Mostar Old Town, Yugoslavia, 1979. Space for

Freedom. In I. Serageldin. London: Butterworth Architecture. pp. 40-43.Landry, M., Breton, P. 2009. Daylight Simulation in Autodesk 3ds Max Design 2009 - Advanced

Concepts. Autodesk Inc. Necipoglu, G. 2005. The age of Sinan: Architectural culture in the Ottoman Empire. Muqarnas:

An Annual of Visual Culture of the Islamic World . In Gulru Necipoglu (Ed.), vol. xxiv.London: Reaktion Books. Pp. 141-184.

Pacic, D. 1990. The Preservation of the Built Heritage of Mostar, Yugoslavia. Architectural andUrban Conservation in the Islamic World . In Abu H. Imamuddin and Karen R. Longeteig(Eds.). Geneva: The Aga Khan Trust for Culture.

Pasic, A. 2004. A Short History of Mostar In Conservation and Revitalisation of Historic Mostar .Geneva: The Aga Khan Trust for Culture.

Runsheng, T., Meir ,I. A., Etzion Y. 2009. An analysis of absorbed radiation by domed andvaulted roofs as compared with flat roofs, Energy and Buildings. 35: 6, pp. 539-548.

Saoud, R. 2004. Muslim architecture under Ottoman patronage . FSTC Limited .Serageldin, I. 1989. Conservation of Mostar Old Town, Mostar, Yugoslavia. Space for Freedom.

In I. Serageldin. London: Butterworth Architecture. pp. 103-116.Schlyter, P. 2010. Radiometry and Photometry in Astronomy. Retrieved 1st October 2010 at

http://www.stjarnhimlen.se/comp/radfaq.html#10.Wikipedia. 2010. Lux Measurement . Retrieved 1st October 2010 at

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux#cite_note-3. World Health Organisation. 1990. Indoor Environment: Health Aspects of Air quality, Thermal

Environment, Light and Noise. London: World Health Organisation; 1990. _____. (2010). EnergyPlus energy simulation softwares: Weather data files. Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 10th Oct. 2010 athttp://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data.cfm.




http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%235712%232003%23999649993%23421761%23FLA%23&_cdi=5712&_pubType=J&view=c&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=c40048abd91ad9598908d56a9da7aa52



http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux#cite_note-3



http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data.cfm








175

_____. 2010. Calculate Sunrise and Sunset Timesfor Any Location: Mostar. Retrieved 1

st Nov. 2010 at http://sunrise-sunset.dusk-

dawn.com/?month=6&year=2010&longitude=17.8&latitude=43.35&timezone=2&zenith=9

0.83333333333&location=&view=month&resulting=1 _____. 2010. TuTiempo. Retrieved 1st Nov. 2010 at

http://www.tutiempo.net/en/Climate/Mostar/06-2010/133480.htm



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Pengembangan Sebuah Ruang Kelas Belajar Serta Aplikasi Learni ng by

Doing Di Sekolah High Scope Indonesia

A.SetiawanPengajar Department Sejarah, Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya,

Universitas Indonesia, [email protected]

Abstrak

Tujuan utama penulisan paper ini adalah memberikan sebuah penjelasan mengenai perkembangan dan pengembangan sebuah ruang kelas belajar dengan aplikasi learning by doing di Sekolah High Scope diIndonesia. Pembahasannya sendiri terbagi atas tiga (3) bagian utama yaitu pembahasan mengenai perkembangan pendekatan school ini di luar negeri, konsep dan filosofi dari pendekatan sekolah HighScope dan penataan ruang belajar di sekolah tersebut di Indonesia. Diharapkan penulisan ini dapatmemberikan sebuah alternatif paradigma dan pendekatan dalam perancangan ruang kelas di Indonesiasecara khusus dan internasional secara umum

Kata Kunci: Ruang Kelas Belajar, Aplikasi Learning by Doing, Sekolah High Scope

1.0 Latar Belakang

Amerika Serikat adalah satu dari sekian banyak negara maju dimana model pendidikan yangditerapkan di negara tersebut menjadi panutan di sejumlah negara lain. Amerika Serikat kinimenjadi salah satu tempat tujuan para siswa dari berbagai negara yang ingin melanjutkan pendidikan di tingkat sekolah menengah hingga tingkat universitas. Beberapa universitas diAmerika Serikat menawarkan jenjang pendidikan lanjutan mulai dari program sarjana

( Bachelor), master dan doktor. Bila kita teliti lebih dalam, maka kita akan mendapati bahwa beberapa universitas tersebut memiliki program studi unggulan terkait dengan sumber daya alamdan situasi yang dihadapi oleh mayoritas masyarakat di sebuah negara bagian. Hal ini sejalandengan prinsip awal dan peraturan yang dibuat oleh pemerintah federal bahwa setiap negara bagian diharuskan mendirikan sebuah universitas yang memfokuskan pelaksanaan berbagai penelitian dalam upaya mengeksploitasi sumber daya alam untuk kesejahteraan masyarakat dinegara bagian masing-masing.

