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PROCEEDINGSOf the

1999 AHRD ConferenceArlington, VA

March 3 – 7, 1999

K. Peter KuchinkeProceedings Editor

The copyrights for papers in these proceedings are retained by individual authors. No unauthorized use is permitted.The proceedings include papers received prior to the printing deadline. Content, editing, and proofreading were the

responsibility of each author.

For additional copies, contact:Academy of Human Resource Development

P.O. Box 25113Baton Rouge, LA 70894-5113

(225) 334 1874 (phone)(225) 334 1875 (fax)

[email protected]

Table of Content

Town ForumCertification of HRD Professionals, Products, and Academic Programs-The Role of AHRD.................. 1Human Resource Development Certification: ...................................................................................... ..... 7

Sypmposium 1: Adult Learning in the workplaceThe Relationship Between Workplace Learning and Employee Satisfaction in Small Businesses ........... 15Reframing the Andragogical Model of Adult Learning............................................................................. 20A Holistic Model of Knowledge and Adult Learning................................................................................ 29The Nature of Adult Workplace Curiosity................................................................................................. 37

Symposium 2: Advances in Distance LearningThe Adoption of Computer Technology and Telecommunications: A Case Study ................................... 43Distance Education: Examining Emerging Standards and Instructional Practicevia Videotaped Content Analysis............................................................................................................... 52Critical Components of Distance Education Partnerships between Two-year Collegesand Business and Industry ......................................................................................................................... 61Comparative Analysis of Online vs. Face-to-Face Instruction .................................................................. 68

Symposium 3: Learning and Working in GroupsCollaborating in Public with the Opposition": A Study of the Complex Meaning ofLearning in A Cross Boundary Work Group ............................................................................................. 77Designing Dispute Management Systems.................................................................................................. 85What’s New in Teams................................................................................................................................ 92Application and Test of a Model of Team Effectiveness to Self-Managing.............................................. 96

Symposium 4: Workplace Diversity IssuesExpanding Theories of Career Development: Adding the Voices of AfricanAmerican Women in the White Academy ................................................................................................. 104The Role of Human Resource Development in the Successful Transition ofMinority Youth into the Workplace........................................................................................................... 113The Relationship Between Selected Variables on Diversity and the Implementationof Diversity as Successful Corporate Culture Change Programs............................................................... 118Diversity Practitioners—Learning From Experience! Defining the Roleand Related Competencies in an Emerging Field of Practice. ................................................................... 125

Symposium 5: Learning Organization IssuesHow Action Learning Builds the Learning Organization: A Conceptual Analysis ................................... 136Enhancing Individual and Organizational Learning: A Sociological Model ............................................. 143Predictors of Learning Organizations: A Human Resource Development Practitioners Perspective ........ 151Action Learning and Systems-level Continuous Learning......................................................................... 159

Symposium 6: Managers and LearningExpatriate Managers and HRD: The Missing Link.................................................................................... 166Managerial Practices to Facilitate Learning Within Learning Organizations ............................................ 172Operationalizing the Organizational Model of Managerial Employee Persistence.................................... 179Critical Thinking, Developmental Learning, and Adaptive Flexibility in Organizational Leaders ........... 187

Innovative Session 1:Vital Work: Spirit and Development Within the Natural Workplace ....................................................... 193

Symposium 7: Linking HRD Theory and PracticeReorienting the Theoretical Foundations of Human Resource Development: Building aSustainable Profession and Society............................................................................................................ 202Towards a Philosophical Framework for Thought and Practice ................................................................ 209The Need for Theoretical Model Building in HRD ................................................................................. .. 217Bridging the Gap With a Multidimensional Performance Model .............................................................. 221

Symposium 8: Workforce Issues Facing HRDContributing Factors to the Success of Women and People of Color in Leadership Roles: ...................... 230A Qualitative Assessment of Office Design Perceived by Older and YoungerWorkers to Impact Work ........................................................................................................................... 239Consequences of Part-time Work for the Full-time Co-workers ............................................................... 247Disability Disclosure, Recruitment Interviews, and the Employment Process .......................................... 255

Symposium 9: Enhancing Employee SkillsThe Effect Of Study Skills Training Intervention On United States Air ForceAeromedical Apprentices........................................................................................................................... 263Helping Employees Develop Computer Skills While at Work: An Exploratory Study............................. 272Defining Core Problems for on the Job Training: An Example in the Car Repair Trade .......................... 282How Can Firms Improve Sales Performance? ........................................................................................... 289

Symposium 10: Instructional TechnologyPerformance- and Learning Support With On-line Help Systems: An Effectiveness Study...................... 292Using Participatory Action Research to Investigate the Process of Designing and DevelopingWeb-based Instruction (WBI).................................................................................................... ................ 298Readiness of HRD Instructors to Engage in On-line Instruction ............................................................... 307Motivating Community College Instructors to Teach On-line: An Exploration of Selected Motivators... 313

Symposium 11: International HRD PerspectivesTowards a Meaningful HRD Function in the Post-Command Economies of Centraland Eastern Europe .................................................................................................................................... 318The Impact of Human Resource Development on the Winter War Between Finlandand the Soviet Union, 1939-1940 .............................................................................................................. 327Designing Effective Training Program for International Transfer............................................................. 331Cross Cultural Effectiveness: A Case Study of Cultural Conflict Incidents .............................................. 340

Symposium 12: Informal Workplace LearningRe-conceptualizing Marsick and Watkins’ Model of Informal and IncidentalLearning in the Workplace......................................................................................................................... 349Creativity and Design ................................................................................................................................ 357Contradictory Practices: Critical Feminist Perspectives on HRD and Workplace Learning ..................... 365Self and Team Development in Practice (STP) Walk Rally ...................................................................... 373

Symposium 13: Organization Structure and StrategyHuman Resource Development's Contribution to Strategic Service Quality Performance in Radisson Hotels Worldwide ................................................................................................................. 380Mastering Turbulent Growth: A Growth Audit at a Major Pharmaceutical Research Center ................... 386A Study of the Role of HRD in Response to External Environmental Change inPublic Service Organizations. .................................................................................................................... 396Operationalizing Alignment: Testing Alignment Theory .......................................................................... 401

Symposium 14: University HRD ProgramsCase: Developing A Competency-Based Exam for an HRD Graduate Program....................................... 410Scaling the Walls of Academic Silos: The Birth of a Cross-disciplinary Academic HRD Program ......... 418An Examination of Teaching Pedagogies in Entrepreneurial Education, a Historical Examination.......... 427Examination of Critical Issues for Development and Implementation of Online Instruction.................... 434

Symposium 15: HRD Issues in AsiaThe History of Human Resource Development in Taiwan from 1949 to 1999 ......................................... 443Expatriate Development for the Asia-Pacific Region: A Comparative Analysis of Expatriatesfrom Five Countries Across Three Continents........................................................................................... 452Development Of A Framework For Emerging Asian MNCs And A Model For PromisingLocal Enterprises To Migrate Onto The ‘MNC Curve’: An International HRD Perspective. ................... 465The Framework and Practices of Cross-Cultural Training of Taiwanese Corporations ............................ 474

Symposium 16: Knowledge ManagementKnowledge Management and Knowledge Dissemination ......................................................................... 479A Theory Of Knowledge Management...................................................................................................... 488Signposts On The Road To Knowledge Management ............................................................................... 496The Relationship Between Human Resource Development And Business StrategyIn 1998 Fortune 500 Companies................................................................................................................ 504

Symposium 17: Facilitating Organizational ChangeConflicts that Arise in Small Group Facilitation........................................................................................ 512A Test of a Rapid Developer Model .......................................................................................................... 520Barriers to Transformational Change......................................................................................................... 529Pew Sitters or Church Pillars: A Case Study ............................................................................................. 536

Symposium 18: Evaluation in HRDAssessing Organizational Readiness for Learning Through Evaluative Inquiry ....................................... 542Design and Development of an Evaluation System for Online Instruction ............................................... 548The Mixed-Method Evaluation in HRD--A Description of Methods Appliedin the Industrial Development Program..................................................................................................... 554The Effects of Two Training Systems on Trainee Satisfaction, Learning, Job Behavior, Retention and Organizational Performance .............................................................................................. 562

