process research

8/12/2019 Process Research

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Research Process, Research Design

and Questionnaires



RESEARCH PROCESS

Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

In this workshop we

talk about all of the

steps in the research

process except Data

Analysis and Findings.



What is a problem?

. . . any situation where a gap exists between theactual and the desired state.

A problem does not necessarily mean that somethingis seriously wrong. It could simply indicate an interestin improving an existing situation. Thus, problemdefinitions can include both existing problems in thecurrent situation as well as the quest for idealistic

states in the future.

RESEARCH PROCESS – Research Problem



How are problems identified?

1. Observation – manager/researcher senses that changesare occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes,feelings, communication patterns, etc., are surfacing in

one‟s environment. The manager may not understandexactly what is happening, but can definitely sense thatthings are not what they should be.

2. Preliminary Data Collection – use of interviews, bothunstructured and structured, to get an idea or “feel” for

what is happening in the situation.

3. Literature Survey – a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sourcesof data in the areas related to the problem.

RESEARCH PROCESS – Problem Identification



A literature survey ensures that:

1. Important variables likely to influence the problem arenot left out of the study.

2. A clearer idea emerges regarding what variables are

most important to consider, why they are important, andhow they should be investigated.

3. The problem is more accurately and precisely defined.4. The interviews cover all important topics.5. The research hypotheses are testable.6. The research can be replicated.

7. One does not “reinvent the wheel”; that is, time is notwasted trying to rediscover something that is alreadyknown.

8. The problem to be investigated is perceived by thescientific community as relevant and significant.




Typical Business Research Problems:

1. Training programs are not as effective as anticipated.2. Sales volume of products/services is not increasing.3. Balancing of accounting ledgers is becoming increasingly

difficult.

4. The newly installed information system is not being used bythe employees for whom it was designed.

5. Introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems than it has solved.

6. Anticipated results of a recent merger/acquisition have notbeen realized.

7. Inventory control systems are not effective.8. Frequent interruptions in production.9. Low employee morale.10. Frequent customer complaints.11. Installation of an MIS keeps getting delayed.12. Ad campaign is not generating new sales prospects.




What are some business problemsyou are aware of or have confronted?




Problem Definition Steps:

• Understand and define the complete problem. If morethan one problem is identified, separate and prioritizethem in terms of who and when they will be dealt with.

• Identify and separate out measurable symptoms to

determine root problem versus easily observablesymptoms. For example, a manager may identifydeclining sales or lost market share as the problem, butthe real problem may be bad advertising, low salespersonmorale, or ineffective distribution. Similarly, low productivity may be a symptom of employee morale or

motivation problems, or supervisor issues.• Determine the unit of analysis = individuals, households,

businesses, objects (e.g., products, stores), geographicareas, etc., or some combination.

• Determine the relevant variables, including specifyingindependent and dependent relationships, constructs, etc.

RESEARCH PROCESS – Problem Definition



Examples of Well-Defined problems:

1. Has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?2. How do price and quality rate on consumers‟ evaluation of products? 3. Is the effect of participative budgeting on performance moderated by

control systems?4. Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per dollar of

output?5. Has the new advertising message resulted in higher recall?6. To what extent do the organizational structure and type of information

systems account for the variance in the perceived effectiveness ofmanagerial decision-making?

7. Will expansion of international operations result in an improvement inthe firm‟s image and value?

8. What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patternsof companies?

9. What are the components of “quality of life”? 10.What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data

warehouse for a manufacturing company?

RESEARCH PROCESS – Problem Definition



RESEARCH PROCESS – Definitions continued . . .

Measurement = is the process of determining the direction and intensity offeelings about persons, events, concepts, ideas, and/or objects of interestthat are defined as being part of the business problem. As part ofmeasurement, researchers use predetermined rules to assign numbers orlabels to: (1) individuals‟ attitudes, behaviors, characteristics, etc.; (2)objects‟ features or attributes; and (3) any other phenomenon or eventbeing investigated. Rules tell researchers how to assign numbers or labels;

e.g., assign the numbers 1 to 7 to responses based on the intensity of anindividual‟s feelings, beliefs, etc.

Measurement involves two processes: (1) identification/development ofconstructs; and (2) scale measurement. The first process involvesidentifying and defining what is to be measured, while the second processinvolves selecting the scale to measure the construct(s).

Construct = also referred to as a concept, it is a abstract idea formed in themind based on a set of facts or observations. The idea is a combination of anumber of similar characteristics of the construct. Examples of constructsinclude: brand awareness, brand familiarity, purchase intentions,satisfaction, importance, trust, service quality, role ambiguity, etc.

Scale measurement = using a set of symbols or numbers to represent therange of possible responses to a research question.



