ProductSemantics 1

Product Semantics How design can affect user response and behavior

HenrikSundeDepartmentofDesign

NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology

ABSTRACTSemioticsisthestudyofsigns,andsemanticsisthestudyoftheirmeaning.Inproductsemantics,theselinguistic concepts are used to describe design. Applied to design, the product is the sign, and itconcernshowdesignersencodemeaning intotheirproducts,andhowtheycommunicatewiththeuser.Possiblegoalscanbetodescribetheproduct’spurposeoruse,toexpressdesiredattributesorcharacteristics,ortoencouragecertainuserbehavior.Theimportanceofproductsemanticshasbeentocreateproductswithimprovedusabilityandlikabilitytoincreasetheirchanceofsuccess.Thisarticleexploresthroughliteraturereviewandproductanalysishowvariousdesignelementscanbeusedtoachievethis.Thepaper’sultimateobjectiveistogainunderstandingtobetterdesignproductswiththehelpofproductsemantics.KEYWORDS:Productsemantics,productdesign,userbehavior1INTRODUCTIONAll products or objects designed have apurposeormeaning,bothforthedesigneranduser. Some products offer little to no userinteraction,othersseeheavyuse,whilesomestill are passive artifacts to be experienced.Theyallstillcommunicate,orareatleastableto,somethingtotheuser,whetheritbehowtoinstallorusetheproduct,ortoelicitemotions.Product semantics describes thiscommunicationandcanbeatoolfordesignerstobetterunderstanditsutility.A goal of industrial design is to createsuccessfulproducts,eitherfromacommercialor altruistic perspective. Product semantics’importancestemsfromitsparticipationintheprocesses that evoke attraction to products,improvingtheirchancesofsuccess[1].Vihma[2] argues that semantics is one of the fourdimensions of design, and that the ability tocommunicate through form is what setsdesigners apart from other professionalsparticipatinginproductdevelopment.

Thetermsemanticscomesundertheumbrellaofsemiotics.Semioticsisthestudyofsignsandwhattheymean,howtheyarecombined,andused. Here, a sign is defined as “a unit ofexpressionandcontent.” [3]Semantics refersto the sign’smessage. Theotherelementsofsemioticsaresyntax,whichconcernsthesign’srelations to other signs, and pragmatics,studying signs’ use in different contexts. Thesignsinquestioncanbeanythingfromaliteralroadsign,toaletterorsinglesymbol.Anentireproduct,likeacar,canbeconsideredasign,ascanitsbrandlogo.Thetermasappliedtoproductdesignhas itsroots in cognitive psychology and was firstpresented by Krippendorff and Butter wherethey defined it as the “study of the symbolicqualitiesofman-madeformsinthecontextoftheiruse,andapplicationofthisknowledgetoindustrialdesign.”[p.5][4]

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Figure1:Krippendorrf’sproposedmodelofthe

relationshipbetweendesigneranduser.Later, Krippendorff wrote that productsemantics“isaconcernforthesenseartifactsmaketousers” [p.10][5]andthat itdescribestherelationshipbetweenthecognitionofthedesigner and the user. Krippendorff suggeststhat products are always considered incontexts and users make sense of themthrough an iterative process. Figure 1illustratesthisrelationship.While Krippendorff and Butter coined theterm,researchapplyingsemioticstoproductsprecedes their publications. For example,starting in the 70s, Gros and Fischer (in [6])developed the Offenbach theory of productlanguage. In this theory semantics refers tohowdesignexplainswhataproductis,aswellastheirsymbolicassociations.Theyarenamedthe indicatingandsymbolfunctions.Separatefrom the semantic functions are the formalaesthetic functions, which are the “aspectsthat can be observed irrespective of themeaningoftheircontent”[p.87][6].Thesearebasedongestaltprinciplesandthedichotomybetweenorderandcomplexity,andreductionorrichnessofstimuli.Monö states that “a useful product is morethanbeinguseful.”[Contents][7]Anobjectorproduct can be perceived differently by theobserver,contextorsituation.Someexamplesofperceptionsormeaningsgiventoproductsthe author give are as an implement, or itsdesignedfunction,asanornament,wheretheproduct is used for decoration, and from anindustrialperspective. To satisfy thedifferentperspectives,Monöarguesthatanobjecthasasemantic necessity. Further, Monö [7]

discusses the semantic functionsof products,anddefinesfour:• To describe its purpose and mode of

operation• Toexpressitspropertiesandcharacteristics• Toexhortreactionsfromtheuser• To identify the product in terms of origin,