Symposium 19: New Perspectives in HRDDeveloping an Instrument to Measure the Use of Play-Based Training Methods inHealthcare Education........................................................................................................... ...................... 569An Approach to HRD Based on Acceptance of Responsibility, Dedication to Truth,Delaying Gratification, and Love: A Case for Kenyan Students ............................................................... 574HRD and Economic Development: A Mega Level Research Agenda....................................................... 582Improving Technical Training: The Effectiveness of Technical Subject Matter Experts as Trainers ....... 588

Symposium 20: Integrating Learning and PerformanceIdentifying the Skill Requirements and Performance Needs of Small Manufacturers............................... 596The Relationship of Learning and Performance Improvement at Different System Levels ...................... 602Historical Antecedents Shaping The Terms Of Performance And Learning And TheirRelationship In Human Resource Development: An Exploratory Study................................................... 611Developing Managerial Competence: Does It Improve Performance?...................................................... 620

Symposium 21: Individual Learning IssuesA Quantitative Examination of the Feelings and Cognitive Processes of a Group ofAdults Undertaking a Tertiary HRD Program ........................................................................................... 627The Cycle of Awareness Development: A Cognitive and Psychosocial Theory of Adult Development... 634Components of Effective Business Based Diversity Training Programs................................................... 641Personality Traits, Affect, and Values: A Model of Dispositional Effects ............................................... 649

Symposium 22: Evaluating the Impact of HRDPre-Job Training and the Earnings of High-Tech Employees in Taiwan................................................... 658Training Effectiveness And Employee Output - A Regression Model Based On Training Transfer And Organization Development Variables .................................................................. 665Only Time Will Tell: Strengthening the Link Between HRD and Firm Performance............................... 674Contemporary Approaches to Return on Investment from Training......................................................... 681

Symposium 23: HRD in the United KingdomHRD and Psychological Contracts: A Case Study of Lifelong Learning .................................................. 689Comparing International HRD Practices and Experiences With Cross-culturalTheories and Research: A Case Study of the Office for National Statistics .............................................. 697Management and Career Development in the UK in Practice ................................................................... 704Information and Feedback Seeking in U.S. and British Human Resources Developmentand Training Settings ................................................................................................................................. 713

Symposium 24: HRD Professional DevelopmentMentoring as a Tool for Faculty Development: Predicting Positive Outcomes for Mentors ..................... 722The Evolving Role of Trainers and the Consulting Component in Corporate Universities ....................... 730A Corporate-University Partnership For The Development Of HRD Professionals:................................ 739Employed Adults in a B.S. Ed HRD Program Option: Who Are These Studentsand Why Are They Here? ......................................................................................................... ................. 747

Symposium 25: Changing WorkplaceWomen Entrepreneurs: Maintaining Business Success Through Human Resource Development........... 753Evaluating the Impact of a Union-Management Career Development Program........................................ 762The Superiority of Employee-Owned Companies: Reality or Myth? ........................................................ 770Recruiting and Retaining Women in Business: Women Executives ManeuverTo Change the Status Quo ......................................................................................................................... 777

Symposium 26: Measurement & Research ToolsIncome Effects of Human Resource Development for Higher Educated Professionals ............................ 785Do Higher Performing Managers Actually Receive Better Ratings? A Validation of Multirater Assessment Methodology ........................................................................................................ 791Examination of The Tendency of Coefficient Alpha to Support The Choice ofInstruments With Response Category Restriction. .................................................................................... 799A Factor Analytic Investigation of the Content of Participant Reactions: Affectiveand Utility Judgments ................................................................................................................................ 806

Symposium 27: Workforce DevelopmentEffects of Two Different Learning Paths on School-To-Work Transition................................................. 815Predictors of Success in Welfare-to-Work Training for the Information Technology Workforce ............ 826Workforce Preparation in a Rural Context: A Curriculum Integration Intervention.................................. 831Human Resource Related Characteristics in Selected Small Manufacturing Companies in Mexico......... 838

Symposium 28: Individual Differences in LearningCreek Women’s Perceptions of Work: A Qualitative Study ...................................................................... 844The Effect of Perceptual Learning Style and Self-efficacy on Preferred Instructional Methodin an Advanced Technical Program: A Comparison of Computer Based Training and Lecture ............... 851Subordinates’ Information Seeking Behavior: Empirical Investigation of the Effectof Perceived Leadership Style and Individual Differences........................................................................ 857An Empirical Study of Age Discrimination in Teacher Selection With Application to HRD ................... 865

Symposium 29: Linking HRD Practice and ResearchPartnership Research: Ensuring More Useful HRD Collaborations .......................................................... 874A Discussion of the Methodological Appropriateness of Research Representedin the AHRD Proceedings - A Strategic Perspective For Journey Management ....................................... 880Theory in “Theory to Practice”: Voices of Practitioners .......................................................................... 888The Status of HRD Research Literature in 1997 ....................................................................................... 897

Symposium 30: Contextual Learning IssuesLearning to Learn Strategies of Successful Real Estate Professionals: Implicationsfor Learning in the Workplace ................................................................................................. ................. 903Vital Work: Spirit and Development Within the Natural Workplace ....................................................... 909Action Learning as a Strategy for Inducing Psychological, Cultural, and Organizational Boundarylessness...................................................................................................................................... 918Contextual Learning of Owner-Managers of Small, Successful Romanian Companies............................ 927

Symposium 31: Career Issues in HRDAre Careers What They Used To Be: A Factor Analysis Of Schein’s Career Orientations Inventory ...... 934Women’s Professional Organizations: Their Potential Role in Women’s Careers .................................... 942Non-profits and Women CEOs’ Careers.................................................................................................... 951Career Development of Expatriate Managers ............................................................................................ 958

Symposium 32: Assessing Employee PerformanceInfluence of Liking and Similarity on Multi-rater Proficiency Ratings of Managerial Competencies ...... 966A Cross-Case Study: Revisiting Implementations of the Performance Analysisfor Training (PAT) Model ......................................................................................................................... 974Large-Scale Training Needs Assessment of State Government Office Support Workers: ........................ 982Results Assessment System: From Evaluation to Assessment .................................................................. 989

Symposium 33: Core Directions in HRDExamination of Critical Issues for Development and Implementation of Online Instruction.................... 997The Relationship of Psychological Preferences and the Human Resource DevelopmentRole of Instructor/Facilitator...................................................................................................................... 1006HRD Competencies and Roles for 2000 .................................................................................................... 1014Ethical Aspects of Human Resource Development .................................................................................. 1023

Symposium 34: Cultural Issues in OrganizationsEmotion Management and Organizational Functions................................................................................1030Communities in the Workplace.................................................................................................................. 1038Show Me the Money: Moderators of Satisfaction for University Administrators .................................... 1047Questioning the Viability of a Women’s Network as a Management Development Activity ................... 1055

Symposium 35: Workplace Learning IssuesThe Changing Role of Training Consultants in Organizing Work-related Learning ................................. 1061Using Study Circles in the Workplace as an Educational Method of FacilitatingReadjustment After a Traumatic Life Experience...................................................................................... 1068Learning-activities of Junior Managers: Findings of a Quantitative Pilot-study ....................................... 1074Integrating Learning with Working--A Reconception of the Role of Workplace Learning ...................... 1083

Symposium 36: Transfer of LearningLearning Transfer in a Social Service Agency: Test of an Expectancy Model of Motivation................... 1092The Relationship Between Learner Utility Reactions and Predictors of Learning Transfer ...................... 1100Mixed Methods: The Value of the Qualitative Perspective in Transfer of Training Research .................. 1108Theories Supporting Transfer of Training ................................................................................................. 1116

Symposium 37: Change Processes in OrganizationsThe Role of the Survey in the Assessment of an Organization for High Performance Redesign .............. 1124Thriving on Change: An Organizational Identity Model ...........................................................................1131Organizational Change and Transformation: A Multifaith Perspective..................................................... 1140Change in a State Government Organization............................................................................................. 1148