Examples of Construc ts Invest igated in Market ing:

Construc ts Operat ional Descr ipt ion

Brand Aw areness Percentage of respond ents that have heard of a

designated brand; awareness could be ei ther

unaided or aided.

Brand Att i tudes The num ber of respond ents and their intensi ty of

feel ing p osi t ive or n egative toward a sp eci f ic brand.

Purchase Intent ions The num ber of people planning to buy the

speci f ied ob ject (e.g. , prod uct or s erv ice) with in

a desig nated time period .

Imp ortance of Factors To what extent do speci f ic factors inf luence

a person's purc hase choice.

Psycho graphics The att itudes, opin io ns, interests andl i festyle character ist ics of ind ividuals

prov id ing the inform at ion.

Sat is fact ion How people evaluate their post-purch ase

con sum pt ion exper ience with a part icu lar

prod uct , serv ice or com pany.

RESEARCH PROCESS – Constructs



“Role Ambiguity” Construct

Conc eptual/ theoret ical defini t io n = the dif ference between the info rmationavailable to the perso n (actual knowledge) and that which is required for

adequate perform ance of a role.

Operat ional defini t io n = the amou nt of uncerta inty an indiv idual feels

regarding job role respo nsib i l i t ies and expectat ions from s uperv isors ,

other employees and custom ers.

Measu rement scale = cons ists of 45 i tems assessed using a 5-point scale,with category labels 1 = very certain, 2 = certain, 3 = neutral, 4 =

un certain, and 5 = very unc ertain.

Examples of i tems:

• How m uch freedom of act ion I am expected to have.

•

How I am expected to handle non-rout ine act iv i t ies on the job .

• The sheer amou nt of w ork I am expected to do.

• To what extent my bo ss is op en to hearing my point of view.

• How sat is f ied my boss is wi th me.

• How I am expected to interact with m y cus tomers.

Source: Singh & Rhoads,JMR , August 1991, p. 328.



“Service Quality” Construct

Conc eptual/ theoret ical defini t io n = the difference between an individual‟sexpectat ion s of servic e and their actual experiences.

Operat ional defini t io n = how indiv id uals react to their actual serv ice

exper ience w ith a comp any relative to th eir expectat ions that a

com pany w i l l possess c ertain serv ice character is t ics.

Measu rement scale = cons ists of 82 i tems assessed using a 7-point scale,

with c ategory labels 1 = not at al l essential to 7 = absolutely essen tial .

Examples of i tems:

• Employ ees of excel lent companies wil l give prompt servic e to cus tomers.

• Excellent companies will have the customers‟ best interests at heart.

• Excel lent companies wil l perform s ervices r ight the f irst t ime.

• Employ ees of excel lent companies wil l never be too busy to respond to

cus tomer requests.

• Excel lent companies wil l give cus tomers ind ividual at tent ion.

• Mater ia ls assoc iated with p roduc ts and services of excel lent companies

(such as pamphlets or s tatements) wi l l be visu al ly appeal ing .

Source: Parasuraman, Zeithaml &Berry, JM , Fall 1985, p. 44.



RESEARCH PROCESS


Theory / Practice


Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings



What is theory ??

RESEARCH PROCESS – Theory/Practice



Theory = a systematic set of relationships providing a consistent and comprehensive explanationof a phenomenon. In practice, a theory is aresearcher‟s attempt to specify the entire set ofdependence relationships explaining a particular set

of outcomes.

Theory is based on prior empirical research, pastexperiences and observations of behavior, attitudes,or other phenomena, and other theories that provide a

perspective for developing possible relationships.

Theory is used to prepare a theoretical frameworkfor the research.




RESEARCH PROCESS


Theory / Practice


Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings



Hypotheses = preconceptions the researcherdevelops regarding the relationships representedin the data, typically based on theory, practice or

previous research.

Examples:

“The average number of cups of coffee students drinkduring finals will be greater than the average theyconsume at other times.”

“Younger, part - time employees of Samouel‟s restaurantare more likely to search for a new job.”

RESEARCH PROCESS – Hypotheses



Basic Features of a Good Theoretical Framework:

1. The variables/constructs considered relevant to the study areclearly identified and labeled.

2. The discussion states how the variables/constructs are

related to each other, e.g., dependent, independent,moderator, etc.

3. If possible, the nature (positive or negative) of therelationships as well as the direction is hypothesized on thebasis of theory, previous research or researcher judgment.

4. There is a clear explanation of why you expect these

relationships to exist.5. A visual (schematic) diagram of the theoretical framework is

prepared to clearly illustrate the hypothesized relationships.