kinship,location,nature,orcategory.Thesefunctionsarepartiallyanalogoustotheones described in the Offenbach theory. Thedescriptivefunctionechoestheindicative.Thesymbolic function (Offenbach) is wider thanMonö’sinthatitincludessymbolismbyoriginandartstyle,whichiscoveredbythefunctionto identify (Monö). The inclusion ofmeaningcommunicated by gestalt in semantics isanother distinguishing factor between thetheories.The main part of this article will attempt todescribe someof theprinciples that facilitatethe first three of these functions andsubsequently explore their use in real lifeproducts.Productsemanticsisanexpansivefieldandthe“sense”and“meaning”ofaproducthavemanyfacets. This article’s focus is on how productsemanticsrelatestohowtheuserunderstandandexperiencesproducts,andnotonaspectsregardingself-identityandsocialconceptslikestatus.2METHODThisarticleisbasedonaliteraturereviewanddesign analysis. Sources are theoreticalresearchonproductsemanticsfoundinjournalarticles as well as books on design principlesand guidelines. The article is written inconjunctionwithaprojectregardingthedesignofanautomatichanddisinfectantdispenserforuseinhospitals.3SEMANTICFUNCTIONSThesemanticfunctionsofproductsasdefinedbyMonö[7]arebasedontheOrganonmodelof linguistic communication by Karl Bühler.

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Bühler’s model represents the sign at thecenter of a triangle comprised of a thing orstimuli,asender,andareceiver.Forexample,avocalizedexpressionbecomesasignwhenitis represented by a thing, expressed by thesenderandappeals to thereceiver [8].Thesethree are the semantic functions. It must benotedthatthisisoneofmanytheoriesonsignsthathavebeenappliedtodesignresearch.Applied toproducts, the sign is theproduct’sphysical appearance, the thing its functionalprinciple,thesenderisthemessagecreatedbythe designer, and the receiver is themind ofthe target user with its knowledge andexperience.Whenadapting themodel,Monöhaschangedtheappealfunctiontoexhortationandaddedthefunctiontoidentify.3.1DescriptionEfficiently describing a product’s purpose,functionality, and usage might be the mostimportant functions of a product’s design. Aproduct’s shape can be a strong sign of theproduct’spurpose.Considerhowsmartphonesall share the same basic rectangular shape.Designcanalsocommunicatefunction,thoughthesearemostoftensimplerorolderproducts,suchasalocomotivewithitssteamboilerandpistons. A complex product like a computerdoesnot showhow it functions. Theydonotneed to however, as their usage is oftendescribedthroughaninterface.3.2ExpressionThisreferstothequalitiesorcharacteristicsoftheproductthedesignerwantstoconvey.Theexpression might be of durability, flexibility,speedorappealtoacertainusergroup.Manytools,suchasshape,color,andmaterialchoicecanbeusedtodefineaproduct’sexpression.3.3ExhortationExhortation deals with user behavior and “isalways intended to trigger a reaction in thepersontowhomitisdirected.”[98][7]Thiscanbeahandlethatsays:“grabme!”

3.4IdentificationThe product’s identity includes its origin,affiliation and category. Logos and colorschemesarecentraltoolstocreateaproduct’sidentity. Sometimes a designer’s trademarksarepartoftheidentity.Tolimitthescope,thisfunctionisnotdiscussedfurther.4APPLICATIONButter [9]explainshowemerging theoriesondesigndonotautomaticallyprovetobeusefulfordesignersandsaysthatthesamewastrueforthesemanticapproach.Companiesstartedlooking towards product semantics todifferentiate their products in a marketdominated by similar high-technologyproducts.Oneofthefirstcompaniestoactivelyapply product semantics was Philips in the1980s [10]. A successful product of thisstrategy was the “Rolling Radio”, where thedesigners focused on communicating itsmobilitywithspeakergrillsshapedlikemovingsoundwaves and a passing resemblance to amotorcycle.In a student project designing truck cabinteriorssupervisedbyButter[9],theworkwasbased on eight steps to apply productsemantics.Theessentialsofthisprocessaretolist characteristics of a desired design resultandthensearchforphysicalmanifestationstoimplement them.Butteremphasizes that it isimportant to distinguish between functionaland expressive attributes, echoing Monö’ssemanticsfunctions.Oneofthestudentgroupswas charged with designing a low-tech truckinterior and defined attributes like“mechanical, powerful, rugged, anddependable.” One of the manifestations oflow-tech was a fisherman’s vest. The vest’smultiple easily accessible pocketsmanifestedinwall-mountedstorage.Whiletheinspirationofthevestmaynotbedirectlyperceivedbytheuser, the similarity between their expressedcharacteristics might. This use of metaphorshowshow linguistic conceptscanbeused inproduct design. Furthermore, simile,metonymy, pun, and paradox can also beappliedindesignthroughasemanticapproach[7].