Symposium 38: Qualitative Studies in HRDWhat is it Like to be an Independent HRD Consultant? ............................................................................ 1156Virtual Learning Communities: Creating Meaning through Dialogue and Inquiry in Cyberspace............ 1165Conducting Qualitative Multilingual Research in HRD ............................................................................1174An Ethnographic Study of Cross-Cultural Impacts on Tutoring in an Organization ................................. 1181

Symposium 39: Interpersonal Dynamics in the WorkplaceTrust and Distrust at Work: Normative and Dyad-exchange Influences on Performance ......................... 1189Work Culture Adjustment: A Critical Ingredient to Organizational Change............................................. 1198The Moderating Effects of Individualism and Collectivism on HRD as an Instrument of Modernity ...... 1203HRD Faculty as Leaders: The Application of the Full Range Leadership Theoryto Graduate Level HRD Instruction .............................................................................................. ............. 1210

Poster SessionTwo-way Customer Service Provider Cycle.............................................................................................. 1217Using Art to Explore a Metaphor for the Training Process ....................................................................... 1220

AHRD Standards of Ethics and Integrity ......................................................................... 1224

Author and Keyword Index

AAcademic Setting 1047Action Learning 918Action Research 295Action Science 1165Adams 569Adult Learning 1181Adult Learning 627Adventure Learning 373Affect 649Age 865Akaraborworn 373Alexander 520Alignment · 401Analysis of Performance Improvement · 865Ardishvili · 1156Ardishvili · 753Asia Pacific · 452Audit · 386

BBachelor Degree Completion Programs ·747Bailey 295Barski-Carrow · 1068Bartlett · 396Bassi · 674Bastiaens · 289Bates · 1092Benkowski · 529Bierema · 777Boundaryless Systems · 918Bourland · 697Bowman · 865Brauchle · 681Brooks · 418Busette · 286Business · 641Business Strategy · 286

CCar Repair Trade · 279Career · 704Career Development · 689, 762Carter · 365Case Study · 697Central & Eastern Europe · 318Chajnacki · 762Change · 1148Change · 1198Change · 753Chen · 474Chivers · 1061Chu · 747Church · 1047Coghill · 340Cognitive Processes · 627Collaboration · 874Communication · 1124Community College · 310Competence · 620Competency · 410Computer Skills Development · 271Conflict · 512Consulting · 730Contracting · 1156Core Problems · 279Corporate Universities · 730Corporate-University · 739Cost Savings · 263Creativity · 357Critical · 365Critical Incident Method · 1038Critical Life Events · 634Cross Cultura · 474Cross Cultural Conflict Resolution · 340Cross-Culturual Theory · 697Cseh · 1174Cseh · 349Cseh · 927Cultural Diversity · 230Culture · 1181Culture · 1198Culture · 844Culture in developing nations · 1203


Curriculum · 815Curriculum Integration · 831

DDavis · 1165Davis-Blake · 418Deems · 193Deems · 909Design · 357Development · 634Dilworth · 918Disability · 255Discipline · 574Disclosure · 255Discrimination · 865Distance Learning · 434Distance Learning · 747Distributed Cognition · 1083Diversity · 634, 641, 777Downey · 434

EEarnings · 658Economic Development · 582Edwards · 418Effect Evaluation · 289Ehrlich · 410Ellinger · 762Emerging Asian MNCs · 465Emotion Work · 1030Employee Involvement · 770Employee Ownership · 770Employee Reactions · 247Employee Satisfaction · 1047Entrepreneurial Education · 427Environmental Scanning · 396Evaluation · 410Evaluation · 681Evaluation · 542, 554Evaluation System · 548Expatriate Training · 452Expectancy Theory · 1092

FFabian · 1030Facilitation · 512Faculty Improvement · 722Feedback · 713Feelings · 627Feitler · 770Feminist · 365Fest · 1140Finland · 327Fisher · 221Flow Theory · 569Furst-Bowe · 596

GGardner · 357Gender Diversity · 230Geurs · 380Global Leadership Development · 340Griffin · 1124Griffith · 263Gudgel · 770

HHahn · 295Hansen · 1203Hansen · 844Harada · 865Hardy · 880Hatcher · 202Hays · 380Henschke · 611High Performance · 1124High Performance Organizations · 529Hill · 380Hinton · 747Hite · 1055Hixon · 897Holton III · 649Hotel Industry · 380Howell · 365


HRD · 217HRD · 386HRD Consultants · 1061HRD in Taiwan · 443HRD Planning · 396HRD Profession · 202HRD Program · 554HRD Programs, · 418Huang · 465Huang · 658Human Capital · 582Human Resource Development · 1156Human Resource Development · 574Human Resource Development · 897Human Resource Developmentand Strategy · 504Human Resource Development Key · 611Human Resource Profession · 496

IIdentity · 844Iles · 704Independent Consultant · 1156Individualism/Collectivism · 1203Informal and Incidental Learning · 349Informal and Incidental Learning · 927Informal Learning · 1055Information Seeking · 857Information Technology · 826Instruction · 1181Instruction · 1210Instruction · 903Instructional Design · 295Instructional design · 410Instructional Design · 434Instructional Methods · 851Instructional Theory · 713Instrument · 401Intellectual Capital · 1189Intellectual Capital · 488International · 331International · 927International HRD · 697International HRD · 443, 452, 465

JJacobs · 874Jankowicz · 318John · 380Johnson · 548Johnson · 380, 434Journal Publication · 897

KKalata · 504Kamau · 1148Kamau · 753Kawulich · 844Kehrhahn · 739Kirk · 310Knowledge Management · 1189Knowledge Management · 479, 488, 496Knowledge Transfer · 318Koenecke · 681Kolb · 512Kontoghiorghes · 665Kormanik · 634Korth · 357Krul · 289Kuchinke · 1210Kuchinke · 713Kuo · 443Kupritz · 239

LLabor Management Cooperation · 529Lankhuijzen · 1074Leadership · 1210Leadership · 230Leadership Style · 857Learner Analysis · 304Learner Outcomes · 562Learner Readiness · 304Learning · 611Learning · 903Learning Activities · 1074


Learning Communities · 1165Learning Organization · 479Learning Strategies · 271Learning Style · 851Learning, Assessment · 542Leimbach · 386Leske · 230Life long learning · 689Lim · 331Love · 574Lynham · 1100Lynham · 209

MMadzar · 857Management Development · 1074Management Development · 620Managerial · 704Managerial Learning · 927Marcic · 1140Margolis · 1131Marshall · 496Marsick · 349Martin · 689Martinez · 747May · 1108McClernon · 897McCrudden · 826McFarland · 230McGoldrick · 689McLean · 1116McLean · 1148McLean · 373, 443McLean · 753Meaning-Making · 193Meaning-Making · 909Mentoring · 722Mentoring Programs · 722Mergers/Acquisitions · 1131Meta-Study · 880Milton · 1165Mixed Methods · 1108Mixed-Methods · 554Model · 217

Moore · 562Motivation · 1092Motivation · 310Motivation to Learn · 649Moyers · 1124Mullen · 722Multi-Faith · 1140Multilevel Measurement: · 221Multilingual Qualitative Research · 1174Multinational Enterprise · 582Multinational Management · 465

NNaquin · 649Niemi · 327Nijhof · 479Non-profit · 536Nonprofit Organizations · 1030Nurmi · 327Nurmi · 554

OOD · 1148Office Design · 239Older Workers, Qualitative · 239On-Line Help Systems · 289Online Instruction · 304Online Instruction · 434Online Instruction · 548Organization Changes · 520Organization Culture · 1038Organizational · 542Organizational Change · 1061Organizational Change · 1131,1140Organizational Culture · 770Organizational Development · 193Organizational Development · 753Organizational Development · 909Organizational Identity · 1131Organizational Learning · 1198Organizational Learning · 520Organizational Learning · 602Organizational Modernity · 1203


Organizational Surveys · 1047Osman-Gani · 452Ovaice · 730

PPalma-Rivas · 434Palma-Rivas · 641Palmer · 247Parry · 851Partnership · 739Partnership · 874Partnership Building · 739Pate · 689Pedagogy · 427Performance · 221, 286Performance · 611, 620, 674Performance Consulting · 496Performance Improvement · 596,602Performance Needs · 596Performance Support · 289Personality Preferences · 357Personality Traits · 649Peterson · 1181Philosophy · 1100Philosophy · 209Play Theory · 569Poell · 1061Postmodernity · 418Pranger · 271Pre-Job Training · 658Preskill · 542Procedural Fairness · 247Productivity · 665Professionals · 903Program Evaluation · 548Program Evaluation · 762Psychological Contracts · 689Psychological Freedom · 918Public Agencies · 396Pucel · 1198