RESEARCH PROCESS – Conceptual Models

PricePurchase

Likelihood

PricePurchase

Likelihood

Independent Dependent

Variable Variable


Variable Variable

• Discount Level

• Restrictions

Moderator Variable



RESEARCH PROCESS – Conceptual Models

PricePurchase

Likelihood


Variable Variable

Perceived

Value

Mediator Variable(full mediation)

Price

Perceived

Value

Purchase Likelihood

Mediator Variable

(partial mediation)



Group Exercise : Use the Samouel‟s and Gino‟s

restaurant database variables to develop atheoretical framework/conceptual model of therelationships that could be examined. Considerand evaluate several models, but be prepared toreport your most interesting or thought

provoking model.

Theoretical Framework – Conceptualization



Conceptual Models – Samouel‟s Employee Database

Potential Hypotheses:

Commitment is positively related to supervision, work groups and compensation.

Intention to Search is negatively related to supervision, work groups & compensation.

Employee

CommitmentWork Groups

Supervision

Compensation

Intention to

Search

Compensation

Work Groups

Supervision



Variable Description Variable Type

Restaurant Perceptions X1 Excellent Food Quality MetricX2 Attractive Interior Metric

X3 Generous Portions MetricX4 Excellent Food Taste MetricX5 Good Value for the Money MetricX6 Friendly Employees MetricX7 Appears Clean & Neat MetricX8 Fun Place to Go MetricX9 Wide Variety of menu Items MetricX10 Reasonable Prices MetricX11 Courteous Employees MetricX12 Competent Employees Metric

Selection Factor RankingsX13 Food Quality NonmetricX14 Atmosphere NonmetricX15 Prices NonmetricX16 Employees Nonmetric

Relationship VariablesX17 Satisfaction MetricX18 Likely to Return in Future MetricX19 Recommend to Friend Metric

X20 Frequency of Patronage NonmetricX21 Length of Time a Customer Nonmetric

Classification VariablesX22 Gender NonmetricX23 Age NonmetricX24 Income NonmetricX25 Competitor NonmetricX26 Which AD Viewed (#1, 2 or 3) NonmetricX27 AD Rating MetricX28 Respondents that Viewed Ads Nonmetric

Description of Customer Survey Variables



Variable Description Variable Type

Work Environment Measures

X1 I am paid fairly for the work I do. Metric

X2 I am doing the kind of work I want. MetricX3 My supervisor gives credit an praise for work well done. Metric

X4 There is a lot of cooperation among the members of my work group. Metric

X5 My job allows me to learn new skills. Metric

X6 My supervisor recognizes my potential. Metric

X7 My work gives me a sense of accomplishment. Metric

X8 My immediate work group functions as a team. Metric

X9 My pay reflects the effort I put into doing my work. Metric

X10 My supervisor is friendly and helpful. MetricX11 The members of my work group have the skills and/or training

to do their job well. Metric

X12 The benefits I receive are reasonable. Metric

Relationship Measures

X13 Loyalty – I have a sense of loyalty to Samouel’s restaurant. Metric

X14 Effort – I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that

expected to help Samouel’s restaurant to be successful. MetricX15 Proud – I am proud to tell others that I work for Samouel’s restaurant. Metric

Classification Variables

X16 Intention to Search Metric

X17 Length of Time an Employee Nonmetric

X18 Work Type = Part-Time vs. Full-Time Nonmetric

X19 Gender Nonmetric

X20 Age Nonmetric

X21 Performance Metric

Description of Employee Survey Variables



RESEARCH PROCESS


Theory / Practice


Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings



RESEARCH DESIGN – Types

Research Design Alternatives – Purpose:

(1) Exploratory – to formulate the problem, develophypotheses, identify constructs, establish prioritiesfor research, refine ideas, clarify concepts, etc.

(2) Descriptive – to describe characteristics of certaingroups, estimate proportion of people in a populationwho behave in a given way, and to make directional predictions.

(3) Causal – to provide evidence of the relationshipsbetween variables, the sequence in which eventsoccur, and/or to eliminate other possible explanations.



Role of Qualitative Research:

Search of academic, trade and professionalliterature (both traditional & Internet).

Use of interviews, brainstorming, focus groups.

Internalization of how others have undertakenboth qualitative and quantitative research. Use of existing questionnaires/constructs.

Outcome of Qualitative Research:

Improve conceptualization. Clarify research design, including data collection

approach. Draft questionnaire.

RESEARCH DESIGN



Role of Quantitative Research:

Quantify data and generalize results fromsample to population.

Facilitates examination of large number ofrepresentative cases.

Structured approach to data collection. Enables extensive statistical analysis.

Outcome of Quantitative Research:

Validation of qualitative research findings. Confirmation of hypotheses, theories, etc. Recommend final course of action.

RESEARCH DESIGN



RESEARCH PROCESS


Theory / Practice


Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings



DATA COLLECTION

Approaches:

Observation• Human

•

Mechanical/Electronic Devices

Surveys• Self-Completion

• Mail/Overnight Delivery/Fax• Electronic

• Interviewer-Administered• Face-to-Face – Home, Work, Mall, Focus Groups• Telephone



DATA COLLECTION

Selection of data collection approach?

