professional education for library acquisitions in south african library schools

Library Acquisitions: Practice & Theory, Vol. 14, pp. 73-99, 1990 Printed in the USA. All rights resexved.

0364-6408/90 $3.00 + .oo Copyright 0 1990 Pergamon Press plc

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY ACQUISITIONS IN SOUTH AFRICAN

LIBRARY SCHOOLS*

MARY NASSIMBENI

School of Librarianship, University of Cape Town

Private Bag, Rondebosch 1700. South Africa

Abstract - The historical background to the provision of education for library and information science in South Africa is sketched, before a description of the current state of education and training is given. Current offerings in acquisitions (or collection development) curricula are described and analyzed. There is a discussion of some key issues which inform curriculum design and revision for collection development, and which point the way to future developments particularly (I) socio-political structure; (2) educational system; (3) language problems; (4) economic factors ; (5) legal structures; (6) the publishing industry.

HISTORY OF LIBRARY EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

The first appeal for the establishment of a library school was made as early as 1906 at the first conference for librarians in South Africa [l]. In 1928 Carnegie Commissioners S.A. Pitt and M.J. Ferguson arrived to conduct an inquiry into South African libraries for the Car- negie Corporation of New York. Ferguson’s report emphasized the need for the formal education of librarians and indicated that the correspondence course of the (British) Library Association did not satisfy this need. He recommended that education for librarianship be undertaken by the universities. In response to his report a conference held in Bloemfontein in 1928 resolved that steps be taken to introduce a system of library education [2]. The South African Library Association, founded in 1930, introduced correspondence courses in 1933, which activity it continued until 1964, thus making a valuable contribution to the development of education for librarianship [3]. By the time it had ceded its training to the Univer- sity of South Africa, the university offering distance education, seven South African

l Terns, such as “white, n “black” (“African”), “colored” and “Asian” (or “Indian”) used by the population Census

are employed in this paper for clarity.

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universities had launched programs for education in librarianship. They were, in chronological order:

Cape Town (1939) Pretoria (1948) South Africa (1955) Potchefstroom (1956) Stellenbosch (1958) Witwatersrand (1958) Western Cape (1960) [4].

A recent stratification in education and training has been the introduction by the technikons of a National Diploma in Library and Information Services designed to train library technicians at the paraprofessional level.

CURRENT POSITION

There are 13 library schools located at universities in South Africa (excluding the national and independent states), this number having been reduced from 14 by the closure at the end of 1988 of the department at Rhodes University. The professional qualifications offered at these institutions include:

l a two- to three-year Lower (undergraduate) Diploma in Library and Information Science; l a four-year B.Bibl. (Baccalaureus Bibliothecologiae) degree; l a one-year postgraduate diploma (Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science); l a postgraduate (two-year) B.Bibl. degree; l a B. Bibl. Ed. degree which combines a qualification in education and school librarianship; l a one-year postgraduate specialized diploma in school librarianship; l B. Bibl. Hons, a one-year full-time degree; l M. Bibl., taking a minimum of one year’s full-time study; l Ph.D., taking a minimum of two years’ full-time study [5].

Apart .from specialization in school librarianship, the courses have a generalist orientation, with three levels of education and training: professional level; advanced level; and paraprofessional level. The Standards as formulated by the South African Institute for Librarianship and Information Science (SAILIS), which represents the organized profession in South Africa and which is also the accrediting agency, identify these three levels of preparation [6]. The professional level prepares students to exercise professional tasks in a library or information centre and to assume a position in middle management. The advanced professional level is intended as an education in research and to equip staff to develop advanced professional skis. The paraprofessional level is expected to equip students to handle standard library and information techniques [7]. The difference between the professional and paraprofessional levels is of such a fundamental kind that separate and independent programs are recommended and, indeed, separate standards are provided by SAILIS for such differentiated programs 181. Kerkham’s serviceable distinction between the professional and paraprofessional levels is that the professional works at a conceptual level, involved with planning, development, design and evaluation, whereas the paraprofessional works at the application level [9].

Professional Education for Library Acquisitions in Swth African Library Schools 15

Programs leading to these qualifications are not uniformly offered by all universities; for example, some universities do not offer the specialized programs in school librarianship, while other universities do not have the resources to sustain programs of advanced study at the Masters and Ph.D. level. The paraprofessional diploma (the Lower Diploma in Library and Information Science) has been phased out by most universities, with only two still offering it [lo]. Most universities have decided to terminate this course because technikons have made provision for the education and training of library technicians since 1984. This decision has been reinforced by higher educational planning policy which takes the view that undergraduate diplomas should preferably be offered by the technikons rather than at the universities 1111.