QQualitative · 1108

Qualitative · 365Qualitative Research · 888

RResearch · 874Research Literature · 897Research Methods · 880Resistance to Change · 318Return on Investment · 681Rocco · 255Rossett · 496Roth · 831Rothwell · 512Ruona · 1100Ruona · 209Ruona · 888Rural Education · 831Russ-Eft · 1038

SSales Training · 286Scanlon · 536Schied · 365School-To-Work Transition · 815Selection · 255Selection · 865Self-Efficacy · 851Semler · 401Service Quality · 380Sewe · 574Shindell · 217Shoemaker · 310Short · 697, 713Situated Learning · 1083Skill Requirements · 596Sleezer · 221Small Business Management Skills · 427Smith · 627Social Outcomes · 202Social Systems · 1030Solomon · 427Soviet Union · 327Spirituality · 1140


Strategic · 880Strategy · 386Strategy · 504Streumer · 279Streumer 289Student Performance · 263Study Circles · 1068Study Skills · 263Subject Matter Experts · 588Subordinate-Superior Interaction · 857Suriya · 304Suriya · 434Survey Data · 674Survey for Redesign · 1124Sustainability · 202Swanson · 380Systems · 1148Systems · 221Systems · 753Systems Model · 602Systems Perspective · 1100Systems Perspective · 209

TTaiwan · 658Tarabishy · 427Team Building · 373Teams · 512Technical Trainers · 588Technology · 479Technology Training · 474Thailand HRD · 373The Netherlands · 815Theoretical Model Building · 349Theory · 217Theory Building · 1189Theory Building · 488Theory-to-Practice · 888Thomas · 770Thought and practice · 1100Thought and practice · 209Torraco · 1083Torraco · 488Torraco · 602

Torres · 542Trainer Effectiveness · 588Trainer Roles · 730Training · 1210Training · 230,279Training · 474Training · 641, 665, 674, 681,713Training Design · 331Training Methods · 569Training Systems · 562Training Transfer · 331Transfer · 1092,1108Transfer · 665Transfer of Training · 1116Transformation and Unions · 529Trauma · 1068Turner · 230

UUK · 704Union-Management Partnership · 762University Employees · 1047

VValentine · 569Validity and Reliability · 1174Values · 649Van Ast · 722Van Buren · 674van der schoot · 815van Zolingen · 279Verrilli · 739Vital Work · 193Vital Work · 909Volunteer · 536Volunteer Management · 536

WWaclawski · 1047Walumbwa · 1210Watkins · 1165Watkins · 349


Watkins · 569Web-Based Instruction · 295Web-based Learning · 1165Web-Board Instruction · 310Weidner · 1189Weinstein · 903Welfare Reform · 826Wentling · 304Wentling · 504,548Wentling · 641,730Williams · 588Willis · 918Winslow · 427Winterton · 620Wiswell · 826Women’s Development · 777Women's Networks · 1055Work and Family · 247Work Environment · 520

Workforce Diversity · 844Workforce Preparation · 831Workforce Training · 826Working Adults 747Workplace · 1068Workplace Community · 1038Workplace Learning · 1083Work-Related Learning · 1061Wu · 474

YYamnill · 1116

ZZidan

· 582

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Copyright © 1999 Michael LeimbachTown Forum

Certification of HRD Professionals, Products, and Academic Programs-The Role of AHRD

Michael LeimbachWilson Learning Corporation

As our profession grows, both in size and importance to organizational performance, weinevitably are confronted with the issue of industry-wide standards, and how to hold organizationsand people accountable to those standards. Should the Academy of HRD be involved inestablishing standards and certification in HRD? If so, how should the Academy be involved?The purpose of this paper is to help facilitate a dialogue on the role of AHRD in Certification. Adescription of certification is presented which suggests that there are several stages ofcertification. I then present arguments for why AHRD should be cautions, especially at the stagesof certification that involve product evaluation and endorsement.

US organizations budgeted more that $58 billion for training in 1997 an expenditure that continues to rise,increasing 5 percent over the 1996 figure (Training, October 1997). Of this, over $13 billion was spent on purchasedprograms and services while approximately $22 billion was spent on employing HRD professional within theirorganizations. Organizations make this expenditure because they are aware of the importance of developing thetalents and capabilities of their employees. Employees working together within an organization provide an importantsource of competitive advantage (Wimbiscus, 1995), some say the only source of competitive advantage (D’Aveni,1994; Ehlen, 1995). In addition, because HRD is a growing industry an increasing number of students are choosingto enter the HRD profession, and choosing programs of higher learning to acquire the skills organizations need.

It is clear that some kind of information, or certification of quality could have a tremendous impact on ourindustry and profession. If certification of training programs, for example, could result in a small incrementalimprovement in the quality of purchases, corporations could save millions (e.g. a 2% improvement in purchasingdecision making would translate into $20 Million). If information about programs could help students make bettermatches between their needs and the offering of an academic program, our profession would grow that much faster.And as new roles within HRD come into existence, information about the qualifications of potential employees willhelp organizations make better comparisons between the human resources and the activities and responsibilitiesacross professionals.

Despite this need there is a dearth of third party information about quality within our industry.Organizations are provided with little unbiased information on the quality of the products they purchase (Passmore,Sleezer, Wise, and Passmore, 1993). Students rely on information distributed by the academic programs, or generalrating of college-wide comparative quality. As our profession becomes increasingly important to sustainedorganizational growth and strategy implementation, the need for this information becomes more acutely felt. Ibelieve that there is wide agreement that certification of professionals, products, and academic programs could beuseful to the growth of our discipline and industry. Nor is it a question of whether AHRD has a role to play inassuring quality of human resource development professionals, programs, and products. I believe that the reasonmost of use are members or attend the conference is because we believe that AHRD is advancing our field. Thequestion is not whether the Academy should be involved in certification. No other professional body is betterprepared to address this issue. Rather, the central question is what is the most appropriate role for AHRD in thecertification process.

The purpose of this paper is not to resolve this issue, but to describe why I believe that the Academy shouldmove cautiously toward the issue of certification. I will begin with a description of certification, including adefinition of the components and a description of some of the options for certification. I will then present some keyreasons why AHRD should not, at this time, be directly involved in full certification. It would be a mistake for theAcademy to take on certification at this time. While the intent of this discussion is to cover certification ofprofessionals, products and academic program, trying to address all three at onces could be confusing. Therefore, Ihave framed most of my discussion on the topic most salient today, certification of HRD products. Human ResourceDevelopment is saturated with products. Some products are high quality and some are quick-fix, flavor-of-the-month, buzz-worded remnants of a slick sales job. These later products not only don’t work, but also absorb HRDbudgets and deplete the credibility of those delivering them. Without some form of certification the quality andutility of these products can only be determined after they are purchased and delivered. At this point, it is too late.

Town Forum

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While my arguments are directed toward products, I believe they also apply to the other two domains – HRDprofessionals and academic programs.

What is CertificationTo begin, we need to address the question, what is certification? The American Heritage Dictionary definescertification as the act of “confirming formally as true, accurate, or genuine. To guarantee as meeting a standard.” Inpractice, however, individuals and organizations apply this term to a large number of activities and outputs. Whilethere is no agreed upon use of the term “certification” most applications share one or more of the followingelements: standards, data sharing, and endorsement. While not necessarily steps in a certification process, it can beuseful to discuss certification as a three-step process leading to full certification/endorcement.

Defining Standards

The first step in development of any type of certification is the definition of the standards of certification.For HRD this is an important step as many current scholars agree that performance standards in our industry arepoorly defined or non-existent (Holton, 1998) and the search for readily reportable measures of quality has beenfraught with troubles (Edgman-Levitan, 1998). As a first step in certification, standards are a descriptive component,not evaluative. The purpose of setting standards is to define a set of characteristics, activities, or outcomes thatindividuals can use to compare and contrast different products. The standard is a descriptive statement of a desiredstate, not an evaluation of a specific instance and whether or not it meets the standard. Standards serve to describethe parameters of quality, not measure quality. Standards of quality can take many forms but are principally groupedinto three types: technical, process, and utility/impact.