Selain universitas, di Amerika Serikat dikenal pula adanya sebuah institusi pendidikanyang berupaya menselaraskan antara keahlian teori dan praktek yakni Community College.Konsep pendirian Community College sendiri diambil dari sistem pendidikan siap pakai diJerman atau yang lebih dikenal dengan Fachoscule. Institusi tersebut lebih menekankan pada sisiketerampilan ( skill ) yang sangat dibutuhkan oleh industri-industri di Jerman sehingga penerapan berbagai teori yang dipelajari mendapat porsi yang tinggi. Sementara di kebanyakan disiplinilmu yang dipelajari oleh para mahasiswa di perguruan tinggi justru lebih mengedepankan pada pemahaman konsep agar kelak konsep tersebut dapat dikembangkan lagi seiring dengan perkembangan zaman. Amerika Serikat memadukan dua konsep institusi semacam Junior

College dengan metode Fachoscule menjadi Community College yang kita kenal sekarang.






177

Berbagai konsep dan pemikiran para pemikir dan praktisi pendidikan di Amerika Serikatikut mengilhami pendirian Community College diantaranya adalah konsep Learning by Doing yang merupakan aplikasi dari pemikiran pragmatisme di bidang pendidikan yang digagas olehJohn Dewey. Dalam menghadapi industrialisasi Eropa dan Amerika, Dewey berpendirian bahwasistem pendidikan sekolah harus diubah. Menurut Dewey, ilmu pengetahuan tidak harus

diperoleh dari buku-buku melainkan harus diberikan kepada siswa melalui praktek dan tugas-tugas yang berguna. Belajar harus lebih banyak difokuskan melalui tindakan daripada melalui buku. Dewey percaya terhadap adanya pembagian yang tepat antara teori dan praktek. Hal inimembuat Dewey demikian lekat dengan atribut Learning by Doing . Yang dimaksud disini bukan berarti ia menyeru anti intelektual, tetapi untuk mengambil kelebihan fakta bahwa manusia harusaktif, penuh minat dan siap mengadakan eksplorasi.

2.0 Pemasalahan

Dalam masyarakat industri, sekolah harus merupakan miniatur lokakarya dan miniaturkomunitas. Belajar haruslah ditekankan pada praktek dan trial and error . Pendidikan harus

disusun kembali bukan hanya sebagai persiapan menuju kedewasaan, tetapi pendidikan sebagaikelanjutan pertumbuhan pikiran dan kelanjutan penerang hidup. Sekolah hanya dapatmemberikan kita alat pertumbuhan mental sedangkan pendidikan yang sebenarnya adalah saatkita telah meninggalkan bangku sekolah dan tidak ada alasan mengapa pendidikan harus berhentisebelum kematian menjemput.

Konsep Learning by Doing yang melekat pada Dewey diadopsi oleh Sekolah High Scope yang berpusat di Michigan, Amerika Serikat. Sekolah ini menawarkan konsep belajar teori dan praktek yang berimbang dan memiliki beberapa perbedaan dengan sekolah konvensional lainnya.Konsep yang ditawarkan oleh Sekolah High Scope mendapat sambutan yang cukup luas idakhanya dalam masyarakat Amerika Serikat namun juga diminati oleh beberapa praktisi pendidikan di negara lain termasuk di Indonesia. Sekolah High Scope memang membukakesempatan bagi perluasan usaha pendidikan melalui sistem franchise sehingga ketertarikan para praktisi pendidikan di Indonesia untuk mengaplikasikan konsep Learning by Doing miliksekolah ini dapat terwujud dengan berdirinya Sekolah High Scope Indonesia.

Salah satu perebedaan mendasar dalam penyelenggaraan proses belajar mengajar antarasekolah-sekolah di Indonesia dengan Sekolah High Scope adalah penataan ruang kelas. Dikebanyakan sekolah Indonesia, posisi guru dan siswa berhadap-hadapan. Guru berada di depankelas menerangkan dan memimpin diskusi sementara seluruh siswa dengan posisi meja dan kursiyang diatur sejajar menghadap papan tulis. Situasi ini sangat berbeda dengan penataan ruang diSekolah High Scope Indonesia dimana ruang kelas dibagi menjadi empat wilayah (zone) yangakan menjadi tempat para siswa belajar dan beraktivitas, Makalah ini akan memfokuskankelebihan dan kekurangan penataan ruang belajar di Sekolah High Scope Indonesia khususnyatingkat Sekolahy Menengah Pertama terhadap kualitas belajar para siswanya. Apakah penataanruang dengan pembagian wilayah memberikan kontribusi bagi peningkatan kualitas belajar siswaatau justru melemahkan siswa dalam penyerapan ilmu?