• Budget• Knowledge of issues – qualitative vs. quantitative

• Respondent Participation Taste Test; Ad Test Card Sorts; Visual Scaling

• Time Available



DATA COLLECTION

Types of Data:

• Primary

• Secondary



PRIMARY DATA

Primary Data Sources:

• Informal discussions; brainstorming•

Focus groups• Observational Methods• Structured & Unstructured Surveys• Experiments



Primary Data – Focus Groups

Focus Groups = bring a small group of people (10-12)together for an interactive, spontaneous discussion of a particular topic or concept. Discussion is led by a trainedmoderator and usually lasts 1 ½ hours.

Typical Objectives:• To ident i fy and def ine problems .

• To generate new ideas about p roduc ts, services, del ivery

methods , etc.

• To test advert is ing themes, po sit ion ing statements, com pany

and pro du ct names, etc.

• To disco ver new construc ts and measurement methods .

• To un derstand customer needs , wants , att i tudes, behaviors ,

preferences and motives.



Primary Data

Factors Influencing Overall Mobile Phone Satisfaction2003 2002

• Features 27% 21%

• Durabi l i ty 23% 16%

• Phys ical Design 19% 28%

• Battery Func t ion 16% 16%

• Operation 15% 19%

2004 Wireless Retail Sales Satisfaction Study

• Sales Staff 44%

• Price/Promotion 28%

• Store Disp lay 14%

• Store Facil i ty 14%

Sourc e: J.D. Power and A ssoci ates, 2002, 2003 & 2004.

These factorstypically areidentified in

qualitativefocus groups(exploratoryresearch).

These percentagestypically are determinedin quantitative surveys(descriptive research).



Hotel Selection Factors:1. Location

2. Past Experience3. Recommendations or Friends and Family4. Brand Reputation

Guest Satisfaction Factors:1. Guest Room

2. Departure Process3. Pre-Arrival/Arrival Experiences4. Hotel Services5. Food & Beverage services

Note: the first three factors account for more than 70 percentof guest satisfaction ratings.

Source: J.D. Power & Associates, August 21, 2001.

Primary Data

What is the construct



Original Equipment Tire Satisfaction Study:

1. Product Quality 39%

- Number of tires with a problem- Number of problems experienced- Number of original tires replaced

2. Long-Term Performance 22%- Wear ability- Length of warranty- Overall reliability & dependability

- Freedom from pull to left or right3. Situational Performance 19% - Traction on wet roads- Traction at fast starts- Holds road well in emergencies- Lack of vibration at highway speeds- Overall safety- Overall ride at highway speeds

4. Design 14%- Road quietness- Style & appearance of sidewalls- Tread design- Size of tire matches size of vehicle

5. Winter Traction 5%

Source: J.D. Power & Associates, August 27, 2001.

Primary DataWhat is the constructin this study?



PRIMARY DATA – Focus Groups

Focus Groups:

Some of my “best” experiences?

Some of my “worst” experiences?



PRIMARY DATA – Observations

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Methods – human/mechanical/electronic.

• Useful where respondent cannot or will notarticulate the answer.

• Cannot be used to measure thoughts, feelings,attitudes, opinions, etc.



Purpose of Questionnaires:

• To obtain information that cannot be easilyobserved or is not already available inwritten or electronic form.

• Questionnaires enable researchers to measure

concepts/constructs.

PRIMARY DATA – QUESTIONNAIRES



Steps in Questionnaire Design:

1. Ini t ia l Cons iderat ions – pro blem, object ives,target popu lat ion, samp l ing, etc.

2. Clar i f icat ion of Con cepts – select v ariables,const ructs , measurement app roach, etc.

3. Developing the Quest ionn aire

Leng th and sequence.

Types of quest ions .

Sources of q uest ions.

Wording, coding, layout and inst ruct ion s.

4. Pre-testing the Questio nnaire.

5. Quest ionn aire Adm inistrat ion Plannin g.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN



Open-ended Questions = place no constraints onrespondents; i.e., they are free to answer in their ownwords and to give whatever thoughts come to mind.

Closed-ended Questions = respondent is given theoption of choosing from a number of predeterminedanswers.

Two Types of Questions:1. Open-ended2. Closed-ended




Examples of Open-ended Questions:

How do you typ ica lly decide wh ich restaurant you w i l leat at?

Which mutual funds have you been invest ing in for thepast year?

How are your investment funds per forming?

Do you th ink airpor t secur i ty is bet ter now than i t

was s ix months ago?




Open-ended Questions

• Typically used in exploratory/qualitative studies.

• Typically used in personal interview surveys involvingsmall samples.

• Allows respondent freedom of response.

• Respondent must be articulate and willing to spend timegiving a full answer.