Some standards address technical characteristics. For example Underwriters Laboratories (UL) hasstandards for the design of electrical circuitry and grounding of home appliances. The US federal government hasstandards for radio and TV broadcasts. Technical standards address concrete, tangible characteristics of products.Within HRD there are some technical elements we can create standards for, but most are not very useful indescribing the quality of products. For example, we could set standards on the presence of learning objectives in thematerials, the types of learning activities, etc. However, because the vast majority of products meet thesespecifications, these standards would not help in differentiating products.

Process standards are standards focused on how a product is made. A good example of process standardsare the standards behind ISO certification (ISO, 1991). ISO standards do not directly characterize the technicalspecifications of a product but defines quality standards for the processes used to develop and manufacture theproduct. Similarly HRD products are often evaluated relative to the extent to which they meet instructional designand development process.

Standards can also address utility or impact. If technical standards are equivalent to Demmings concept of“Conformance to specifications,” utility standards might best be compared to Jurans “Fitness for use.” The essenceof utility standards is specification of the outcomes intended by the product. For example, one standard for HRDproducts could be that the product developer not make claims that can not be substantiated by factualdocumentation. Or, a standard that utility or impact of a product be substantiated by a study using accepted researchmethodology.

Standards are an essential first step, but alone they also can guide and advance the industry. For example,standards for TV broadcasting insure that all TVs can receive every broadcast signal. The value of a standard islargely determined by the credibility of the organization setting the standard and the voluntarily compliance of theindustry to apply the standard.

Data Sharing

In our industry today, most unbiased information is provided through what Willenborg (1985) refers to aspersonal product knowledge. A buyer of a product bases choices on personal experience or inspection, or gathersopinions from colleagues. Similar processes are followed for students selecting an academic program. A moreformalized form of data sharing occurs when an organization takes responsibility for collecting data, formatting it ina way that allows users to make comparisons, and distributes that data. Formalized data sharing assumes that someset of standards have been defined. While absolute standards are not required (e.g. “A two-ton truck should have aminimum of a 450 horsepower engine) there at least need to be clear categories of standards defined (e.g. alldescriptions of two-ton trucks include horsepower ratings).

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Data sharing can cover any and all of the standard types (technical, process, and utility). In addition, datasharing can also include information on consumer reactions to the product. Organizing and sharing data is, ofcourse, a first step in certifying the quality of a product. However, it can stop short of actually certifying orendorsing a product. Probably one of the best current examples are the reader comments presented on amazon.com.Amazon.com, through their web sit, allows visitors to submit comments about books they have read. The reader alsohas the option of providing a rating (1 to 5 stars) of overall quality. Amazon.com does not filter or select thesecomments both good and bad reviews make it to the database. The site visitor is also aware of the limitations;comments represent personal opinions, the reviewer may have a personal bias or interest, and there is seldomenough data to make the ratings a reliable indicator of quality.

There is clearly a role for some organization to provide third party, or neutral, information on HRDproducts. While more involved than defining a set of standards, the Academy could get involved in communicatinginformation on products as a neutral third party. This would not have to include evaluation, just reporting ofinformation. Again, that reporting can take many forms. The academy can document technical characteristics, baseupon technical standards described above. Information can also be provided on the documentation of utility orimpact claims. For example, if an organization promotes a sales training program as “increasing sales“ the Academycould provide information on whether or not the organization actually does have documentation that sales increasedas a result of training. This falls short of certifying to the quality of that documentation (i.e. appropriately designedresearch, sufficient sample, statistically significant results, etc) just a reporting of the substantiation of the claim.

Alternatively, the Academy could serve as a “clearing house for consumer based information. Numerouslist-serves do this now informally (we have all seen messages that being; “Has anyone used XYZ program and haveon opinion on it?). A process could be designed similar to Amazon.com’s consumer ratings/comments, using ourweb-site to collect and disseminate the information.

Endorsement

The final element is actual endorsement of quality. For many people the act of certification is synonymouswith endorsement and it clearly closest to the dictionary definition. As a result of certification, certain products aregiven a “stamp of approval,” and certain products are not. It is also a statement of warranty. A product certified byUL is a warranty that the product, under normal use, will not electrocute the user. Again, as in standards andproviding information, different types of quality can be certified.

Technical quality can be certified. This is essentially what UL does, it examines products to assure that theymeet appropriate standards for circuit design, grounding, and other specifications that warrant the safety of theproduct. It is important to note that UL, like most certifications, is narrow. UL does not certify that the toaster willmake good toast, just that the toaster won’t kill you. Within HRD the Academy could take on a certification to a setof technical standards. For example, do the programs contain appropriate instructional objects and do the activitiesfollow adult instructional design parameters that will appropriately lead to those objectives.

Process quality can be certified. This is essentially the type of certification that ISO 9000 provides. ISOcertification is not certification of the final quality of the product, but certifying that the organization engages inactivities that will likely produce quality products. An analogy within HRD might be to certify the design anddevelopment and evaluation processes related to products. For example, can the vendor provide documentation thatappropriate design analyses were performed, that learning objectives were appropriately developed, and thatoutcome claims were appropriately researched?

A third type of certification is outcome testing. Comparative product testing has been performed fordecades. From whose french fries are the best to which laundry detergent gets clothes the brightest, the objectivecomparisons continue. Perhaps the most widely recognized example of this is Consumer Reports magazine. Whilemuch of what Consumer Reports provides might be best classified as data sharing, they also provide a directcomparison of product quality and make recommendations as to which products have the highest quality or are “bestbuys.” Applied to HRD, an organization could take on the responsibility of doing direct product testing, or evaluatethe tests done by others, and make recommendations, or certify to the utility of the product.

A fourth type of certification is customer satisfaction comparisons. Choosing this approach would makeAHRD the J. D. Powers of the training and development industry. This goes beyond mere sharing of customer data(such as amazon.com) but implies a carefully controlled survey of customers that allow product to productcomparisons. For example J. D. Powers uses sophisticated sample selection and analysis process that allow them tosay that buyers of Mercedes and more satisfied than buyers of Lincolns (Reichheld, 1996). Thus, while not a directmeasure or testing of product quality, different products can be compared via an unbiased sampling of users.

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Problems with Certification

As stated earlier, I believe that there is strong support among Academy members for development of commonstandards. I also believe that AHRD should play a central role in this effort. I would also suggest that that theAcademy might play a central role in providing unbiased information (sharing information) on adherence to qualitystandards. However, the question of certifying/endorcing products in our industry is fraught with dangers. Shouldthe membership of the Academy not just communicate a set of standards in these three areas, but take responsibilityfor monitoring the degree to which these standards are met, and placing our “stamp of approval” on them? I believethere are several fundamental arguments why we should approach this effort with extreme caution. In this paper Iwill focus on the following:

• Talk of certification is pre-mature• The important characteristics are largely qualitative in nature.• The responsibility and liability is too high.• Being the arbiter of certification is inconsistent with our mission of inclusion• The certification process could consume the Academy• Certification reinforces a static product orientation in the industry

Talk of Certification is Pre-mature

Certification comes after debate and the formation of consensus on a set of standards. Right now, there areno universally accepted standards for products in HRD. While I support an effort to define standards for HRDproducts, and believe that there might be a role for AHRD in sharing information about products, we are a long wayaway from being ready to commit to certification. We need to define these standards before moving on tocertification. This also applies to standards for HRD professional and academic programs. While we have somestandards in our industry, for example McLagan’s Models for Excellence (1989) for training and development, noneare specific to our industry as a whole.

Important Characteristics are Largely Qualitative

The important characteristics of products that will provide guidance to users are still largely qualitative innature. Elements, such as the impact of a program on organizational or individual performance, are eitherqualitative, or where there are concrete measures, there is a subjective judgment as to the quality of the process usedto collect those measures.