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3.0 Penataan Ruang Belajar di Sekolah High Scope Indonesia

Penataan ruang guna menunjang proses belajar mengajar merupakan salah satu faktor pentingkeberhasilan seorang guru dalam mentransformasikan ilmu sesuai kurikulum pendidikan. DiIndonesia, tuntutan permintaan berbagai perusahaan terhadap lulusan berbagai institusi

pendidikan yang terampil semakin besar seiring dengan makin cepatnya arus globalisasi danakan dilaksanakannya perdagangan bebas di wilayah Asia Pasifik. Beberapa sekolah swastamulai berbondong-bondong merayu para konsumen dalam hal ini orang tua untukmemperkenalkan sistem pendidikan baru yang diyakini lebih unggul dalam mempersiapkan putera-puterinya menghadapi tantangan dunai kerja di masa mendatang.

Sekolah High Scope Indonesia sebagai salah satu sekolah swasta papan atas berupaya bersaing dalam memperebutkan pangsa pasar pendidikan di Indonesia dengan jalanmemperkenalkan sebuah konsep pendidikan Learning by Doing . Konsep ini mengharuskan agarsiswa lebih banyak bereksplorasi dan mempraktekan pengetahuan yang mereka miliki sehingga penataan ruang kelas sangat penting dalam mendukung aplikasi konsep tersebut. Sekolah High

Scope Indonesia khususnya di tingkat menengah pertama di ruang kelas Social Studies membagiruang kelas menjadi empat zone yakni economic zone, geography zone, history zone dandiscussion zone. Pembagian wilayah dalam satu ruangan kelas ini tidak berarti para siswa belajar beberapa pelajaran dalam saat yang bersamaan namun dalam satu topik pelajaran, kegiatan yangdilakukan dibuat menjadi lebih bervariasi.

Zone merupakan sebuah tempat beraktivitas dalam proses belajar mengajar. Masing-masing zone dibuat agar terdapat tempat yang dapat digunakan untuk menempatkan alat peragamasing-masing bidang dalam Social Studies (Sejarah, Geografi dan Ekonomi). Disamping untukmenyimpan alat-alat tersebut, masing-masing zone juga dilengkapi dengan tempat diskusi yaknisatu buah meja dan empat buah kursi. Dalam proses belajar mengajar terdapat dua orang gurudalam satu ruang belajar. Proses pembelajaran dalam satu topik adalah sebagai berikut:

Model SimulasiTopik: Sejarah Indonesia Masa Pergerakan NasionalWaktu: 60 menitMenit 0-10 Guru memberikan penjelasan singkat mengenai pergerakan nasional

di Indonesia dan instruksi kegiatan di masing-masing zone serta pembagian kelompok. Setelah itu, masing-masing kelompok menuju zonemasing-masing.

Menit 10-20 Siswa di masing-masing zone melakukan aktivitas belajar mengajar.Sebagai contoh di zone 1, guru memberikan tutorial kepada siswa, di zone2 para siswa membaca artikel mengenai pergerakan nasional di Indonesia,di zone 3 para siswa mengerjakan kuis dan di zone 4 para siswa membuat posterterkait pergerakan nasional di Indonesia. Guru lainnya berkeliling zone untukmemeriksa aktivitas para siswa di masing-masing zone.

Menit 20-40 Para siswa bertukar zone, siswa di zone 1 menuju zone 2, zone 2 menuju zone 3,zone 3 menuju zone 4 dan zone 4 menuju zone 1. Siswa kemudian melakukanaktivitas di masing-masing zone. Dengan demikian dalam satu sesi pelajaranmasing-masing siswa melakukan 2 aktivitas di 2 zone yang berbeda.



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Menit 40-60 Semua siswa berkumpul di meeting point atau zone 1 untuk berdiskusi terkaitaktivitas yang telah mereka lakukan di dua zone.