While there has been a decline in student enrollments at the professional level at South Afri- can universities in general [12], there has been an increase in the numbers of black students (i.e., from population groups other than white) [13]. There has been, moreover, an upswing in the numbers of students registered for advanced degrees (honours, masters and doctorate)

t141. The professions of information scientist and of librarian have not been completely sepa-

rated, as can be discerned from the names of departments or designations of qualifications; library schools are usually called departments of library and information science and tend to offer qualifications either in library and information science or, more recently, in information science or information studies under which applications to libraries are subsumed. Librar- ies hire personnel in both categories. Functions of personnel are often determined by the organization in which the person is employed. Information centres tend to employ people with a subject specialty rather than a qualification in library and information science [ 151. Some commentators have observed the growth in the information sector as distinct from the traditional library sector: a tendency which might, in part, explain the current tendency to delete the term “library” from course designations at a number of universities.

Before considering the current position regarding the teaching of acquisitions in South Afri- can library schools, it is necessary to consider the library and information infrastructure and the environments for which librarians are being educated and in which they will function as acquisitions librarians. Zaaiman proposes a useful methodology for curriculum design (and revision) in which, as the first step, situational analysis is employed [16]. Situational analysis includes an analysis of external factors that will influence the curriculum process, including the demands of the market [17]. In a recent survey of library schools conducted by the author to gather information about teaching programs in acquisitions, all the respondents noted that they valued contact with practice and practitioners so that their teaching could be informed by practical and actual considerations relating to employment opportunities and employer demands [18]. Accordingly a brief analysis of the library and information infrastructure as a factor influencing the curriculum will precede an analysis of curriculum offerings in acquisitions. Thereafter other external factors such as political and socio-economic factors will be analyzed in terms of their impact on curriculum design in general and the teaching of library acquisitions in particular.

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE IN SOUTH AFRICA

According to the latest official statistics, in South Africa there are:

l 2 national libraries l 4 provincial library services

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l 700 public libraries l 325 special libraries l 100 government libraries l 73 university and college libraries l 1775 service points [19].

These libraries and information centres are staffed by 6000 people of whom 1800 were pro- fessionally qualified in 1985. The annual expenditure is about R76 million and the book stock consists of about 34 million items [20].

Library and information science education in South Africa has to prepare professionals to take up positions in any of these libraries and information centers, with their diverse communities of users, differing needs and systems of selection procedures and acquisitions. According to the National Libraries Act of 1985, the object of the national libraries is to promote the rendering of information services to the people of South Africa by collecting, preserving and making accessible published and unpublished material. Their functions are inter alia to build up a collection of material originating in and relating to South Africa and to supplement the country’s national bookstock [21]. The State Library in Pretoria acts as the national bibliographic center responsible for making accessible material by means of a national union catalog [22]. In the provincial library services selection is centralized with the result that the services are “supplier-oriented” with limited contact between book selectors and local librarians 1231. In public libraries selection is usually done in book selection committees with representation from branch libraries. The situation with regard to written selection policy statements in provincial and public library services is rather unsatisfactory. This year saw the publication of the first book selection policy by a provincial library service [24], while there are only three formulated written policies among the other services in the public library sector [25]. Recent figures indicate that this is the single biggest employment sector of gradu- ate professionals, employing on average 33.3% of the annual student output [26].

The practice at most university and technikon libraries (the next largest employer taking up 28.3% of the annual output of qualifiers) is for the selection of the majority of material to be made by academics, with librarians being responsible for the selection of reference works, bibliographic tools, databases and interdisciplinary materials [27]. The University of Cape Town has recently completed pioneering work in the formulation of collection development guidelines which use a formula for the allocation of funds for the purchase of mono- graphs, periodicals, reference works and bibliographic tools by the faculties and departments on an objective and equitable basis. The policy and the formula are the product of long deliberation, consultation and work of a sub-committee of the University’s Library Committee with input from academics and from library personnel [28]. In special and government libraries selection is usually done by librarians in consultation with other members of staff.

As in other countries, information technology is playing an increasingly important role in the operation of libraries and information centers, a trend that has been reinforced by the establishment in 1984 of SABINPT (South African Bibliographic and Information Network), the computerized national bibliographic network. One of the facilities offered on SABINET is the South African Joint Catalogue, the national union catalog, which is compiled on the network as a computerized database with 754,108 bibliographic records and a backlog of 620,000 old records [29]. This and other computerized data files are likely to have a positive effect on enhanced cooperation (including cooperative acquisitions), a topic that will be dealt with later as an important indicator in collection development trends.