For example, take a sales training program. The concrete elements are things like length, presence oflearning objectives, number of exercises, case studies, lectures, etc. While these are subject to little interpretation,they are also not very useful to a potential buying decision. So, we go deeper. The distributors of the program claimthat the product “will improve the performance of a sales organization.” How do we certify that claim? They don’tsay significantly improve or say “by 10%” so can we apply statistical criteria? Let’s say they provide evidence in theform of a case study, showing that the sales organization did increase sales. What criteria do we use to say whetherthat is adequate or inadequate evidence of improvement? What if they presented 2 cases studies, or 5 or 10? What ifthey presented 10 cases studies, and showed the analysis that these 10 cases demonstrated statistical significance forsales improvement pre and post sales training? What if all 10 cases were computer companies and there were nocontrols for the rapid rise in computer equipment sales?

Ultimately it comes down to a judgment as to when the research evidence is sufficient to justify certifying aclaim. Add to that the question of what we are certifying. Are certifying that the content of the program is supportedby research (what do you do with NLP)? Are we certifying the instructional design? Or do we focus only on theresult claims? We could chose to certify technical or process elements of products, but if we choose to certify tothese, we will need to bridge that gap between certification and performance. What value is certification if the userdoes not believe there to be a connection between certification and performance? For example, is it widely acceptedamong practitioners that products with well-written instructional objectives are better than products lackinginstructional objectives?

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The Responsibility and Liability is Too High

Certification carries with it certain responsibilities and legal liabilities. How will vendors react to one oftheir products not being certified? Is the Academy ready to defend the process in court? Is there sufficient case lawthat will allow us to defend our certification process? These are all questions that need to be answered before webegin to certify products. Beyond the legal liabilities, what are the potential liabilities? Is there a conflict of interest,perceived or actual, within the Academy? Will member organizations be perceived to have an advantage in thecertification process? Will academic programs whose faculty and students are members be perceived to have anadvantage?

Certification is Inconsistent with Our Mission of Inclusion

We are an inclusive organization. What I value most in AHRD is the diversity of ideas and approaches. Theprocess of certification is by definition exclusionary. One of the strengths of the Academy as an organization is thebroad acceptance of approaches, research methodologies, disciplines and perspectives. Certification is one steptoward an environment of exclusion. For example, if we choose as part of our certification process the requirementthat claims of product impact use research methods consistent with the scientific method, will that ultimately leadprofessionals in our discipline who favor a phenomenological, case study, or qualitative methodology to leave theAcademy. If we choose to accept more qualitative methods as evidence of impact, are we marginalizing the valuesof those who accept comparative scientific methods as the only true way to test hypotheses?

Certification Could Consume the Academy

Conducting certification will be a very big job. Does AHRD what to build the infrastructure to do this andwill it consume the time and efforts of our governing board, to the detriment of other activities? Even if we just limitcertification to products, and just to the US, there are still an overwhelming number of objects to certify. Add to thatthe fact that most products have numerous applications. The number of products and applications of those productsis so vast, providing a fair and consistent certification may not be feasible for the Academy. Also, it will be difficultto determine conformity of two products to a common test. Rarely are two products so similar in purpose and intentthat they permit easy/fair comparison.

Reinforcing a Static Product Orientation

Certification will need to define a unit of analysis. The one discussed most widely has been the product (aseminar, CD-ROM, guide, etc.). This is probably a necessary limitation of certification — it is difficult to certifymulti-component systems. However, we as an industry are rapidly moving toward a systems perspective on HRD(Rummler & Brache, 1995). We treat as a given that the key to enhancing the effectiveness of learning is to see it asa process, with multiple components supporting learning application and transfer to the work environment. Usingthe example described above, we can certify the quality or impact of the sales training program. But doesn’tcertification of the program miss the point when a multi-dimensional effort that includes aligned compensation,application tools, incentives, management support (and yes, training), is much more consistent with our view ofperformance improvement? While a product is a feasible object of certification, the process – which resists precisedescription and certification – deserves our endorsement. If we certify programs, will we reinforce an orientation weknow to be false? Will we “freeze” our vision of the industry to a standard that we know is limiting the impact ofHRD today?

Is Certification Consistent with the Mission of AHRD?

It is my perspective, for the reasons cited about, that AHRD should not become involved in certification (i.e.endorsements) of HRD products. While the Academy should consider developing and disseminating standards forproducts, and creating a process to help buyers of products apply these standards in their selection of products; theAcademy should not enter this arena as a certifying agency. Rather, I believe that the Academy must, first andforemost, uphold its mission to “lead the profession through research.” We can honor this mission without taking onthe burdens of liability, infrastructure, and uncertainty that certification entails.

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References

D’Aveni, R. (1994) Hypercompetition. New York: The Free Press.Edgman-Levitan, S. and Gerteis, M. (1998). Measures of quality: What can public reporting accomplish?, The

Healthcare Forum Journal 41(1), pp. 27-33.Ehlen, D. (1995) Regaining and Regaining The Advantage. Minneapolis: Wilson Learning.

Holton, E. (1998) Performance Domains: Bounding the Theory and Practice. The Research Agenda forPerformance ImprovementISO (1991). International Standard ISO/IEC 9126. Information technology – Software product evaluation -- Quality

characteristics and guidelines for their use, International Organization for Standardization, InternationalElectrotechnical Commission, Geneva.

McLagan, P. (1989) Models for Excellence. ASTD: Washington D.C.Passmore, D. L., Sleezer, C. M., Wise, J. , & Passmore, M. L (1993, October). The U. S. market for education and

training products and services. Northeastern Educational Research Association, Ellenville, NY.Reichheld, F. F. (1996). The Loyalty Effect: The Hidden Force Behind Growth, Profits, and Lasting Value. Boston:

Harvard Business School Press.Rummler, G. A. and Brache, A. P. (1995) Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Space on the

Organizational Chart. (2nd Ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Wimbiscus, J. J. Jr. (1995). A classification and description of human resource development scholars. Human

Resource Development Quarterly 6(1), 5-37.Willenborg, G. (1985). Consumer product information, SWOKA- 29.

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Copyright © 1999 Sleezer and KunnemanTown Forum

Human Resource Development Certification:A Strategy for Leading the HRD Profession through Research

Catherine M. SleezerOklahoma State University

Dale E. KunnemanMeridian Technology Center

This paper presents a strategy to enact the Academy of Human Resource Development vision bydeveloping and implementing certification. It identifies the critical needs for such certificationand then examines how certification and consumer-report information from other fields can beapplied to human resource development. The paper argues that currently individuals,organizations, and the profession pay high costs for substandard products, and that it is time tostop paying.

The vision for the Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) is to lead the human resource development(HRD) profession through research. In this paper, we present a strategy to enact the vision by developing andimplementing certification for HRD products and programs. We answer two questions: "Why certify?" and "Is HRDcertification feasible?" This article begins by outlining the critical need for HRD certification. We argue thatcertifying HRD products (e.g., conferences, workshops, customized interventions, and training materials) and HRDprograms (e.g., academic and certification efforts) can provide some assurance that they do what they say they willdo, and that they reflect accepted HRD theory and practice. Further, certifying HRD programs can assure that theprofessionals in our field have the skills and the knowledge of HRD theory and practice that they need to effectivelyperform their work. Because both HRD products and programs are considered by consumers to be HRD productsthat have costs and expected values, we use the term products in this paper to encompass both terms. After outliningthe critical need, we examine the certification and consumer report information presented in the literature anddescribe its application to the HRD certification. We conclude by showing how HRD certification can benefitindividuals, organizations, and the HRD profession.

Critical Need for HRD Certification

When employees working together within an organization produce rare or unique processes that are difficult forothers to copy, they provide a source of sustainable competitive advantage (Barney, 1991). So, it is not surprisingthat organizational decision makers are investing increasingly in HRD interventions that purport to optimize theperformance of individuals, teams, and the entire organization. Examples of such efforts include trainingemployees, organizing high performance work teams and systems, implementing total quality management, andfacilitating employee empowerment.