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Butter stresses that a product should notpretendtobesomethingitisnot,oritmightberejectedbythemarket.Monö[7]echoesthisandsaysthatgoodsemanticdesignshouldbeclear,unambiguous,andhonest.5AFFORDANCEWhenever an object is encountered weevaluatehowitcanbeinteractedwithorwhatit can be used for. For example, if we comeacrossatreestumpinthewoodsitiscleartous that it can be used for sitting. This is notuniversal, anda childmight lookat the samestumpasasuitabletable.Thisinterpretationofobjects’use-valueisdescribedwiththetheoryofaffordance.The theory of affordance was developedindependently from product semantics. Theterm was coined by psychologist James J.Gibson[11]torefertohistheorythatobjectshave intrinsic usability due to their physicalproperties, regardless of humaninterpretation.However,affordancedidnotoriginallyrefertoproductdesign;DonaldNormanappropriatedandpopularizedthetermforuseindesignwithhis work The Design of Everyday Thingsoriginallypublishedin1988.WhileNorman,acognitivepsychologist,workedwithGibson,heproposes an alternative definition. Norman’sview differs from Gibson’s in that it is therelationship between the object’s innatecharacteristics and theuser’s capabilities andexperiences that determines how the objectcanbeused [12].Monö shares this viewandrefers to the contextual code: “[a] system ofrules for the way in which signals are to beinterpreted.” [p.117][7] An example ofaffordance in a product is the keys on acomputer keyboard; the action the keyboardaffordsispressingthekeys.Since introducing the term to the world ofdesign, Norman argues that the concept ofaffordance has beenmisunderstood.Normanargues that it has been used by designers tomean any signal to the user how the objectshouldbeused,suchaspushandpullsignsondoors. For this usage, Norman proposes the

term signifiers. If we reuse the keyboardanalogy, thekeys’affordance is that theycanbepressed,butthesymbolsonthekeyssignaltheirfunction.You and Chen [13] agree that the termaffordance has been misused, and suggest aclearer divide between the theories ofaffordanceandproductsemantics.Theyarguethat Norman’s view of affordance is morecloselyrelatedtoproductsemantics,andutilityof the “true” theoryof affordance inproductdesignhassufferedbecauseofthisambiguity.Boess and Kanis [10] suggest that clearlyidentifiablyaffordancecannotbeimplementedreliablyandpointtoGibson’sgoalnottodesignfororpredicthumaninteraction.Relatedtoaffordanceandsignifiers,BoessandKanis have introduced another concept theycall usecues. A usecue is any perceivedattribute that help the user understand howsomethingisinteractedwith.Aleverisnotbyitself considered a usecue, but thecharacteristicsthatsuggestwhichwayorhowit is activated are. Usecues and Norman’ssignifiersarethetoolsofthesemanticfunctiontodescribeuse.Whilethesymbolsonakeyboardandpush/pulllabelsondoorsexplicitlysignifytheproduct’suse, other elements such as color and shapealsoaffecthowusersreadaproduct.6.PRINCIPLESOFPRODUCTSEMANTICSThis section discusses the aspects deemedcentralfromaproductsemanticspointofview,althoughthefieldencompassesmorethantheones included. Both physical aspects of theproducts and elements focusing on userbehaviorarediscussed.6.1GestaltOnegeneralway todescribegestalt is as “anarrangement of parts which appear andfunctionsasawholethatismorethanthesumof its parts.” [p.33][7] Consider how a dishcombines the flavors of its ingredients tocreatesomethingnew.

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Indesign,aproduct’sshape,colorandmaterialgivemeaningtoeachother thatdidnotexistbyitself.Thecolormightchangetheshape,orthematerialmightchangethecolor.Gestaltiscreated by features of the design or by theentiredesign.There are certain factors to help us perceivethese individualelements insteadasawhole.Some of the most important are describedbelow.Theyarebasedonproximity,similarity,closure,andgoodcontinuation.Thesecanbeusedbydesignerstoaidtheuserinusability.Thelawofproximitystatesthatobjectsplacedclose to each other or in a group create agestalt. There is a perceived relationshipbetweenthemduetotheirproximity[14].Anexample is found on a television remotecontrol, where the buttons are arranged bysharedfunction.Visually similar objects also create gestaltsmuch like proximate ones. Returning to theremote-control example, buttonswith similarfunction often share shape and color. Whenusing color similarity, no more than 3 or 4colorsshouldbeused[14].The closure factor describes the mind’stendencytocompletepatternsorshapesevenif theyare incompleteorpartiallyhidden.Anexample is a circle obscured by a rectangle,wherethemindwouldfill inthemissinglinesandinterpretthecircleaswhole.Theeffectisstrongest when the patterns are similar andclose to each other. Good use of closurewillreducecomplexityandmakethedesignmoreinteresting [14]. Use of the closure effect isoftenfoundinlogotypes.We perceive lines and shapes to retain theirdirection, even though they are partiallyobscuredorintersectedbyanotherobject.Thisis known as the good continuation factor. Itmeans that objects along a line or curve areperceivedasoneandareeasiertoprocess[14].6.2ShapeandformAnobject’sshape isoneof the firstelementswe perceive. Shapes can be used to describe