Professional Education for Library Acquisitions in South African Library Schools 77

EDUCATION FOR ACQUISITIONS IN THE CURRICULA

All library schools offer a course, or a section of a course, that covers under various rubrics the theory and practice of acquisitions. “Acquisitions” is a term that is not used in course designations: the courses tend to reside under headings such as “collection development,” “collection building” or “materials selection.” These offerings are sometimes presented as part of a broader course variously designated as “user studies” or “readership.” The author was able to supplement the data she had obtained from the questionnaires and an examination of official documentation with information emerging from a major curriculum survey undertaken by the Unit for Library and Information Research (ULIR) of the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) commissioned by the South African Institute for Librarianship and Infor- mation Science [30]. In it the researchers reported their findings with respect to current curriculum provision in all areas of the syllabus, and with respect to projected developments. Based on their findings, the researchers make proposals regarding future curriculum development and revision. In the light of the status of this report and consequent on its debate at a national symposium held in March 1989, it is most probable that curriculum revision affecting these offerings will shortly be undertaken on a wide scale.

THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM PROJECT

It is instructive to examine some of the findings and conclusions of this significant report both as to current information regarding curriculum content and with respect to future trends emerging from the comprehensive and detailed survey of the current curricula of all library schools in South Africa and those technikons offering training in library and information science. Using the method of functional analysis, the researchers identified four fundamental and three supporting components in the curriculum. The basic functions identified were:

l collection building/development; l information processing (e.g., cataloging and classification); l information retrieval (reference/documentation); l document delivery 1311.

The supporting functions identified were:

l management of libraries and information centers; l teaching; l research [32].

For each function a number of activities/procedures were identified that contribute towards the major function; specifications regarding the content (detailed, superficial, selective, etc.) were made; and the level at which the topics would be taught (e.g., semi-professional, professional or senior-professional level) were laid down [33]. Semi-professional (or paraprofessional) level refers to the level of tuition provided by the technikons, and professional level to the universities (bachelor’s degree or postgraduate diploma). The senior-professional level implies an ability to initiate, coordinate and sustain research programs in the specified functional areas (i.e., an advanced degree) [34]. These levels are consistent with those identified by the SAILIS Standards referred to earlier.

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The function of collection building is defined in the report as the design and application of systems and/or handling of these systems for the collection of information sources with the aim of providing for actual and potential user needs [35]. Information sources are seen to incorporate documentary sources and human knowledge such as personal and social communication [36]. The definition of documents is an inclusive one covering all subject fields and disciplines and manifest in a variety of formats such as books, periodicals, microforms, databases, electronic publications, video media, teletext and videotext and other audio and audiovisual media. The “explosion of information” in many of these media and formats is recognized as influencing the collection development process [37]. The functions and sub- functions found to belong to the main function of collection development are:

l preselection l selection . acquisition l preservation

-storage -collection evaluation -weeding -restoration [38].

The activity of selection includes the evaluation of materials for selection. Acquisition of materials for the development of collections includes the purchase, exchange and receipt by way of gifts of materials [39]. Preservation, the third function, is aimed at making accessible information sources for current or future users of the collection and includes the physi- cal storage of documents, the evaluation of the collection with the purpose of making good any gaps, the weeding of collections, and the restoration of damaged documents [40].

External factors such as conscious and unconscious needs of users and potential users are seen to influence the functions of selection, acquisition and preservation [41]. Viewed from its widest perspective, a study of collection building should be informed by a knowledge of the following external and internal factors:

society

-historical perspectives

-social structures

-economic and technological structures

-state and political structures

-legal structures

library and information science

-development of information science

-library types

relationship with other basic functions

-collection building policy

-collection management

-collection building process [42].


Selection of materials presupposes that the librarian responsible will:

l be able to determine conscious and unconscious needs for information sources among actual and potential user groups;

l have insight into the classification of knowledge and subject disciplines; l have knowledge of the principles and methods of evaluation of the content of documents; l have knowledge of a particular subject discipline (at a senior-professional level); l have bibliographic skills to enable the tracing and locating of materials for selection [43].

Acquisitions work will require the librarian to be able to acquire materials at the cheapest possible price and to order them effectively. The ability to handle a budget will be a require- ment, as will the ability to control acquisitions procedures. The required knowledge for these competencies is insight into:

l relevant reference sources such as bibliographies and catalogues; l payment for material acquired; l administration of budget; l order and sequence of acquisitions procedures.

Many of the ordering and acquisitions procedures (e.g., placing of orders, claims procedures, control of deliveries, payment of accounts) can be handled by paraprofessional staff who will require a knowledge of these specific procedures and the way they relate to the broader acquisitions process [44]. The storage of items can also be handled by paraprofessional staff who will need to be familiar with classification schemes in order to perform this task [45]. Most library schools surveyed by the author specified these procedures as being within the ambit of responsibilities of the paraprofessional, a view reinforced by a study of the curriculum of the technikons.

Weeding shall be carried out with reference to the professional person whose task this is and requires no independent special knowledge except those procedures detailed for the with- drawing of stock from the collection. This can be taught at the paraprofessional level [46]. Restoration of documents requires no professional knowledge specific to library and information science [47].