The investment in HRD products is staggering. U.S. organizations with 100 or more employees budgeted over$58.6 billion for training in 1997, a 5 percent increase over 1996 (Training, October, 1997). Outside expenditurescomprised of seminars and conferences, hardware, off-the-shelf materials, outside services, and custom materialsaccounted for $13.6 billion, 23% of the total training budget. The 1999 American Society for Training andDevelopment (ASTD) State of the Industry Report noted increases in many categories in 1998 including trainingexpenditures, proportions of people trained, and use of external training providers (Bassi & Van Buren, 1999). Theincreased investment in HRD has led, in turn, to increased expectations for HRD accountability (Brinkerhoff, 1987;Swanson, 1994).

The increased investment in HRD and the corresponding increase in accountability highlight a problem: there isgreat variation in the effectiveness of HRD efforts. It has been estimated that 50% of HRD efforts are ineffective.Decision-makers who wish to purchase the most effective, least costly, research-based HRD products and services

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for their situation face a daunting task. To be successful, the decision makers must first access literature that iswritten in research-based jargon. The decision makers must also have the requisite time and expertise to review andsynthesize the wealth of information available on the topic of interest (Bassi, 1998). So, it is not surprising thatdecision makers often fail to consult scholars (Bassi, 1998) and, instead, rely on vendor materials from mailings andconferences in making their purchasing decisions.

Basing HRD purchasing decisions on the endorsements contained in vendor brochures and catalogues or toutedby vendors at professional conferences is problematic for several reasons. First, the proliferation of HRD products inthe marketplace and the different names used for virtually identical offerings makes wading through all the optionsto comparison shop virtually impossible. Second, vendor materials may be biased, inaccurate, or misleading. SomeHRD products offer high quality solutions, and others offer quick fix, faddish solutions. While the marketingmaterials for both types of products may look similar, the latter products are not integrated with the economicrealities of the business, the current systems, or the psychological needs of the individuals within the organization(Evarts, 1998). The quick fix, faddish products often fail to make a lasting positive impact on organizationperformance. Such failures not only absorb organization resources, but also may leave organizations in adiminished competitive position (Sleezer, Zhang, Maile, & Gradous, in press). Third, vendors who obtain marketand financial success with products have little motivation for seeking new research and product improvements,especially when if they can increase sales by doing more marketing. The predicament for decision makers is that thequality and utility of HRD products often cannot be determined until after they have been purchased and used andhave produced a positive or negative impact on individuals, teams, and the organization.

In other arenas, well-educated consumers have found refuge in certification and consumer reporting processesthat inform, educate, and protect the consumer. In arguing that the AHRD should develop and implement HRDcertification, we should recognize that an organization with a vision of leading the HRD profession through researchhas an important role to play in informing, educating, and protecting HRD consumers. Such a role would assure thatHRD professionals have the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to do their work and that HRD products andprograms do what they say they will do and reflect accepted HRD theory and practice.

We also should consider carefully Swanson’s (1997) assertion that some are profiting from the lack of standards inthe field. “Maintaining the present substandard conditions is lucrative for profit providers of conferences and tradepublications, publishers of books and media, circuit ‘celebrities’ and fad consultants” (p. 1-20). Can we as aprofessional association with our vision of leading the field through research tolerate such substandard conditions?The answer to this question reflects the values of AHRD members and informs the discussion about the importanceof HRD certification.

Finally, we should acknowledge and celebrate that assuming the role of informing, educating, and protectingconsumers will differentiate AHRD from the professional associations in our field that profit from hyping andmarketing quick-fix, faddish solutions and products to their members and other consumers. We have answered thequestion about the importance of HRD certification, now we turn to the question of feasibility.

What is involved in Certification and Consumer Reporting?

In this section, we examine terminology and describe consumer organizations and aims. We also apply theseconcepts to the HRD profession.

Terminology

The term "certify" has been defined as "attesting as being true or as represented or as meeting a standard"(Webster's, 1977, p. 182). A certificate is a document that indicates that one has fulfilled the requirements and maypractice in a field. From birth to death, certification for individuals and organizations is pervasive. Seldom do mostof us even consider the alternatives. Riding in an uncertified elevator, flying with an uncertified pilot, or selecting anon-certified dentist or marriage counselor seem preposterous ideas. Is using un-certified HRD programs any lessrisky? Using certified professionals, products, and programs does not guarantee success; however, it does assure thatcertain standards have been met.

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The concept of comparative product testing and consumer reporting are important to HRD certification.Comparative product testing can be defined as “determining if, and to what degree, relevant features are found tohave constituent characteristics of a representative number of brands and types of a certain product” (Silberer, 1985,p. 2). Constituent characteristics are those characteristics commonly found in a specified product group. Becausethe results of compared products can be published and the prices of the products listed, the definition emphasizes therelationship between consumer and product. Comparative product testing has been performed for decades. Fromwhose French fries are the best to which laundry detergent gets clothes the brightest, the comparisons continue.

The terms "certification," "consumer reporting," and "comparative product testing" emphasize determiningproduct quality and communicating that information with consumers. Because the terms "quality" and "consumer"are key to our discussion, we turn next to those definitions.

Defining the Term "Quality"

The term quality has been defined and viewed in various ways. In this paper we present three views that areuseful for discussing HRD certification. Quality as defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO) is“the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear upon its ability to satisfy stated orimplied needs” (International Standard ISO/IEC 9126, 1991). Technical quality is the extent to which a productmeets the technical specifications for which it was designed. It is implied that the design satisfies the requirementsand wishes of the consumer. Producers may restrict themselves to defining the consumer's wishes and needswithout actually consulting the target group for the product (Melrose, 1996).

Quality of utility refers to the extent to which a product meets the requirements for use. The consumers’purposes can be derived from their needs and their uses for the product. In this perspective, the concept ofconsumers and their uses for a product are important in determining its quality.

Economic quality is the ratio between the utility of a product and its price. Consider the example of drinkingthe glass of water that is served free with a meal versus ordering a soda. The economic utility of water is greaterthan soda (assuming the desired benefit is to quench thirst and wash down food).

When comparing the three definitions, technical quality relies mostly on criteria established by the producer,whereas quality of utility relies mostly on criteria relevant to the consumer. Economic quality considers the qualityof a product from the viewpoint of the consumer in terms of return on investment (Melrose, 1996).

Defining the Term "Consumer"

The consumer can be defined as the buyer, user or disposer of products or services (Kanis, 1988). Before aconsumer makes the decision to purchase, he or she normally tries to assess various aspects of quality for thedifferent brands, models and types of products or services offered. One type of assessment information consists ofpersonal knowledge, experience or inspection of the product, or personal product information from fellow-consumers (Willenborg, 1985).

A second type of assessment information consists of commercial product information. In many cases,consumers do not have access to critical information concerning a product's characteristics, features, and functions.The product's producer or supplier is an external source of information. However, information from this sourceoften is intended to simply promote and increase product sales. Needless to say, the information provided may bepersuasive or incomplete. Moreover, the product information is seldom presented in a way that allows consumers toeasily compare the information for different products (Willenborg, 1985).

A third type of assessment information consists of neutral product information. This information includes dataabout product characteristics that can be measured and that consumers consider when buying a product. Consumerscan use product information to assess the quality of a product and to compare different product alternatives. Theycan also use the information to learn the correct ways of using a product (Willenborg, 1985). By comparison tocommercial product information, neutral product information has an objective character and typically is suppliedwithout any commercial purposes. Examples of this category of consumer information are the comparative producttests from consumer associations. As a result of consumer-oriented product testing, an extraordinarily high level of

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voluntary industry commitments can be made to purchasers and consumers (Niedzielski, 1997).

In applying information from the certification and consumer testing literature to HRD certification, werecognize that the process would involve determining product quality and communicating it with consumers. Theconstituent characteristics of HRD products can be determined by using systematic processes that integrate theoryand practice. Such systematic processes should begin by codifying an integrated theory of organizationalperformance and using it to develop and test HRD evaluation standards. The resulting evaluation standards may beused to certify the quality and usefulness of HRD products. The standards could serve as the foundation forproviding neutral information to those who purchase and use HRD products. Moreover, the HRD evaluationstandards could serve as drivers for change and performance improvement across organizations. The AHRD couldupdate the standards and the certificate on a timely basis to reflect new knowledge. In this way, the HRDcertification would provide an on-going driver for change and performance improvement within the profession.