the product’s function or expresscharacteristics the designerwants to convey.Shapes also elicit different emotionalresponsesandcanbeusedtoattractattentionor affection fromusers. Both the gestalt of aproduct’s form and the shapes of isolatedfeatures or elements are important toconsider.Weperceive shapes to have attributes basedon previous experience and context. Someshapes appear heavy or light, sturdy orunstable while others can evoke speed orflexibility. For example, we know fromexperience that objectswithwider bases areharder to topple. In this way shape has anexpressivefunction[7].

Asimplerod.

Theslopedsidesexpressstability.

Thefacetsmaketheshapeseemdenser.

Therecessededgemakestheshapeexpresslightness

Thedifferenceinheightexpressesflexibilityduetoitsabilitytofitvariousspacerequirements.

Figure2:Showshowchangestoashapecanchangeitsexpression.AdaptedfromMonö[7]Shapes can also be used to describe possiblepurposeanduse [7]. Ifweconsiderashape’slikely movement, we know from experiencethat round objects roll. The dominant andexposed wheels on cars and bicycles can besaid to convey that theobjectmoves readily,and perhaps that it is the object’s mainfunction. When a shape has come representuse through symbolizing a product category,it’scalledaprototypicalfeature[15].Steering

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wheels often have grooves for better grip,describingitsabilitytobeturned.We have an inherent aesthetical preferencetowards contoured and rounded objects asopposedtosharpandangledones[14].Whenasked to pick between two similar products,whereone is contouredand theother isnot,we tend to prefer the contoured one. Roundshapesareconsidered“friendlier”thanangularones.Studiesalsoshowthatangularandsharpfeatured objects trigger the amygdala in thebrain,whichprocessesfear.Atthesametime,angular objects activate more thoughtprocessingandarethereforemoreinterestingto look at. They also attract more attentionthanroundobjects[14].Thisistruewhentheshape isviewed in isolation,but theoppositecan be true if angular form is the norm in agiven context; the gestalt law of similaritycouldsupersedethis.The human mind is adept at recognizingpatternsandcertainshapesareinterpretedashumanlike,oranthropomorphic[14].Wetendtoviewobjectswithsuchshapespositivelyandmorereadilyformemotionalbondswiththem.To maximize the aesthetic appeal, anabstractionshouldbeusedinsteadofarealisticdepiction. Anthropomorphic shapes can beusedtoattractattentionandelicitingaffectiveresponses from the user [14]. This iscompounded by the fact that child-likefeatures in objects elicits happiness.Roundness or cuteness also change ourperception of a product’s “age” [16].Consideringtheaboveparagraph,itislikelytoassume that angular, masculine featuresattract more attention whereas contoured,feminineformsexpressesfriendliness.Aproduct’sshapeandformdonotstandalone,butformagestaltwithotherelementsofthedesign,suchascolor.6.3ColorColor is an important factor of ourenvironment and is used as a form ofexpression since childhood. We assigndifferentmeaning and associations to colors,

and these can be used in product design toachievedesiredgoals.Themeaningsweassign to colorsdependonour culture [17], so use of them must becarefullyconsidered.Colorsalsoelicitfeelingsandcanchangeourmood[18]andAllegosandAllegos (cited in [16]) suggest that it is thecontrast between colors that allow them toevokeanemotionalresponse.Itten[18]arguesthattheexpressionofcolorisbothsubjectiveandobjectivedependingonthecontext.Whenconsidering the seasons, blue objectivelyrepresents and green spring. Blue is also thecolor of clear skies but if a person is “feelingblue”, he or she is feeling depressed. Thisambiguityalsoexists indesign,wherecolor isused with different symbolism. A fireextinguisher is red to aid visibility but has adifferentmeaningwhenappliedtoasportscar.Further,Ittenwritesthatlightcolorsrepresentlevitywhile darker colors symbolize darknessandnegativity.White Clean,quietBlack Powerful,heavyRed IntimateGreen Natural,unrefinedBlue Reliable,trustPurple ElegantYellow Happiness