At the symposium held in March 1989 during which educators and practitioners debated the report, there was broad consensus concerning the external factors affecting the skills and related knowledge required for collection building. There was no support for the distinction between pre-selection and selection, while there was broad agreement that the other functions identified belong in a course of collection building, which seemed to be the favoured term among Afrikaans library schools. It should be noted in passing that the debate about termi- nology is a ubiquitous theme in professional discourse because of the difficulties of translating terms from Anglo-American usage into Afrikaans.

To arrive at a list of competencies, skills and curriculum content flowing from the functional analysis, the researchers relied on data from a literature search and interviews., documentary sources and questionnaires from library schools and technikons. The same number of libraries/information centers as universities/technikons was consulted (19 respectively) [48]. Table 1 shows the numbers of staff in the responding employing institutions with qualifications in the functions listed [49].

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TABLE 1. AREAS OF QUALIFICATIONS OF STAFF IN UNIVERSITY AND TECHNIKON LIBRARIES

Area of Qualification Number of Staff

Selection 11 Evaluation of collections 9 Determination of information needs 8 Restoration of information materials 3 Management of the collection 8 Exchange 2

It might seem surprising that only 11 institutions had personnel trained in selection, a basic component in collection building. This figure exceeds the figures for all the other basic functions and represents the highest score. The figure is partially explained by the fact that only 14 of the 19 institutions had staff in this area with qualifications in library and information science; the other qualifications were related inter alia to disciplines such as communication studies, language, computer science and management [50]. Data from three of the employing institutions were differently handled because they could not be classified as libraries: one saw itself as an end user, while the other two were identified as information management systems [51].

When the employing institutions were questioned about the desirability of including various components in the curriculum (as distinct from their actual situation), the figures shown in Table 2 emerged (N = 16) [52].

TABLE 2. PREFERENCES REGARDING CURRICULUM CONTENT

Desirable Curriculum Components Number Percentage

Selection 14 Acquisition of information materials 14 Preservation 14 Storage 14 Evaluation 10 Restoration 2

81.5% 87.5% 87.5% 87.5% 62.5% 12.5%

The first four components mentioned achieved among the highest scores, being exceeded only by unanimous support for including the application of technology in the curriculum for collection building [53].

Sixteen universities and three technikons were surveyed in the curriculum project in order to establish the situation regarding curriculum content for the various functions identified and for educators’ opinions regarding the ideal situation. Table 3 shows the results regarding the basic function of collection development [54].


TABLE 3. IDEAL AND ACTUAL SITUATIONS REGARDING

CURRICULUM CONTENT

Function

Universities Real Ideal

Situation

Technikons Real Ideal

Situation

Total Real Ideal

Situation

Preselection 0 0 0 0 0 0 Selection 15 14 3 3 18 17 Aquisition 2 3 3 3 5 6 Storage 0 0 3 3 3 3 Collection evaluation 14 14 1 1 15 15 Weeding 1 1 0 0 1 1 Restoration 1 0 3 3 4 3

From Table 3 the substantial support for the teaching of selection at both the university and the technikon can be seen, a finding which is in accord with the high rating given by employing institutions to the teaching of this function. An equal rating is given to collection evaluation by the library schools, which was rated as a slightly less desirable component by the employing institutions. Whereas acquisitions (as defined earlier in the project report) is taught by all three technikons, only two universities make provision for it in the curriculum, with one university deeming it a desirable component in the curriculum. Weeding and restoration are covered in the curriculum at only one university, whereas all the technikons include these two topics. The table illustrates quite neatly the division of labor to be found between professional and paraprofessional staff, with the technikons concentrating on the more tech- nical and administrative procedures involved in acquisitions and storage. This is in accord with the author’s survey in which there was consensus among the respondents that a differ- entiation should be made between professional and paraprofessional tasks, the division being indicated along the lines as shown in this table.

There is broad agreement between the data as supplied by the curriculum project and data as collected by the author in her survey. The curriculum report does not, however, indicate the relative positions adopted by the teaching institutions and the employing institutions on the question of the handling of internal and external factors such as sociocultural, political, economic and legal perspectives that would inform the teaching of collection building, identified by the project as important knowledge that should form part of the curriculum [HI. It is apparent from the responses to the questionnaire sent out by the author that these aspects are dealt with in most curricula and that many respondents were particularly aware of the need to accommodate socio-cultural perspectives in their teaching (e.g. the influence of the multicultural nature of South African society and its linguistic diversity). In addition to the areas already commented on, the author was able to elicit opinions and views about possible future trends and perceived gaps in the curriculum. The concerns tended to cluster around two poles, with a remarkable degree of unanimity in the identification of issues which can be summarized as follows:

l response to user needs, in particular as these differ vis-a-vis the changing socio-cultural conditions (particular concern for identification of particular needs such as those of neo- literates or other traditional nonusers of the library);

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l response to the demands, challenges and opportunities offered by advances in computer and information technology.