• Data is in narrative form which can be time consuming anddifficult to code and analyze.

• Possible researcher bias in interpretation.

• Narrative is analyzed using of content analysis. Softwareis available (e.g., NUD*IST).




Content Analysis Software:

TextSmart is a software package that enables users to view,manipulate and automate the coding or categorization of responses tonarative data. The ability to automate the examination andorganization of narrative data is particularly helpful when a „large scale‟ survey is undertaken. It can be used to analyze any textual data,and its output can be exported to SPSS for further analysis. Forexample, you can do correspondence analysis* on a contingency tablefrom a TextSmart analysis. For more information about TextSmart and

related SPSS products visit the WWW site www.spss.com.

QSR NUD*IST stands for Non-Numerical Unstructured DataIndexing and Theorizing. It is a popular computer software packageused by researchers to analyze text from focus group or interviewtranscripts, literary documents and so on. It examines non-textualdata such as photographs, tape recordings, films and so on. Users can

us it to index and link several documents in a structured way toproduce categorical data in a form amenable to further analysis.NUD*IST output can be exported to software programs such as SPSSand Excel. For more information about QSR NUD*IST and its relatedproduct NVIVO visit their website

(http://www.scolari.co.uk/qsr/qsr_n4.htm).

http://www.spss.com/

http://www.scolari.co.uk/qsr/qsr_n4.htm




















Closed-end Questions :

Single Answer

Multiple Answer

Rank Order

Numeric

Likert-Type Scales

Semantic Differential




1. Did you check your email this morning? __ Yes __ No

2. Do you believe Enron senior executives should be put in jail? __ Yes __ No

3. Should the U.K. adopt the Euro or keep the Pound?

__ Adopt the Euro

__ Keep the Pound

4. Which countries in Europe have you traveled to in the last six months?

__ Belgium

__ Germany __ France

__ Holland

__ Italy

__ Switzerland

__ Spain

__ Other (please specify) _____________

5. How often do you eat at Samouel‟s Greek Cuisine restaurant?

__ Never

__ 1 – 4 times per year



__ More than 12 times per year

Examples of Closed-end Questions:



Closed-end Questions

• Typically used in quantitative studies.

• Assumption is researcher has knowledge to pre-specifyresponse categories.

• Data can be pre-coded and therefore in a form amenable

for use with statistical packages (e.g., SPSS, SAS) –

data capture therefore easier.

• More difficult to design but simplifies analysis.• Used in studies involving large samples.

• Limited range of response options.




Broad Considerations

• Sequencing of questions.

• Identification of concepts.

• How many questions are required to captureeach concept.

• Question wording.

• Overall length of questionnaire.

• Placing of sensitive questions.

• Ability of respondents.• Level of measurement.

• Open-ended versus closed-end questions.




Questionnaire Sequence

•

Opening Questions• Research Topic Questions

• Classification Questions




Screening or Filter Questions:

. . . are used to ensure respondents included in thestudy are those that meet the pre-determined criteria

of the target population.

“Tonight we are talking with individuals who are 18

years of age or older and have 50 percent or more ofthe responsibility for banking decisions in yourhousehold. Are you that person?” __ Yes __ No

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN – Opening Questions



Rapport Questions:

. . . are used to establish rapport with the respondentby gaining their attention and stimulating their interest

in the topic.

• “Have you seen any good movies in the last month?”

__ Yes __ No

• “What is your favorite seafood restaurant?”

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN – Opening Questions

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN –



Concept/construct = an abstract idea formed in the mind. The ideais a combination of a number of similar characteristics/variables thatcollectively define the concept and are used to measure it. Constructsare abstract/intangible and cannot be directly observed or measuredbecause they are the mental images a person attaches to an object,such as attitudes, feelings, perceptions, expectations, or expressions

of future actions (e.g., purchase intentions).

Example Concept: “Customer Service” issues fora B-to-B situation

Reliable delivery

Technical sales Support

Inside sales representatives Field sales representatives

Complaint resolution

Ordering/Invoicing

Website design

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Research Topic Questions



Concepts

Concept Identification

Conceptual definition – e.g., Service Quality.

As perceived by customers, it is the differencebetween customers‟ expectations or desiresof a vendor and their perceptions of the actualsituation (their experiences).

Working Definition for Concept Decompose definition into components.

Search for items that are measurable .




Service Quality Construct:

Research has shown the service quality construct can be indirectlyrepresented by the following measurable components:

“ The service provider‟s ability to . . . . “

• communicate and listen to consumers;

• sincerely empathize with customers in interpreting their needsand wants;

• be tactful in responding to customers‟ questions, objections, and problems;

• create an impression of reliability in performing services;

• create an image of credibility by keeping promises;

• demonstrate sufficient technical knowledge and competence;

• exhibit strong interpersonal skills in dealing with customers.