Guru memegang peranan penting dalam sirkulasi aktivitas di tiap zone. Guru harus dapat bekerjasama dengan mitra guru lainnya di kelas agar perpindahan antar zone tidak memakan

waktu lama karena bila siswa tidak disiplin mengikuti instruksi, maka penyelesaian masing-masing aktivitas di tiap zone akan terhambat. Bila masing-masing aktivitas di tiap zone tidakselesai maka sasaran pembelajaran tidak akan tercapai sehingga diskusi di akhir sesi hampir bisadipastikan tidak akan berjalan baik karena masing-masing siswa tidak memami secara utuhsasaran pembelajaran.

Selama melakukan berbagai aktivitas di masing-masing zone, semua sarana dan prasarana untuk melakukan aktivitas belajar mengajar harus sudah tersedia. Guru harusmempersiapkan berbagai alat peraga pembelajaran yang mendukung aktivitas tersebut. Di zone 4misalnya, sudah harus tersedia berbagai perlengkapan untuk membuat poster mulai dari kertaskanvas, cat air atau minyak, pensil, rautan hingga kertas warna. Bila pada saat aktivitas tersebut

akan dilaksanakan sementara alat-alat yang diperlukan belum lagi tersedia, maka sirkulasikegiatan antar zone tidak bisa dilakukan.Aktivitas yang aktif dari setiap siswa merupakan kunci keberhasilan konsep Learning by

Doing . Aktivitas yang bervariasi dimaksudkan agar pemahaman siswa bisa dilakukan dari berbagai jalan. Siswa juga tidak lekas bosan dengan hanya melakukan satu aktivitas belajarkarena diharapkan aktivitas lain di tiap zone yang berbeda dapat memancing keingintahuan siswasehingga semangat belajar tetap tinggi. Metode ini diyakini akan tepat sasaran manakala siswamemiliki rasa ingin tahu yang tinggi dan tergolong siswa yang aktif. Sayangnya, seleksi untukmendapatkan siswa yang aktif seringkali kurang ketat sehingga guru terkadang merasa kesulitanuntuk membangkitkan minat belajar siswa.

Bagan Pembagian dan Sirkulasi Antar Zone Dalam Ruang Kelas

4.0 Kesimpulan

Secara umum metode ini memberikan keuntungan bagi guru dan siswa. Dengan metode Active

Learning , guru tidak harus memberikan seluruh penjelasan namun hanya memberikan tuntunandan kesimpulan kendati tanggung jawab berjalannya sebuah aktivitas di tiap zone menjadi lebih

→

↖ ↓

←

Zone 1

Meeting Point

Zone 2

History Zone

Zone 4

Economics

Zone

Zone 3

Geography

Zone



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besar. Bagi siswa, sisi kemandirian dalam menggali ilmu pengetahuan dari berbagai sumbermenjadi meningkat. Kemandirian dan keingintahuan merupakan factor kunci dalam metode belajar ini karena siswa yang aktif menggali informasi selanjutnya diharapkan bisamendiskusikannya dengan guru di kelas. Diskusi memang diharapkan berhasil manakala siswasudah memilki dasar-dasar ilmu pengetahuan terkait topic yang tengah dipelajari sehingga terjadi

sebuah interaksi dua arah antara siswa dan guru. Selama ini, kebanyakan yang terjadi adalahguru bertindak sebagai sumber tunggal dalam proses belajar mengajar, sebaliknya dalam metode Active Learning , sumber belajar bisa digali dari banyak sarana. Masing-masing zone merupakansumber belajar interaktif yang diharapkan dapat menambah wawasan dan pengetahuan siswa saatmereka tidak bertatap muka dengan gurunya karena masing-masing zone dilengkapi dengan berbagai media belajar. Sirkulasi antar zone juga memberikan dinamisasi dan diupayakan dapatmerubah suasana belajar yang berbeda dalam satu sesi.

Seperti dijelaskan di muka, guru memiliki peran yang sangat penting dalam metode Active Learning . Guru harus memiliki banyak ide dan terus mengasah pengetahuannya terkaitdengan topik pembelajaran. Mereka juga harus terus meng update setiap perkembangan ilmu

pengetahuan terkait agar siswa merasakan pula bahwa ilmu pengetahuan terus mengalami perkembangan. Selain itu, media yang digunakan juga harus bervariasi dan sebaiknyamemanfaatkan teknologi audio visual untuk menambah daya tarik siswa dalam beraktivitas.Dengan demikian, guru juga harus kreatif dalam membuat jenis aktivitas di tiap zone.