Information technology, and specifically the influence of SABINET on the acquisitions procedures, was ranked very high in another study undertaken by ULIR of the HSRC on collection building in South Africa [56]. The fact that such a major study was undertaken is a measure of the importance in the national context that collection building has assumed. Some of the more interesting findings to emerge from this investigation and germane to this paper relate to the research problems identified for further investigation. The Delphi panel ranked the following aspects of research into collection building in order of priority:

l determination of user needs; l evaluation of collections; l financing of collections; l collection building systems and policy; l selection; l organization and management of collection; l acquisitions and storage; l collection building theory; l weeding [57].

Of these aspects the first was rated as very high, while the following four attracted a priority that was rated as high [58].

Preceding paragraphs have established the pattern of teaching in library schools and technikons and have identified some themes, issues and problems that might direct curriculum revision and further research. Having introduced some of the issues, I wish to elaborate on those that are likely to have the greatest impact on collection development in the future and its handling in the teaching programs. I have spent some time on future developments rather than merely listing, describing and analyzing current offerings because there is persuasive evi- dence for a substantial reorientation in curricula of library schools, both in general terms and with respect to collection development in particular, as follows:

l The current national review of library schools. In the light of financial cuts, economic hardship and underfunding of universities, the Academic Planning Committee of the Committee of University Principals has embarked on a nationwide rationalization exercise involving two pilot investigations-land surveying and library and information science. The idea is to determine to what extent departments in these two areas could be rationalized. This might involve, for example, weaker library schools in a particular region closing, with a stronger or more viable department remaining open. The results of the investigation into library schools are expected shortly.

l Local rationalization. Many individual universities are seriously considering rationaliz- ing courses and programs. The University of Cape Town, which has embarked on this program, has produced guidelines which will assist in decisions about starting, strength- ening, merging or closing departments. Factors taken into account will include the importance to society and appropriateness of a department to a university such as UCT, the judgments being made in the light of the University’s Mission Statement which gives explicit expression to its liberal educational philosophy and its ideal of reflecting the


changing environment in which it functions. According to the Sfaiement, the University inter alia rejects racism and racial segregation, identifies its goal as excellence and encourages participation in community work [59].

l The national curriculum project in library and information science already referred to gives a powerful signal that the time has come for wide-ranging and far-reaching restruc- turing and revision.

l The publication of the influential report The Use of Libraries for the Development of South Africa [60]. This report, commissioned by and bearing the imprimatur of SAILIS, has formed the basis for wide-ranging discussions among practitioners and educators in South Africa who were “found to give systematic support to development initiatives in South Africa . . . [primarily] in those sections of the community that are socially deprived and to those activities that are of particular economic significance” [al]. Since libraries are not automatically accepted as partners in development by policy-makers and development agencies, libraries and librarians will have to demonstrate by their concern and performance that they have credibility in this area which has been neglected, and library schools will have to teach students how to approach,problems of underdevelop- ment [62].

l The theme of “africanization” is an emergent one, particularly on campuses of the “open” universities where staff and students are examining ways to make courses and curricula more relevant to a student population that is becoming more representative of the demographics of the country. (The changing socio-political conditions in the country will be discussed in a later section.) Zaaiman comments on the Eurocentrism of most library school curricula which are failing to address the most urgent issues of Southern Africa:

It is doubted, however, whether the education of librarians and information officers is well enough adapted to the conditions pertaining to South Africa. Education is dominated by First World ideas emanating from the United States and Britain. For this reason the cultural characteristics and grass roots needs of the largest part of the population mostly go unheeded and unsatisfied. Librarians are taught information systems, but these systems are not adapted to the needs of different cultures [63].

ISSUES IN THE TEACHING OF COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT

On the basis of the factors identified and discussed above, the following may be isolated as the most significant issues that currently have a major impact on the provision of library services and, therefore, the curriculum in general and the teaching of collection development in particular and that might assume greater importance in the future:

l socio-political structure l educational system l language problems l economic factors l legal structures l the publishing industry.

The term “collection development” is used in the remainder of this paper as a generic sig- nifier of those activities variously referred to as selection, collection building and acquisitions.

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SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURE

In South Africa the injustices and distortions caused by the system of apartheid (which is still a cornerstone of the socio-political system) have resulted in uneven development characterized by a modem industrial sector and an undeveloped or underdeveloped sector. This disparity is popularly referred to as the distinction between the First and Third Worlds, a definition often used to characterize the socio-economic profile of South Africa. Wilson and Ramphele argue that this term is unhelpful in a South African context because it encourages people to think in terms of a dual economy with the “haves” distributing “their” money to the “have-riots,,, whereas there is a single economy with both developed and less developed sectors interdependent on each other [64]. They argue that in a country such as South Africa where particular groups have historically been discriminated against and have not received an equal share, “there is a strong argument for compensatory expenditure to help catch up on the backlog” [65].