Concept Development Exercise:

Concept = “Restaurant Service Quality”

1. What are the components of service quality asthey relate to a restaurant?

2. How do you measure these components?





Preparing Good Questions:

• Use Simple Words.

• Be brief.• Avoid Ambiguity.

• Avoid Leading Questions.

• Avoid Double-Barreled Questions.

• Check Questionnaire Layout.

• Prepare Clear Instructions.

• Watch Question Sequence.






Recently a survey was conducted by the United Nations using asample from several different countries. The question askedwas:

" Would you please give your opinion about the food shortage in

the rest of the world?"

The survey was a huge failure. Why?

• In Africa they did not know what 'food' meant.• In Western Europe, they did not know what 'shortage' meant.

• In Eastern Europe they did not know what 'opinion' meant.• In South America they did not know what 'please' meant.• And in the U.S., they did not know what 'the rest of the

world' meant.



Avoid Position Bias:

Position Bias:

• “How important are flexible hours in evaluating

job alternatives?”

• “What factors are important in evaluating


No Position Bias:

• “What factors are important in evaluating job alternatives?”

• “How important are flexible hours in evaluating







To what extent do you agree or disagree with thefollowing statements?

• “Harrod‟s employees are friendly and helpful.”

• “Harrod‟s employees are courteous and knowledgeable.”

Double-Barreled Questions:





. . . are used to direct respondents to answer the rightquestions as well as questions in the proper sequence.

• “Have you seen or heard any advertisements for wireless

telephone service in the past 30 days?” • “If „No‟, go to question #10.• “If „Yes‟ , were the advertisements on radio or TV or both?” • “If the advertisements were on TV or on both radio and

TV, then go to question #6?• “If the advertisements were on radio, then go to

question #8.”

Following questions #6 and #8 the next question would be:

• “Were any of the advertisements for „Sprint PCS‟?”

Branching Questions:





• Introducing and explaining how to answer a series of

questions on a particular topic.

• Transition statements from one section (topic) of the

questionnaire to another.• Which question to go to next (branching or skipping).

• How many answers are acceptable, e.g., “Check only

one response” or “Check as many as apply.”

• Whether respondents are supposed to answer the

question by themselves, or can consult another

person or reference materials.• What to do when the questionnaire is completed, e.g.,

“When finished, place this in the postage paid

envelope and mail it.”

Issues – Self-Completion Instructions:





• How to inc rease respon dent part ic ipat ion.

• How to screen ou t respon dents that are not wanted and

st i l l keep them happy.• What to say when respondents ask how to answ er a

part icular quest ion .

• When concepts may not be easi ly understood, how to

def ine them .

• When answer alternat ives are to be read to respon dents

(aided respon se) or not to be read (unaided respon se).• How to fo l low branching or skip pat terns.

• When and how to probe.

• How to end the interview.

Issues – Interviewer-Assisted Instructions:




Identify response bias for below questions:1. “Do you advocate a lower speed limit to save human lives?”

2. “When you visited the museum, how many times did you read the

plaques that explain what the exhibit contained?”

3. “About what time do you ordinarily eat dinner?”

4. “How important is it for stores to carry a large variety of differentbrands of this product?”

5. “Would you favor increasing taxes to cope with the current fiscal

crisis?”

6. “Don‟t you see some danger in the new policy?”

7. “What small appliance, such as countertop appliances, have you

purchased in the past month?”

8. “When you buy „fast food,‟ what percentage of the time do you

order each of the following types of food?”

9. “Do you like orange juice?”




Comments on Questions:

1. A loaded question because everyone wants to save lives. Also, it presumes that lower speed limits saves lives.

2. Too specific because respondents likely cannot remember the

exact number of times.3. Ambiguous because don‟t know if dinner is lunch or evening.

4. Not specific enough about types of stores.

5. Overemphasis because refers to crisis.

6. Leading question because uses “danger” in sentence.

7. Answers likely to relate only to countertop appliances and not allsmall appliances.

8. Over generalization because does not specify time period.

9. Ambiguous because may like orange juice for themselves, or fortheir kids, but really do not know.





• Objective: to identify possible shortcomings of questionnaire.

• Approaches – informal or formal.

• Can assess:

• No hard and fast rules.

•ability to perform meaningfulanalyses

• time to complete thequestionnaire

• cost of data collection

• which questions are relevant

• whether key questions havebeen overlooked

• sources of bias

•clarity of instructions

• cover letter

• clarity of questions

• adequacy of codes andcategories for pre-codedquestions

• quality of responses

• likely response rate

Pre-testing Questionnaires:


Scale Development



Scales = the approach used to measureconcepts (constructs).