Metode Active Learning memang memberikan banyak kontribusi terutama dalammemvariasikan sumber-sumber belajar namun bukan berarti tanpa kelemahan. Kelemahan yangada diantaranya adalah kedisiplinan siswa. Dalam banyak hal, siswa sering terlambat dalammenyelesaikan aktivitas di tiap zone dalam waktu yang telah ditentukan. Kelemahan ini akansemakin bertambah apabila guru tidak tegas dalam memberikan instruksi sirkulasi antar zone.Siswa yang tidak mandiri juga semakin tidak akan memperoleh pengetahuan apabila tidakmemiliki motivasi yang kuat untuk belajar karena seperti telah dijelaskan di muka, durasi tatapmuka dengan guru memang terbilang sedikit. Sedikitnya durasi tatap muka dengan guru dapatmemberikan efek samping lain yakni semakin sedikitnya penjelasan yang diberikan oleh guru.

BIBLIOGRAFI

Baylin, Bernard. 1960. Education in the Forming of American Society. Williamsburg, TheUniversity of North Carolina Press.

Calhoun, C.C., Finch, A.V. 1982. Vocational Education: Concepts and Operations (2nd ed.)Belmont, California: Wadworth Publishing Company.

Cincotta, Howard (ed). 2004. Garis Besar Sejarah Amerika, Jakarta, United States InformationAgency.

Dewey, John. 1966. Democracy and Education, New York, The Free Press.Gabriel, Ralph, H. 1974. Nilai-nilai Amerika: Pelestarian dan Perubahan, Yogayakarta, Gadjah

Mada University Press.Gollattscheck, James, F. 1982. The Community College in America, Washington, American

Association of Community and Junior Colleges.



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182

AN ALTERNATIVE DESIGN FOR A SMART SCHOOL

A.H. Abdullah, S.S. ZubirDepartment of Architecture

Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying

UiTM, Shah Alam, Selangor

Abstract

A plot of 5.85 acres has been identified for this theoretical adventure to seek for the possibilities ofdesigning a smart school for gifted and talented students in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The researchexamines innovative design based on the non-traditional pedagogical models to generate a new hybrid program for the proposed scheme. Drawing largely from Gestalt psychology of the embedded figure, thisstudy adopts a rational approach in the production of form and spaces that can trigger the students to bemore creative in their endeavor. The design process is based on a synoptic method so as synecticstrategies could be realized and transformed into a responsive program. As this exploration makes use ofmultiple sources of evidence, a mixed-methodology model is adopted. It is a combination of historical-

interpretative as well as qualitative and quantitative strategies. This theoretical exercise will culminate ina design proposal that abhors traditional methods in the design process and a more succinct approach thatis reflexive is urgently required in the design of smart schools in Malaysia. In doing so, the proposal willalso try to validate the possibilities of projecting a conducive and creative ambiance for learning throughcritical analysis and innovative thinking.

Keywords: Gestalt psychology, reflexive, embedded figure, hybrid, smart school.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is the first thing that crosses the architects mind when they start designing schools fortalented students? Perhaps there are so many things that could be elaborated relating to thetypical requirements such as classrooms, libraries, formal and informal learning spaces and allother supporting facilities. However, the lacks of considerations focusing on informal learningenvironments have generated repeated models that fell short of innovative design. A school is a place where it is good to learn through the environment of spaces (Lobell, 2008). Therefore, it isnecessary for designers to deal with the matters in the production of spaces for students. Forinstance, RSP Architects has managed to generate a design at La Salle in Singapore thatincorporates hybrid and inductive learning spaces that promote students creative activities. In ourcontext of designing a smart school, since students are themselves gifted, therefore, it becomes achallenge for us to provide conducive spaces that can, not only, promote their learning process but also make them to be more creative and responsive. In order to achieve this, our main aim isto try and establish an alternative approach that is different from the standard and conventionaldesign of schools in Malaysia.

Gifted children are not like any other children because they won‘t permit emotional problems to control them (Silverman, http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/we_have_learned.htm).They also find themselves out of place with their contemporaries. Some have no difficulties incoping up, but others find themselves isolated and rejected by their peers. They may withdrawinto themselves and only have few friends. They may be bored with their school work and

http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/we_have_learned.htm





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become frustrated. Such problems need urgent solution and it‘s high time that Malaysia shouldhave special programs for them and perhaps this can make their lives better. The ways giftedstudents learn are different from normal students. Studies have shown that spatial functionalismof learning areas elevate students‘ critical thinking. How to design spaces to promote thedevelopment of the students‘ mind becomes a big challenge for designers. There are some

special relationships between human behaviors and where it occurs has increased awareness ofthe critical role of the built environment (Jamieson, 2007). Thus, the quest of new form oflearning environments as the focus of this design research must consider the characteristic ofgifted and talented students.