Consumer Organizations: Aims and Activities

Recent decades have witnessed the rise of consumer organizations. This emancipation of the consumer hasimproved the position of the consumer through three distinctive avenues: 1) information, 2) education, and 3)protection. Most consumer organizations defend the free market system, and one of their most important activitiesis comparative product testing (Box, 1982).

Comparative product tests aim at providing objective and independent information (Silberer, 1985). Theinformation is obtained independently of producers or suppliers and emphasizes the consumers’ interests.Objectivity can be achieved by using general norms and standard procedures of measurement. Research is doneeither in-house or contracted to independent institutions. Often, consumer organizations show their objectivity bynot including advertisements in their magazines and by stressing their independent and even critical attitude towardsthe industry (Jackel, 1989).

According to Kanis (1988), the most important object of research for consumer organizations is the technicaland economic functionality of products. This is a measure of the satisfaction of needs. The functionality of aproduct results from the interaction of the product’s specifications, its user, and its environment (Siderius, 1989).

The testing activities of consumer organizations encompass consumer-oriented and product-oriented research.Consumer-oriented research directly involves the consumer, mostly by means of interviews or questionnaires. Tastetests are an example of this kind of research. Product-oriented research is limited because the consumer is notinvolved in testing the product (Batsell & Wind, 1980).

Product characteristics generally fall into two categories: external and non-external characteristics. Externalcharacteristics can be established and evaluated by simply describing the product characteristics or making inquiriesabout their value. Non-external characteristics require a more extensive analysis. Typically, the evaluation of non-external characteristics is done through extended observation to determine durability, usability, and longevity of theproduct. Many comparative product tests focus on testing external characteristics. For example, a comparative testreport for automobiles contrasts model reliability, product dimensions, and expense.

Consumer organizations produce data. In fact, comparative product testing often yields large quantities of data.Willenborg (1985) summarized the kinds of information that are often found in comparative product testing:

• Descriptive and evaluative information, which allows consumers to obtain insight about the market ina relatively risk-free and low-cost way.

• Presentation of brands, models, and types of one class of product at a certain point in time.• Mass quantities of information (e.g., detailed description of characteristics, measurement results,

comparative overall critiques of products and recommendations for “best buy”).• Limitation of sustained validity in the case of rapid model change and fluctuation of prices: typically

retesting is necessary.

Regardless of the type of research used, published test results have two important functions: 1) presentingproducts and brands to consumers and 2) supplying comparative information on quality aspects of the products.They provide neutral product information to help consumers select products that fulfill their needs.

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In applying this information to developing and implementing HRD certification, we should consider that theresearch could be done in-house by the AHRD, by a partner organization, or by contracting the work to independentinstitutions. Because many members of the AHRD are affiliated with universities and research institutions,identifying independent institutions capable of such research should not prove a difficult task. Evaluation standardsthat are based on an accepted theory of performance could be developed. Such standards could be appliedsystematically to assess the technical quality of HRD products, focusing on the external characteristics. Also, HRDconsumers could be asked to provide feedback on HRD products as a means of assessing economic quality. Theresults could include certified products plus synthesized reports of information for consumers.

Measurement Issues

Clearly, measurement is at the heart of certification and consumer reporting. Before discussing how measurementissues can be addressed for HRD certification, we first overview the four critical measurement requirements forproduct testing as described by Siderius (1989). Most of these criteria are interrelated. All are necessary and nonealone is sufficient.

First: Reliability.

In product testing, reliability is the degree to which repetition of the measurement produces the same or similarresults. Reliability is contingent upon conformity and reproducibility. Conformity is the degree to which repetitionof the measurement with different samples of a product (with identical characteristics) produces the same or similarresults (product variation). Reproducibility is the degree to which repetition of the measurement on the same objectproduces the same or similar results.

Second: Validity.

In product testing, validity is the degree to which the measurement results reflect the functionality of a productas experienced by the consumer. Validity involves three primary considerations: internal validity, measurability,and interpretability. Internal validity is the degree to which the variables of use and the environment are included inthe research conditions; measurability is the degree to which the product characteristics or functions of the productcan be translated into measurable quantities; and interpretability is the degree to which the test results can betranslated into different aspects of the functionality of the product. The reader should note that Siderius’sdescription of validity focuses only on quality of utility and addresses neither technical or economic quality.

Third: Relevance.

In product testing, relevance is the degree to which the product information enables consumers to buy and useproducts that contribute to satisfying their needs. The products tested by consumer organizations many times arevaried and random, but Siderius (1989) offers the following considerations for determining relevance:

• Importance of the product tested and its characteristics

• Degree of detail used in presenting the test results on the product's functionality

• Value judgment on certain product features relative to the product's functionality

• Availability of the product information

• Understandability or clarity of the available product information

Fourth: Feasibility.

In product testing, feasibility focuses on the amount of resources that have to be allocated to do the testing. Forexample, are the required methodologies at one's disposal?

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To answer our earlier question about the feasibility of HRD certification, we should consider the measurementissues. Careful thought reveals that the measurement issues required for HRD certification (i.e., reliability, validity,relevance, and feasibility) are the same measurement issues that the AHRD community of scholars and scholarly-practitioners face in doing their normal work. The AHRD is uniquely positioned to assume the role of HRD certifierbecause its members include academicians and practitioners. Further, its members have a deep understanding of themeasurement issues and respect for all HRD stakeholders. Its members also understand that, as with all efforts ofHRD research and practice, no measurement system exists that is perfectly reliable, valid, relevant, and feasible.More importantly they believe that linking HRD research with practice is a way to make a difference and to produceimprovements for individuals, groups, and organizations.

Benefits Of HRD Certification

AHRD certification will serve as a driver for performance improvements that benefit individuals, organizations, andthe HRD profession. Earlier we discussed Swanson’s (1997) assertion that some are benefiting from the substandardconditions that exist in the HRD field. Now is the time to ask, "Who pays? The answer is that we all pay.Organizations pay when decision-makers purchase substandard HRD products that do not improve organizationperformance. Individuals pay when they invest energy, commitment, and hope in substandard HRD products that donot produce the promised results. HRD professionals pay when the organizational members and decision- makers,who have previously paid the costs of substandard products, begin viewing HRD products as unnecessary expensesrather than investments in future performance. It is time for AHRD members to assert that the costs of substandardwork are too high. We should stop paying.

AHRD certification of the programs that certify HRD professionals will drive individual change by assuringthat individuals are knowledgeable and skillful in the theory and practice of HRD. It will drive organization changeby motivating those who produce and sell HRD products to adapt their offerings to meet standards grounded intheory rather than in the latest fad. Vendors who can demonstrate that their products meet the HRD standards willbenefit from a marketing advantage. Consumers of HRD products can use the certificate as one source in makingpurchasing decisions. HRD consumers and vendors both benefit from sharing more accurate understandings oforganizational performance and theory and expectations for how HRD interventions contribute to it. The HRDprofession benefits from the credibility that results when research informs practice and practice inform research.

Conclusion

In this paper, we argue that HRD certification provides the AHRD with a strategy for leading the HRD professionthrough research. We answered the question, "Why certify?" by referencing the AHRD values, the size of the HRDinvestment, and the problems caused by the lack of HRD certification. We answered the question, "Is certificationfeasible?" by examining product testing and consumer reporting in other arenas, clarifying the measurement issues,and recognizing that the measurement issues for certification are similar to those that the AHRD community ofscholars and scholarly-practitioners routinely face in doing their normal work. By developing and implementingHRD certification for professionals, products, and programs, the AHRD can enact its vision of leading the HRDprofession through research. Further, the AHRD can provide a service that benefits individuals, organizations, andthe entire profession. Given the enormous benefits to be gained, the feasibility of certification, and the AHRDvalues, we believe that now is the time to develop and implement HRD certification.

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References

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Society - Journal of the Market Research Society 22(2), pp. 115.Box, J. M. (1982). The power of consumer organizations, European Journal of Marketing 16(6), pp. 3-20.Brinkerhoff, R. O. (1987). Achieving results from training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Evarts, T. M. (1998). Human resource development as a maturing field of study. Human Resource Development

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