Figure3:Somecolorassociationsinthewesterncontext[17]

Color also has a dimensional aspect; it willchangehueorshadeaccordingtotheshapeortextureitisappliedto.Inthiswaycolorcanbeusedtoaccentuateornegatetheshapeofanobject.Becausetheyreflectmorelight,lightercolorsbestaccentuateshape.Swirnoffarguesthat color has been underutilized in creatingand altering shape [19]. Color can thus beviewed as an intrinsic part of the shape it isapplied to. Colors also change characteristicsby combination with other colors.Complementary colors intensify each other(Fabri in [16]) and may appear darken orlightendependingoncombinations[18].On this emotional level, color is used forexpression. Color is also used directly in a

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functionalmanner,forexampletodescribeuseby highlighting functions [17]. Consider atelephone where the answer and ignorefunctions are colored green and red. Whencolorisusedtoattractattention,whichshouldbedonebyusingsaturatedcolors[14],Iargueittakesonanexhortativefunction.When choosing which colors to apply forexpression, they should correlate with theuser’s emotional response to the productwithin the context of category and use [17].Gutsch uses an example of a purple Dysonwashingmachine,arguingthat itclasheswiththecustomer’sidealofaquietlyoperatingandfunctional product [17]. Another example ofthe importance of context of color, is thecommon use of white on high performanceboats [2],whilewhite is lessoftenapplied tocarequivalents.Thephysicalapplicationof color canbedonethrough different methods. The use of paintmightbeanobviousone,butmanyproducts’colorcomesthroughthematerialsused.6.4MaterialsThematerialsusedinaproductcanbechosenformanyreasons.Often,theyareselectedbysome required criteria of strength,weight orcost. Designers also select material on anaesthetical basis, as materials have differentcharacteristicssuchastextures,colors, tactilefeeland reflectance,allelements thatcanbeexploited in design [20]. In the 21st century,designershaveexpandedtheiruseofmaterialsandareincreasinglyusingmaterialstoconveymeaningintheirproducts[21].Material has great influence in how theproductisperceivedbeyondaesthetics,duetothe associations and perceptions of thematerial. Materials often carry associationsbefore theycreategestaltswith thewholeoftheproduct;woodhasan innatewarmthandevokescraftsmanshipwhereasmetaliscolder,precise,hightechanddurable[22].

7USERBEHAVIORHow users end up using a product has beenshown to be hard to anticipate [10; 23]. Theuser might find different valid uses for theproduct or there is a problem understandingthe correct use, causing frustration. For thelatter, thedesigner’sencodedmeaning intheproducthasnotbeenproperlydecodedbytheuser.7.1AlteringuserbehaviorTo help the user make decisions, or certaindesirabledecisions,designerscannudgeusersin the “right” direction.We tend to take thepathofleastresistancewhenmakingdecisions,and because of this the most likely choiceshouldyieldasatisfactoryresult[14].Lidwelletal.[14]listfivetechniquestoachievethis. The first is settingdefaults that “do theleast harm and most good”. If the defaultchoice is one the user is happy with, it willcause less frustration and effort. Setting thedesiredbehaviorasthedefaultcannudgetheuser in that direction. Feedback should begiven for both action an inaction to confirmthata choicehasbeenmadeand remind theuser tomake one. Incentives can be used toguide users in a certain direction, but shouldnot be conflicting. If the design presents theuser with many choices, they should bestructured to allow for easier searching andfiltering. Lastly, if a user’s action ofperformance leads to a goal, it should beclearlyvisible.7.2ForminghabitsA part of encouraging desired user behaviorcanbeforminghabits.Thisisespeciallytrueifone is designing a product or service thatrequiresuserstoreturntoit,likeaninteractiveservice. In the book Hooked, author Nir Eyalprovidesguidelinesforthisandintroducesthehookmodel[24].Thismodeldescribeshowusersformhabits,orbecome “hooked”, has four elements and isbased on rewarding actions the user makes.The first is the triggerwhich isanexternalor