Ironically, learning disabilities have always being associated with gifted and talentedstudents. These students somehow show their outstanding gifts and also their capabilities butlearning disabilities contribute some difficulties in achieving high academic performance (Brody,1997). Thus, for a smart school, student centered is one of the approaches in learning and thisrequires an introduction of new spaces that integrate with other spaces. This design research alsohighlights that particular space where it become a common area for all the students to utilized so

as to emphasize the place more towards a student centered approach. For example the AustralianScience and Mathematic School in Adelaide is different with other public high schools in SouthAustralia because no classrooms, no bells, no uniforms and even no textbooks (Mitchell, 2009).

The school is a comprehensive senior secondary school that caters for the last three yearsof schooling (year 10-12) before entry into higher education. The school was built and situatedon the ground of Flinders University Campus in Adelaide. In fact, the school is an innovative andinternationally recognized center for research-based teaching and learning. The school aims tocreate an innovative learning environment for upper secondary students specializing in math andsciences within a framework of new pedagogies and a need for new spatial models. In term ofdesign wise, the traditional concept of classrooms and laboratories have been replaced by so-called ‗learning commons‘ and ‗learning studios‘ which remark as a key feature of the school(Donaldson, 2006). Through this approach, it create a negotiation both individual and groups byhaving collaborative working connections and flexible teaching and also learning groups (Fisher,2006). It was found that the school‘s floor plan has no classroom as to support the pedagogicalstrategy and approach of ‗inquiry‘ and ‗constructivist‘ learning (Fisher, 2006). The planning forflexible environments has been applied into this ‗learning commons‘ as it provide group spacesfacilitating collaborative problem solving of project based work (Figure 1).



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Figure 1: The learning commons are flexible learning spaces which can accommodate groups of

students (source:

http://www.woodsbagot.com/en/Pages/AustralianScienceMathematicsSchool.aspx)

Another good example is the first high school in Singapore to be developed and managed by NUS, which aims to provide a stimulating environment for students with special aptitude inmathematics and science. This project marks a critical milestone in the development of schoolsin Singapore as it transcends beyond just the physical design of a school campus; it is aboutsetting a new paradigm, an inspiration for a new era of learning. The design philosophyaccentuates the school‘s vision of being an ―active participant‖ in the students‘ learning process by designing the school buildings as 3D learning tools. It explores the innovative use ofelements, such as the Eco-Learning trail and the Pi Wall as real-life lessons. Classrooms aredesigned to facilitate different layout configurations to adapt to new learning scenarios - astrategy to support learning and accommodate changing pedagogies. To inculcate a sense ofenvironmental responsibility in students, the school is conceived as a real-life showcase ofsustainability by emphasizing climatic responsiveness, resource optimization, wasteminimization and occupant well-being using forms, orientation and layout. The design philosophy envisions the building components of the school taking on the role of teaching tools.This concept explores the innovative use of elements abstracted from scientific and mathematicalconcepts, which are then integrated into the total built form. Many concepts were explored in thedesign of the school. Ideas include extracting the dynamic form of a double helix from thestructure of DNA, and interpreting it into the form of an abstracted ‗nano tube stairway‘ at theentry lobby (Figure 2). The ―Pi Wall‖ defines the edge of the main concourse facing the trackand field. It is derived from the mathematical concept of Pi, and consists of a mosaic ofrectangular perforated aluminum panels that are translated into the decimal digits of Pi through anumber-coded color system.



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Figure 2: Students are welcomed with the 'nano tube stairway' at the entry lobby and the Pi wall

which facing the field (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NUS_High_School )

Embedded Figures as Design Generator in Hybridization of Form and Space

Apart from acquiring knowledge from diversified resources, students must also learn tosynthesize different types of information. Therefore, a smart school must be a laboratory thattriggers the inquisitive minds of the students. One way of doing this is to establish the school asthe product of extensive research design innovation that creates a more heterogeneousenvironment to propel students into the realm of enquiry. Based on our findings, we haveestablished the main theme of the proposed school as a ‗3-dimensional learning tool‘.

This generative idea has been attributed to an earlier research by Kurt Gottschaldt (1902-1991) on the embedded figure. In gestalt psychology, ―embedded figures‖ are visual puzzles inwhich smaller, simpler shapes are hidden within larger, more complex designs. In his famousexperiment, Gottschaldt showed five simple geometric figures to two subject groups for onesecond each, instructing the subject to memorize the figures carefully enough that they coulddraw them later. These figures were shown to the first group only three times, and to the secondgroup 520 times. Both groups were then introduced to a series of new, more complex drawings,for two second each, into which one of the earlier figures had been integrated (Figure 3).Initially, in both groups, fewer than 10 per cent of the subjects suspected the presence of anembedded figure; and even when instructed to search for it, only about 30 per cent were able to

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NUS_High_School






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detect the original figure (Gottschaldt, 1926). The translation from 2-dimensional figure into 3-dimensional object is part of this design hypothesis where utilization of an element such as the basic geometrical form can be used as to promote knowledgibility. Perhaps this theoreticalassumption can elevate the potentials of the gifted students.