There are massive backlogs in areas such as education and the provision of library and information services, which are classified as “own affairs,” i.e., the provision of separate services in areas such as education and health for different groups, reinforcing the cornerstone of the government’s policy, viz. the separation of groups. The effect of the “own affairs” sys~ tern further entrenches the privileged position of whites and the exclusion of others on the basis of skin color. However, it has long been argued that the duplication (or replication) of services is very expensive, a fact that was recently conceded by the Administrator of the Cape Province who stated that the policy of maintaining “own affairs (white) beaches, libraries and museums and hospitals was not cost-effective” [66]. His concession was made in terms of cost- effectiveness at a time of financial stress when lack of funds is threatening the Province’s ability to maintain effective services, without his going as far as querying the ideology of the policy.

Shillinglaw has identified those characteristics frequently associated with underdeveloped or developing communities:

l low average standards of education; l wide-spread illiteracy; l absence of a reading culture; l dominance of an oral tradition; l socio-economic problems such as poor housing and poor health care facilities [67].

Urbanization and rapidly increasing population are other factors that are bound up with the changes in the socio-political structures. It has been estimated that South African cities will more than double in population between 1980 and 1990 [68]. This accelerated rate of urbanization is facing city managers with enormous problems with regard to the provision of infrastructure and services. Urban Foundation planning director Bernstein sees enormous challenges facing city planners and managers whose tasks are made more difficult because of racial separation: “Our cities are racially divided, and government and administrative structures flow from that division rather than from functional criteria” [69]. Another challenge is for city planners to plan for a future city that will include all the city’s inhabitants [70]. Bethlehem has predicted that by the year 2000 whites will make up only 14.46% of the total population as compared with 27.53% in 1904,24.03% in 1960 and 18.29% in 1980 [71]. Plan- ning for libraries to serve the currently unserved must surely be included in the brief of those


city planners and administrators who are thinking ahead to the apartheid-free city of the future.

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

The changing demographic features of the country are naturally reflected in the educational system: the ratio between white and black pupils at secondary schools is changing with more black pupils enrolling and staying at school than in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1986 of the 8,166,009 children enrolled at school in South Africa, 76% were African, 10% colored, 3% Indian and 11% white [72]. However, of all the African children at school, only 2% were in Standard 10 (the final school year), while 79.3% were in primary school and 20.7% in secondary school. These figures can be compared with those for whites of whom 58.1% were in primary school and 41.9% in secondary school [73]. Projections of figures for matriculants show that the number of black matriculants will rise to some 200,000 compared with about 54,520 whites, a figure representing 20% of the total compared with a current 50.4% of the total [74]. The figures for 1960 clarify the trend: then there were 246,000 white and 48,000 black pupils at secondary school [75]. This trend is paralleled at tertiary institutions: Gott- schalk estimates that before 1994 blacks will constitute the majority of university graduates and that black qualifiers will increasingly enter professional and management positions [76]. The greater numbers of people being educated at all levels will increase pressures and demands on library services, especially school, public, university and technikon libraries. Many open public libraries report increased demands being made on study space and materials by black pupils and students.

Closely related to the question of education is the problem of illiteracy, an important issue in any discussion about collection development. Literacy is a very important aspect not only of cultural life but also of political life. On the one hand, as Eagleton points out, the state (in South Africa as elsewhere) uses print and literature as an ideological instrument to maintain power by means, for example, of propaganda and censorship. On the other hand, in the case of the disenfranchized mass it is also important because it is a mechanism “by which a subordinated state, class or region preserves at the ideological level an historical identity shat- tered or eroded at the political” [77]. Estimates about the prevalence and degrees of illiteracy vary. Current estimates put the number of people with no functional literacy skills at between 6 and 9 million, of which white people form an infinitesimal fraction- no more than 0.65% of the total number of illiterates in the 1980 census, which gives a lower estimate than figures provided by literacy workers and researchers. It is safe to say that while precise figures might be in dispute, there is agreement about the gravity of the problem, the rising levels of educational provision notwithstanding. There are still enormous disparities in the quality of education provided by the different departments of education for the different racial groups despite the avowed intention of the government to reduce the backlog and to improve spending, especially on black education. Wilson and Ramphele comment on the disparity inherent in differential educational provision for different groups:

“The absence of resources, not only in the present but also in the past, means that in general the facilities available, and the quality of the education provided, for black children of school-going age have always been and remain far below those of white children” [78].