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internaleventthatactuatesacertainbehavior.Following the trigger an action is made inanticipationofreward.Itisimportantthatthereward,thethirdstep,isvariable;iftherewardisconstanttheuserfeelsnoincentivetokeepre-enteringthehook.Thefourthandlaststeprequiresaninvestmentoreffortfromtheuser.This can be something that makes the hookeasier or more pleasurable the next timearound.8PRODUCTANALYSISThissectionexploreshowrealworldproductsincorporate theprinciplesdiscussedabove tobetter understand them. The examples drawon both public and private products. Thisdistinction is important because public andprivate products may have differentrequirementsofproductsemanticsastheuserhaslesstimetogettoknowtheproduct.Threeproductshavebeenselected.Thefirstisa soap dispenser and was chosen for itsrelevancetotherelatedproject.Thesecondisareimaginingofthefireextinguisherandwasselectedforitsneedforefficientsemanticsinemergencies. The last product is a multi-function printer. Printers are inherentlymechanical, but also have electronic aspects.Printers with a multitude of functions areespeciallyinterestingtoanalyze.These analyses are based on personalinterpretation of the discussed principles asfound in the design, and we cannot know iftheyare accurate according to thedesigners’intentions.8.1QuartzsoapdispenserTheQuartzsoapdispenserismeantforuseinpublicareaslikeshoppingmallsandairports.Itwas designed for Kohler by Henry Yang andRiverChengandwonaRedDotAwardin2016.Beingapublicproduct,itcanbearguedthatitshouldsignifyitsusewellasitislikelytheuserisapproachingitforthefirsttime.It is natural to conclude that the product’saffordance is todispensesoap intotheuser’shands.Inthiscase,Gibson’sviewisdifficultto

defend; it seems likely that a user notacquaintedwithdispenserswouldnotknowitspurpose, thus it could be argued that theproduct affords nothing. According toNorman’s view, the affordance (orrelationship) is establisheddue inpart to theuser’s previous experiences with dispensersand the context in which it is used, e.g. abathroom. Iarguethattheproduct’spurposeisdescribedlargelyduetocontextandgestaltcreatedwithotherproductrelatedtoitsuse.

Figure4:Kohler’sQuartzsoapdispenser

Its main shape is angular and thus thought-provokingandattention-seeking.Theshapeisalsopointingtheuser’sattentiontowardsthenozzle,improvingusability.Theexposednozzletells the user where to put their hands,describinghow touse theproduct. This is anexampleofasignifierorusecue.ThedispenserhassixLEDlightsthatindicatewhendispensingstarts,slowsdownandfinishes,givingtheuserfeedback on their actions and the product’sresponse. The lights also show when thedispenser is empty, indicating to the user itcannotbeused,andtostaffthatitneedstoberefilled.The color used is either silver or bronzechrome, matching other bathroom fixtures.The chrome symbolizes cleanliness andelegance,thelatterespeciallywiththemutedbronze color. The Quartz has technologicalinnovationssuchassolvingdrippingproblemsand smartphone app capabilities. Thistechnologicalaspect is reflected in theuseof

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metalintheoutershell.Furthermore,thecolorsilverholdsassociationsoftechnology.8.2ActfireextinguisherTheActisareimaginingofthefireextinguisherandwondesignerSigrunViktheUngeTalenteraward in 2010. It was designed to be morevisible when needed and less likely to bestowed away and hidden [25]. In contrast totheproductdiscussedabove,theActismeantfor use in private homes. Even so it is not aproducttypethatseesregularusageandisnotsomething users learn to know through use.Becauseofthisitneedstocommunicatewellinanemergency.TheActhastheaffordanceofatraditionalfireextinguisher,includingthehandleandpulltab.Thepulltabiscircular,signifyingthatitcanbepulledwithonefinger.Thehandle’sedgesarechamfered, allowing for easier gripping. Thesameistrueforthenotchtopulloutthehose.

Figure5:Actfireextinguisher

Theproduct’sshapeisvastlydifferentfromtheindustriallookofatraditionalfireextinguisher.It has rounded corners and contoured frontandbackpanels,givingtheproductafriendlyand invitingaesthetic. Themain colorused iswhite,doingawaywiththefireengineredthatcanelicit feelingsofapprehension.Thewhitealsomakesitdiscreetandthuseasiertoplacein the home. In addition, the white coloraccentuates the contoured shape. Red is stillusedsparselytohighlightthefunctionalparts,suchasthepulltab,nozzleandhose.Redisalsousedtoincreasevisibilitywhentheproductisneeded,mimickingtheuseofredintraditionalfireextinguishers.AcentraloffeatureofActiswireless connection to fire alarms. When an

alarmactivates,thehandlelightsupredtoaidvisibility.8.3Xeroxprinter/copierTheXeroxWorkCentre7545isamulti-functionprinter that can also be used as scanner andcopier.Theprinterhasamodulardesignthatcanbecomplementedbyadd-ons.Itismeantfor environments such as offices andworkplaces where it might be used bymanyuniqueusers [26].Multi-functionprinters arehighly complex products, and this is noexception. There are paper trays, differentoutputtrays,andscanningfunctions.Italsohasanextensivedigitaluserinterface,butthatwillnotbediscussedhere.