Over the years, Gottschaldt‘s research on the embedded figure have been frequently cited by psychologists and other scientists and the issues most often debated have been the influenceof experience on perception; the extent to which the whole may influence its parts; and the natureof problem-solving. It is conceivable that the figures used in Gottschaldt‘s experiments wereinitiated by him, but surely he did not come up with the idea of an embedded figure. It is morelikely that comparable figures have been discovered or devised throughout human history, whichare ubiquitous visual events, example of which can be found in all cultures and time periods.

Figure 3: Examples of Gottschaldt's embedded figures (source: Behrens, 2000)

In addition, since Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has be consideredas one of the most powerful tool in educational delivery today, therefore, incorporating its values

would not be too prohibitive to the mainstream concept (Fisher, 2006). As ICT becomes animportant platform in education, this may affect the nature of space planning and regulations.Typical design for classroom may no longer be like that all the time as new intervention ofclassroom layout can affect the process of learning. Fisher relates the position of space and placein campus life as to ICT to the physical environment. Even though he mentions about campus, but in this smart school context, we still can consider it whenever something that we think positive may take place. Pedagogy, space and environment are the crucial elements, which arereciprocal to each other and it is necessary to translate them into a wider setting so that giftedstudents can get advantages from that. In the traditional classroom setting, the normal approachof educational learning is biased towards teacher-centered which means teachers describe whatstudents should learn. Conversely, an approach of student-centered seems more aligned with

what is required in the pedagogy of adult learning (Figure 4). Learning settings are thus becoming much more than classroom. In fact, if this technique is to be fully developed, studentswill work in a range of modalities, either independently or in a team, collaborating through thesocial construction of knowledge that creates ―learning communities‖.



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Figure 4: Students at the center of learning by Fisher (source: Fisher, 2006)

2.0 Transformation

Our design exploration is not limited to only study the gestalten impact on design but alsoconsider other behavioral and technological components where we are not able to deliberate atthis juncture. The search for a new paradigm for this project seeks to emulate simultaneously thetranscultural continuity with the translatable qualities in the design approaches. The question ofreflexivity that was first coined by Foucault (1972) is therefore paramount in emphasizing the process of hybridization where actors, processes, concepts and traditions play a role ingenerating a hybrid model of a smart school. In such a situation ―the historical contents have been buried and disguised in a functionalist coherence or formal systemization‖ (Foucault, 1972)that projects the desired image of the built form within that cultural context in question. Inshort,‖ hybridization would be a general consequence in seeking a new unity of dissociated

elements in architecture. Hybrid building programs with their mix of living, working, culture,and recreation, break down the social barriers of rationalist zoning. Experimental hybridconstruction techniques as well as detail explorations would take this hybridization to the microlevel of an architectural construction and the experience of detail and material (Holl, 1993). Through observation, precedent studies and rigorous analysis, we can re-invent a new designnotion by collaborating our architectural knowledge into our own hybrid interpretation (Figure5).



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Figure 5: Basic triangle form used as to create complex pattern.

It is a challenge to design a smart school in a compact plot whilst trying to establish a dynamic

structure of spaces for learning. Such questions like how learning spaces can trigger student’s mindis also part of this design research that must be carried throughout this design exercises.

The proposed intervention sits comfortably on a hillside adjacent to a water body between the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Engineering (Figure 6). The proposal seems torejuvenate the existing landscape with an iconic gesture where the applications of embeddedfigures on the building envelope create a sudden surge of ambiguity to the context. Viewers will be curios of the nature of this building, which looks more like a museum than an educational building. Shifting away from the conventional design of schools not only deals with injectinghybrid ideas to interior spaces but also inducing a provocative statement to the exterior image.By doing so, further nourishes the artistic intuition and the inquisitive minds of the students.

Figure 6: The two school's blocks on a hill side.

The overall composition of the building envelope was generated from Gottschaldt‘stheory of embedded figures. The punctuated ‗holes‘ are basically window openings not only to permit natural lighting but also to create different modes to the interior ambiance by thetransparent colored sticker (Figure 7).



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Figure 7: Colored window glass create different mode.