Two Options:

1. Use published scales.

2. Develop original scales.

Scale Development

Sources of Published Scales



Sources of Published Scales

Organizational Behavior and ManagementPrice, James L., Handbook of Organizational Measurement, International Journal ofManpower, Vol. 18, Number 4/5/6, 1997, ISSN 0143-7720, www.mcb.co.uk Has 28 chapters with constructs measuring organizational behavior.

Management Information Systems (MIS)www.ucalgary.ca/~newsted/surveys.html.www.misq.org/archivist/home.html.

MarketingBearden, William O. and Richard Netemeyer, Handbook of Marketing Scales, SagePublications, 2nd ed., 1998. Summarizes over 130 marketing related scales.

Bruner, Gordon Paul Hensel, Marketing Scales Handbook, Chicago, Ill., AmericanMarketing Association, 1992. Includes almost 600 scales.

GeneralRobinson, John P., Phillip R. Shaver and Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Measures ofPersonal and Social Psychological Attitudes, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991.Contains over 150 published scales in 11 different areas.

Buros Institute of Mental Measurement‟s website – has reviews of published testsand measurements. www.unl.edu/buros

Online Questionnaire Design

http://www.mcb.co.uk/

http://www.ucalgary.ca/~newsted/surveys.html

http://www.misq.org/archivist/home.html

http://www.unl.edu/buros

http://www.unl.edu/buros

http://www.misq.org/archivist/home.html

http://www.ucalgary.ca/~newsted/surveys.html

http://www.mcb.co.uk/



Decision Analyst

www.decisionanalyst.com

Decisive Technology

www.decisive.com

Perseus Development

www.perseusdevelopment.com

Socratic Technologies

www.sotech.com

SPSS

www.spss.com

Online Questionnaire Design

Survey Builder www.surveybuilder.com

SurveyProwww.surveypro.com

SurveySezwww.surveysez.com

WebSurveyor www.websurveyor.com

MEASUREMENT SCALES

http://www.decisionanalyst.com/

http://www.decisive.com/

http://www.perseusdevelopment.com/

http://www.sotech.com/


http://www.surveybuilder.com/

http://www.surveypro.com/

http://www.surveysez.com/

http://www.websurveyor.com/

http://www.websurveyor.com/

http://www.surveysez.com/

http://www.surveypro.com/

http://www.surveybuilder.com/


http://www.sotech.com/

http://www.perseusdevelopment.com/

http://www.decisive.com/

http://www.decisionanalyst.com/



Types of Scales:

• Metric (interval & ratio)

• Likert-type

• Summated-Ratings (Likert)

• Numerical

• Semantic Differential

• Graphic-Ratings

• Nonmetric (nominal & ordinal)

• Categorical

• Constant Sum Method

• Paired Comparisons• Rank Order

• Sorting

MEASUREMENT SCALES

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric



Examples of Likert-Type Scales:

“When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see whatit is like.”

Strongly Agree Neither Agree Disagree Strongly

Agree Somewhat or Disagree Somewhat Disagree1 2 3 4 5

MEASUREMENT SCALES – Metric

“When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see whatit is like.”

Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree

1 2 3 4 5




Summated Ratings Scales:

A scaling technique in which respondents are asked toindicate their degree of agreement or disagreement witheach of a number of statements. A subject‟s attitude score(summated rating) is the total obtained by summing overthe items in the scale and dividing by the number of items

to get the average.

Example:

“My sales representative is . . . . “ SD D N A SA

Courteous ___ ___ ___ ___ ___Friendly ___ ___ ___ ___ ___Helpful ___ ___ ___ ___ ___Knowledgeable ___ ___ ___ ___ ___





Alternative Approach to Summated Ratings scales:

“When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like.”


Agree Somewhat or Disagree Somewhat Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

“I always eat at new restaurants when someone tells me they are good.”


Agree Somewhat or Disagree Somewhat Disagree

1 2 3 4 5


This approach includes a separate labeled Likert scale with each item(statement). The summated rating is a total of the responses for all theitems divided by the number of items.




Numerical Scales:

Example:

“Using a 10 - point scale, where „1‟ is „not at all important‟and ‟10‟ is „very important,‟ how important is ______ inyour decision to do business with a particular vendor.”

Note: you fill in the blank with an attribute, such as reliable

delivery, product quality, complaint resolution, and so forth.





Semantic Differential Scales:

A scaling technique in which respondents are asked tocheck which space between a set of bipolar adjectives or

phrases best describes their feelings toward the stimulus

object.

Example:

“My sales representative is . . . . “

Courteous ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Discourteous

Friendly ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ UnfriendlyHelpful ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Unhelpful

Honest ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Dishonest





Graphic-Ratings Scales:

A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicate their

ratings of an attribute by placing a check at the appropriate point

on a line that runs from one extreme of the attribute to the other.