Figure6:XeroxWorkCentre7545

On first sight the printer can seemoverwhelming and the design pragmatic,perhapsduetolowerperceivedattractivenessof visually complex objects [15]. Designelementsextendfromthemainshape,drawingattentiontotheirfunctions.Theexposedpapertrayisacommonsymbolofprintersandhelpsdescribe the product’s purpose. The printer’smodularity expresses flexibility andrepairability.The focal point of the printer is a sectioncolored dark blue. This encompasses thedisplayandcontrolpanelaswell as themainoutput tray. This separates it from the otheroutputtrays,butthereasonwhyisnotclearbylooking at the design. The top left extensionaffords use as a table to place things whileusingtheproduct.

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Theprinterhas5papertraysforinput.Fourofthem can be pulled out and have grips thatafford this. A gestalt is created by theirsimilarity and proximity and could beconsidered a usecue. The fifth tray is forspecialtypaperandisseparatebothinfunctionand gestalt, and had it not been for thenumbering it would be harder to discern itsfunction.Thewheelsindicatethattheprinterismeant to be moved, but the lack of explicitpointstogripcounteractthis,andsuggestthatmovingisaninfrequentfunction.

Figure7:Physicalcontrolinterface

Figure 7 shows the buttons of the physicalinterface.Thenumericalbuttonsformagestaltby their proximity and similarity. It is unclearwhetherthetwobuttonsabovehaveanythingin common with them. The buttons on thelower leftaregroupedbytheirproximityandtheir positioning seem to form a circle. Theyare however not the same color, whichcounteractthegestalt.9DISCUSSIONThegoalofthisarticlewastoexploreproductsemantics through literature review andanalysisofexistingproducts,toultimatelygainknowledgetobetterdesignanewproduct.Asshown, the toolbox for designers tocommunicatemeaningtousersisextensive.Itcanbeusedtodescribeaproduct’spurposeoruse, express characteristics or exhortresponses.The building blocks to achieve this is theprinciplesdiscussedabove.Theprinciplesmaybeappliedbythemselves,butareenhancedby

creating gestalts of multiple elements. Forexample,usingshapetoindicatewheretogripmight more clearly communicated by addingcoloraswell.By themselves, shapeand formseem to be the most powerful and versatilevectors because they are the basis of thedesign. Color and material are more limitedwhenusedinisolation.The principles are described as if used inisolationand theyarenotnecessarily valid inevery context. While a wall painted brightyellowwould indeedattract attention,wouldnotawhiteobjectonthatwalldoaswelldueto the contrast? Similarly, if design elementscreate a gestalt but differ in use, thepoint itlost.9.1DescriptionThefirstsemanticfunctionMonödefinesistodescribe the “facts” of the product [7]. Aproduct’s purpose seems to be bestunderstood through its similarity with otherproductssharingthatpurpose.Thismeansthatin some cases the perceived purpose of aproductwithagivenshapeisingrainedinthecollective consciousness. For example, themostcommonsymbolforatelephoneisstillahandsetwithearandmouthpiecesthoughtheyarenotsoldanymore.Iarguethatinshapeandform,designershavelessflexibilityindesigningto communicate purpose, instead having toabide technologicalprogressandergonomics.Although, new products types might call ondesign language from older ones sharing thesame function tohelpcommunicatepurpose.Earlymobilephonesforexamplewereshapedsimilarly to the archetype, placing themicrophoneandspeakeratanangle.TheXeroxprinterisalsoreminiscentoftheprintingpress’pragmatic design, although that connectionmight bemore tenuous. Context can also beimportant inestablishingpurpose. If thesoapdispenser discussed above was placedanywhereelsebutnexttoafaucetitspurposewouldbeambiguous.Some products also describe how theyfunction. For example, the fire extinguisher’shosetellsussomethingistobeexpelledfromthenozzle.However, this tellsonlyofpartof