Shillinglaw’s proposal that the public library adopt new approaches to services and methods of service by participating in the promotion of literacy would require a new orientation to collection development policies to reflect this engagement [79].

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LANGUAGE

The question of literacy leads naturally to the issue of language and the linguistic diversity of South Africa. According to an HSRC breakdown of the 1980 census, the most spoken first languages in South Africa are the following: (1) Zulu; (2) Xhosa; (3) Afrikaans; (4) English; (5) Tswana; (6) North Sotho; (7) South Sotho; (8) Tsonga; (9) Swazi; (10) Venda; (11) South Ndebele; (12) North Ndebele; (13) Portuguese; (14) German; (15) Hindi [80]. English and Afrikaans are the two official languages, which means that many people learn them as second and third languages. When one compares the publication figures for the different languages, the problem of provision of material in the vernacular becomes apparent. The latest book production figures show that in 1987 a total of 834 titles was published in 11 African languages, i.e. 76 titles per African language on average [81]. In the same year 1743 titles were published in Afrikaans and 2353 titles in English. The total book production for 1987 was 5160 [82]. In the same year there were 111 titles published in Zulu (the language spoken by most people in South Africa) and 70 titles published in Xhosa (the second most spoken language) [83]. The effect of this on book selection practice is evident in the book selection policy of one of the provincial library services which makes the following explicit provision: “Most juvenile and adult books published [in Zulu and Xhosa] are bought” [84].

By way of comparison it can be noted that Afrikaans is spoken by 4,925,760 people of whom 2,581,080 are white, and 2,251,860 are classified colored; and that English is spoken by 2,815&O people of whom 1,763,22O are white, 324,360 are classified colored, 698,940 are Indian and 29,120 are African [85]. This array of comparative figures gives an indication of the low availability of material published in the various vernaculars of significantly large sectors of the country’s population. The publishing industry will be discussed at greater length in a section that deals with the book trade and its influence on collection development and the problems encountered in trying to meet users’ needs.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

The country is experiencing a continuing economic decline, exacerbated by the weakness of the rand against the dollar and European currencies and the imposition of sanctions. (A recent publication entitled South African Sanctions Directory highlights the seriousness of this negative feature of the economy [86]). July 1984 saw the dramatic depreciation of the rand on foreign exchange markets. In May 1984 there was R1.80 to the pound sterling, compared with R3.80 in November 1985. The situation has not improved and this has had a cumula- tive negative effect on libraries and booksellers. (At current rates fl = R4.37; US $1 = R2.82; and Rl = ASO.47). The following figures illustrate the deleterious effect of rising book and periodical prices, coupled with the weak position of the rand on libraries’ materials budgets [87]. The cost of reading material has risen enormously, more than any other single item on the consumers’ index for the period 1960-1987. In 1987 books, newspapers and magazines were 18 times more expensive than in 1960 as compared with education (16 times), food (12 times) and transport (10 times) [88]. The average price of a book rose from R32 in 1983 to R70 in 1987, an increase of more than 115%. In 1987 university libraries bought 15% fewer titles than in 1983, although their budget grew by 84% [89]. University libraries spent three times more on virtually the same periodicals in 1987 than they did in 1983 [90]. The University of Cape Town Libraries, for example, buy only one out of every 15 books needed and the


periodicals subscriptions have declined by 30% of what is considered necessary [Ql]. In 1983 the University Libraries spent about R400,000 on periodicals. Four years later that amount had risen to R1.4 million, yet the number of periodicals had remained more or less the same [92]. The financial pressure has also resulted in fewer books being purchased each year. In 1982 the Libraries were able to add one book per student per year to their stock. At the current rate that figure will have dropped to half a book per student per year by 1990 [93].

The situation in the public library service is no better than in the university sector. Figures provided by the Provincial Library services confirm the alarming increase in costs of library material: the average rise in cost of books from 1983 to 1987 was 57%, with an increase in 1988 of 46% over the 1987 figure [94]. The Transvaal Provincial Library Services recorded with dismay that for the period 1986/1987 there was a decline in the number of books purchased (165,093 as against 240,137 in 1985 and 307,865 in 1984) because of limited funds and rising book prices. At the same time there was increased use made of the service [95]. Unless funds to buy at least 350,000 books per annum can be obtained, i.e., double the current amount of R3,828,148 spent, services will have to be curtailed or terminated [%I. A similarly gloomy picture emerges from the report of the Cape Provincial Library Services whose annual report for 1987 notes the increased demand for new services (a waiting list of 77 applications for the establishment of new services, especially in developing areas) and a concomitant pressure on funds for new books [97]. Price increases have also had a serious negative effect on the ability of the national libraries to build up the country’s bookstock [98].