“Please evaluate each attribute in terms of how important theattribute is to you personally (your company) by placing an “X”

at the position on the horizontal line that most reflects yourfeelings.”

Not Important Very Important

Courteousness _____________________________________Friendliness _____________________________________

Helpfulness _____________________________________

Knowledgeable _____________________________________


MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric



Categorical scale:

Categorical scales are nominally measured opinion

scales that have two or more response categories.

“How satisfied are you with your current job?”

[ ] Very Satisfied

[ ] Somewhat Satisfied

[ ] Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied

[ ] Somewhat Dissatisfied

[ ] Very Dissatisfied

Note: Some researchers consider this a metric scale when coded 1 – 5 .

MEASUREMENT SCALES – Nonmetric




Constant-Sum Method:

A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to divide

some given sum among two or more attributes on the basis of

their importance to them.

“Please divide 100 points among the following attributes in

terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.”

Courteous Service ____

Friendly Service ____Helpful Service ____

Knowledgeable Service ____

Total 100





Paired Comparison Method:

A scaling technique in which respondents are given pairs of stimulus objects and asked which object in a pair they prefer most.

“Please circle the attribute describing a salesrepresentative which you consider most desirable.”

Courteous versus Knowledgeable

Friendly versus Helpful

Helpful versus Courteous





Sort ing:

A scaling technique in which respondents areasked to indicate their beliefs or opinions by

arranging objects (items) on the basis of

perceived importance, similarity, preference

or some other attribute.





Rank Order Method: A scaling technique in which respondents are presented

with several stimulus objects simultaneously and asked

to order or rank them with respect to a specific

characteristic.“Please rank the following attributes on how important each isto you in relation to a sales representative. Place a “1” besidethe attribute which is most important, a “2” next to theattribute that is second in importance, and so on.”

Courteous Service ___

Friendly Service ___

Helpful Service ___

Knowledgeable Service ___


Scale Development



Practical Decisions When Developing Scales:

• Number of items (indicators) to measure a concept?

• Number of scale categories?

• Odd or even number of categories?

(Include neutral point ?)

• Balanced or unbalanced scales?

• Forced or non-forced choice?

(Include Don‟t Know ?)• Category labels for scales?

• Scale reliability and validity?

Scale Development

Scale Development



Balanced vs. Unbalanced Scales?

Balanced:

• “ To what extent do you consider TV shows with sex andviolence to be acceptable for teenagers to view?”

__ Very Acceptable __ Somewhat Acceptable __ Neither Acceptable or Unacceptable __ Somewhat Unacceptable __ Very Unacceptable

Unbalanced:

__ Very Acceptable

__ Somewhat Acceptable

__ Unacceptable

Scale Development

Scale Development



Forced or Non-Forced?

• “How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months?”

Very Very

Unlikely Likely

1 2 3 4 5 6 __ No Opinion

Scale Development

Scale Development



Category Labels for Scales?

Verbal Label:

• “How important is the size of the hard drive in selecting a laptop PC to purchase?”

Very Somewhat Neither Important Somewhat Very

Unimportant Unimportant or Unimportant Important Important

1 2 3 4 5

Numerical Label:

• “How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months?”

Very Very

Unlikely Likely

1 2 3 4 5

Unlabeled:

• “How important is the weight of the laptop PC in deciding which brand

to purchase?”

Very Very

Unimportant Important

___ ___ ___ ___ ___

p

MEASUREMENT SCALES



Choosing a Measurement Scale:

• Capabilities of Respondents.

•

Context of Scale Application.• Data Analysis Approach.

• Validity and Reliability.

MEASUREMENT SCALES

MEASUREMENT SCALES



Assessing Measurement Scales:

• Validity

•

Reliability

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Measurement Error = occurs when thevalues obtained in a survey (observed values)

are not the same as the true values(population values).

RESEARCH DESIGN



Types of Errors:

• Nonresponse = problem definition, refusal, sampling, etc.• Response = respondent or interviewer.• Data Collection Instrument:

Construct Development. Scaling Measurement. Questionnaire Design/Sequence, etc.

• Data Analysis.• Interpretation.

SECONDARY DATA



Data that has been gathered previously for other purposes.

SECONDARY DATA



Secondary Data Issues:

• Availability

• Relevance

• Accuracy

• Sufficiency

RESEARCH PROCESS




Theory / Practice


Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

Data Analysis



Methods:

Dependence

• Multiple Regression

•Discriminant Analysis

• ANOVA/MANOVA

Interdependence

• Factor Analysis

• Cluster Analysis

Research Design & Data Collection



Learning Checkpoint:

• Define a research problem to be studied.

• Identify the topics /concepts that will be covered

to answer research questions.

• Identify the types of questions and/or scaling

you will use.

• How will you evaluate the questions/scales you use?

• Determine the best way to collect the data.

• Present group suggestions; defend.

process research

Documents