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the product’s functioning. For example, howthemicrochip inside functions is not evident.Thefactthatthedescriptionofhighlytechnicalproducts is challenging was central to thepopularity of product semantics in the 1980s[10].Theproduct’swayoffunctioningcanalsohelptheuserunderstandhowit’susedoroperated.Takefor instancetheprinter’s trays.Thefifthinputtrayandscanningtrayaresimilartotheoutput trays, but they are separatedby theirability,orinability,toacceptpaper.Howtousea product’s functions can also be moreexplicitlycommunicated.Thisincludesknurlingondialstoindicateturningandgripsonlevers.Thesethingsexplaintheelements’use,butnotnecessarily what they lead to. The Xeroxprinter has several compartments to removestuckpaperthatopenbylever,butwhyisnotimmediately clear to the uninitiated. Olderfaucetsoftenhadonevalveeach forhotandcoldwater.Thevalveswereidenticalandtheiruseclearbutwhethertheyservedhotorcoldwater was indicated by a sign (e.g. text orcolor). It seems that proper use is bestdescribedbyshapes thatareperceivedeasilyable, and unambiguously, to be manipulatedby us. In the fire extinguisher, the hose isnestled along the side with notches at thebottom to indicate that it can be pulled out,andwhereitiseasiesttodoso.9.2ExpressionThefunctiontoexpresscharacteristicsmaybewhere the designer has the most latitude.Designersmaywanttocommunicatetraitsthatfit the product or appeals to a certain usergroup. A sports car expresses its speed andhighperformancethroughsleeklinesandlowprofile[1].Designerscanuseshape,materialandcolortoaidintheexpressionoftheirproducts.Thefireextinguisher’s rounded form makes it seemfriendly,while the slightly largerbasegives itstability.Thewhitecolor lendsaneutralitytotheappearance.Theprinterseemstoexpresspragmatic functionality and seriousness. Theshapes expose its functionality and the deepbluecolorisasafe,conservativechoice.Blueis

also associated with conservative businesseslikebanks[27].When communicating expressions, designersshould be aware both of users’ evolutionalpsychology and learned experiences. Ourheightenedalertnesswhenencounteringsharpangular shapes is an example of the former.Much, however, is based onwhatwe expectand associate through experience, bothpersonal and collective. The “racing stripes”foundonsomecarstodayhavecometodenotespeed because of their use on professionalracecars. The stripes’ original purposewas toidentify cars during the race [28]. How weperceive the qualities materials can also bethoughttocomefromexperience.Usingmetalinaproductmakesitseemmoredurablethanwith plastics because we know fromexperiencethatmetalsoftenlastlonger.9.3ExhortationAs described above, an exhortation seeks areactionfromtheuser,orurgestousertotakesomeaction.Anexhortationcanbedirect,likethelight-uphandleofthefireextinguisherthatsays: “there’s a fire, here I am!” or indirectlylike the angled shape of soap dispenserattracting attention. I argue that a product’sexpressioncanalsobeexhortative.Acarthatexpresses its capacity for speed and nimblehandlingcanbeseenasurgingtheusertodriveitinsuchamanner.Thefunctionsarenotexclusiveanditmightbedifficulttodifferentiatebetweenthem.Designelementsmightalsoservemultiplefunctions.Ibelievethisambiguityhighlightsthefunctions’root in semiotics, as products can be verycomplexassignsareconcerned. Ibelievethisalsopoints to someshortcomingsofapplyingsemioticstodesign,asitisappropriatedfromotherdisciplines.Themeaningsasencodedinthe products, being subjective and based oncontext and interpretation, can seemambiguousandmaybeevenarbitrary.Maybethisisthereasontheliteraturerarelysuggestsdefinite “guidelines” on how to apply certainmeanings, especially to fulfil the expressivefunctions. The expressive function is after all

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where the designer’s knowledge and skill isbestdisplayed.10CONCLUSIONProduct semantics concerns the meaningdesignersputintotheirproducts.Thereasonsfordoingsoisvaried,fromexplaininghowtheproduct is used to projecting characteristics.Explainingproductusehasbeendescribedwiththeconceptsofsignifiersandusecues,aswellas affordances. Because of its roots insemiotics, semantic functions of design havebeen suggested based on the semanticfunctionsofsigns.These functions are description, expression,exhortation, and identification. Use of designelements like shape, gestalt, color, andmaterial facilitate these functions. Elements

canservemultiplefunctionatthesametime.How to apply product semantics depends onthegoal.Toefficientlyexplainthepurposeofaproduct, the shape and form as it relates tootherproductswiththesamepurposeseemtobethemostimportant.Whendescribinghowaproductisused,designforactionsthatareeasyandcomfortableshouldbeused.Toillustrate,theproperuseofaturningdialismoreexplicitwhen knurling is added, because the groovesprovidegripandsupportsrotatingmorethan,say, pulling. The expressive function is aboutwhat the designer wants the product to tellabout its “personality”. It can be attributessuchasdurability,performance,orplayfulness.Whendesigningexpressionsdesigners shouldbemindfulofevolutionarypsychologyaswellas cultural and experienced associations. Totransfer language into design, a process oflookingformetaphorshasbeensuggested.

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