A new typology of classroom where formal and informal spaces are combined into a single placeof the learning studio. These hybrid classrooms include a space for lounge and group workstationcomprising computers to support ICT learning. A Learning Studio can accommodate up to 20students at a time. The emphasis to have visual connections between the inside and outside aredeliberately enhanced. Therefore, materials with transparency qualities such as glass areextensively being utilized. From inside the classroom, students can visually be connected to theembedded figure wall and this connection perhaps can make them more eager to satisfy thecuriosity of their inquisitive minds. As to add richness to the complexity of the wall, reflectivematerials are specified to fill up the internal surfaces of the wall thus create an instantKaleidoscope-effect (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Visual experience through the learning corridor.

Gifted students like daydreaming and like to work independently. Therefore, this criterion hasdriven us to rethink the pertinent of individual spaces for them. We not only provide a place forthem to gather in groups but also try to create a territory of personal spaces. They might need a place where they can isolate their minds as to be calmer and more relax (Figure 9).



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Figure 9: Ramp stair is part of learning corridor and personal space.

Learning common is a large open space for the purpose of group work. As highlighted byFisher (2006), this can be achieved by proper planning in the space organization of the center.

Thus, it is necessary to provide workspaces for them so that they can have dynamic workstationswhile at the same time, flexible and adjustable accordingly to the required program (Donaldson,2006). Therefore, we incorporate such spaces in the learning common so that creative andcollaborative works among students are maximized to solve-problems in project-based works(Figure 10).

Figure 10: Learning common promotes more collaborative works.

3.0 Conclusion

Through several tests on the embedded figures by Gottschaldt, have established the potential for people to store memory from visual experiences. However, the test was done 2-dimensionallywithin a specific time frame. In this design research, translating the idea of the embedded figureonto a building envelope will generate an impact on the users and well as on the perceivers.Factors of scale, materials used, complexity of the patterns will definitely contribute to the waysstudents experience and utilize this building. By zeroing into the fragments as complete entitiesin themselves, students would be able to appreciate the hidden dimensions of the school and theembedded artefacts. This design escapade is a platform to approach design in a different way.Our task is to look for functioning particularities rather that determining rules.



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References

Jamieson, P. (2008) Creating New Generation Learning Environments on the University

Campus. Beijing: WB Research PressFisher, K. (2006) the New Learning Environment: Hybrid Designs For Hybrid Learning .

Melbourne: WB Research PressDonaldson, R. (2006) Public Paper #2 Education Futures. Melbourne: WB Research PressLobell, J. (2008) Between Silence and Light . Boston: Shambala Publications, IncFoucault, M. (1972) Power/Knowledge. Brighton: HarvesterHoll, S, ―Locus Soulles‖ in P. Noever (ed) (1993) The End of Architecture. Munich: Prestel-VerlageBehrens, R.R. (2000) Revisiting Gottschaldt: Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design.Retrieved July 2010, from http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/EmbeddedFigures.html Silverman, L. What We Have Learned About Gifted Children. Retrieved July 2010, fromhttp://www.hoagiesgifted.org/we_have_learned.htm Mitchell, A. (2009) Aussie School Tries to Liberate Teen Brains. Retrieved July 2010, from

http://www.thestar.com/atkinsonseries/atkinson2009/article/720658--aussie-school-tries-to-liberate-teen-brains

http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/EmbeddedFigures.html














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AUTHOR INDEXS

A.A.A.Ghani. 108, 120 N.A.G. Abdullah. 47,82, 148, 156

A.H.Abdullah. 182 N.Ishak. 24

A.I.Che-Ani. 47, 82, 148 N.M.Salleh. 66, 89,A.R.Fadhilah. 128, 134 N.M.Tawil. 82, 148

A.R.Musa. 99 N.Razali. 66, 89

A.R.M.Nasir. 148 N.Spalie. 47, 156

A.S.Ali. 71, 106 N.S.Spalie. 24

A.S.Hassan. 163 N.Utaberta. 47, 82, 156

A.Setiawan. 176

R.K.Khanna. 36

B.Faridah. 128, 134 R.Rahman. 29

R.Sulaiman. 57

H.B.Gang. 36

S.A.F.Al-Zawawi. 71, 106,

L.Chi-Hin. 57 S.Mirrahmi. 82

L.C.Hsia. 88, 106, S.N.Haron. 108, 120,

L.P.Wah. 71, S.N.Kamaruzzaman. 57, 89,

L.S.Pheng. 1, 36 S.S.Zubir. 182

M.M.Tahir. 47,148, 156 Y.Arab. 163

M.Surat. 99

M.Y.A.Broughton. 99

M.Y.Hamid. 108, 120

M.Y.Yuzainee. 128, 134



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