Library services, among others, are being threatened by cuts in subsidies and the government’s plan to privatize where possible. The State Library in its Annual Rtiport for 1988 notes that:

“the principle of libraries retrieving costs for services for which they render came strongly to the fore this year. The matter was brought to a head when an important library began charging other libraries for the loan of its books to them” [99].

The negative unfavourable climate, the financial constraints being placed on universities, increased running costs, especially journal subscriptions, and greater demands on services and facilities have given impetus to the move by university librarians to address collectively the issues of rationalization of internal operations and improved resource sharing [lOO]. One of the task groups of the Inter-University Library Committee of the Committee of University Principals has the specific brief of looking at the area of collection management, one of five key areas to be investigated (the others being infrastructure, document delivery, finance, cataloging and retrieval instruments) [ 1011.

LEGAL STRUCTURE

Two legal constraints seriously affect the delivery of library services and the process of collection development. One is the government’s adherence to the Group Areas Act which limits people’s choice about where they may live because certain areas are reserved for specific groups. The effect of this is that some areas and suburbs (where whites tend to live) are better developed, with better infrastructure and superior facilities such as schools than, for example, the areas and townships set aside for blacks. This provision should be seen together with the government’s designation of libraries as an “own affair.” The significance of this is that local authorities are not obliged by law to desegregate library facilities and, indeed in some

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cities and towns, black and colored people are denied admission to “white” libraries even though they may work in the area served by the library. This is a particularly grievous situation when one considers that there is a lack of services in many (especially black) residen- tial areas. Given the increased demand for education, the rising numbers of black children at school and the dearth of school libraries in black schools, the severity of the problem becomes apparent.

The official policy of SAILIS on open libraries has been reiterated a number of times recently, particularly in response to incidents reported in the press of persons having been excluded from public libraries on the grounds of race. The following official statement appeared in the most recent SAILIS Newsletter:

“During conferences held in at least the last three years the viewpoint of SAILIS has been clearly stated, namely that all library facilities should be open to all residents of a Municipality and to all those who work within a Municipal boundary” [ 1021.

The inadequacy of library services to black people is illustrated by the case of Johannes- burg and the neighbouring vast urban black township of Soweto. The Johannesburg City Council is one of those local authorities that has desegregated its library service and has placed no restriction on its use by people living or working in Johannesburg. Many of the black workers in Johannesburg live in and travel daily from Soweto to their place of work. Soweto has only five libraries, with a total stock of 34,500 books, for a population estimated at 1.2 million officially but closer to 3 million unofficially [ 1031. In Diepkloof, a suburb of Soweto, the library has a stock of 10,000 books (of which 5000 are for loan) for a population of 325,000 [104]. Because of the perception that the needs of black workers in the central busi- ness district of Johannesburg are not being met by the municipal library, a group of academics and librarians has started a “workers’ library” inspired by the workers’ libraries of nineteenth century Britain [ 1051.

The “colored” writer and academic Richard Rive comments on how denial of access to “white” libraries has affected him and his creative activity:

“In South Africa those who have access are those who can afford to buy or who have adequate libraries at their disposal. And these, by and large are white. . . . Writers like myself were in the anomalous position that our works were largely available to people least interested in them” [106].

The other legal stricture is associated directly with availability of material: viz. statutory censorship and other legislation that restricts the publication or distribution of material. In addition to the censorship laws which have been in place for a few decades, there is special legislation associated with the state of emergency regulating and controlling newspapers and magazines and restricting the dissemination of information. Mention should also be made of the restriction and banning of persons whose speech and writings are prohibited from distribution. On these grounds one may not, for example, legally quote Nelson Mandela or read Let My People Go by Nobel Laureate Albert Luthuli. The political content and motivation of the legislation is quite evident: of 1777 objects and publications submitted to various publications committees of the Directorate of Publications for review between 1 July 1987 and 31 December 1987, the majority (729 publications) were submitted because they were possi- bly prejudicial to the security of the state [107]. Alternative newspapers such as New Nation, Grassroots, Weekly Mail and South have been damaged by being banned on the grounds of “subversive propaganda” for varying lengths of time- from one to three months [108].


Legal academic Dugard points out the baleful societal consequences of these legal constraints on the free flow and exchange of information:

“The ban on popular black political organisations, the restrictions on quoting black leaders and the censorship of black writings ensure that we are denied knowledge of black opinions and political alter- natives proposed by blacks. . . . We cannot afford the luxury of such apathy and ignorance” [109].

Perhaps more insidious than the publications control legislation is the voluntary censorship exercised by state officials, the book trade and librarians. Boraine, executive director of the Institute for a Democratic Alternative for South Africa (IDASA), has revealed that the Trans- vaal Department of Education has recently banned the distribution in Transvaal schools of literature from anti-apartheid (but legal) organizations such as IDASA and the Black Sash even though it is unrestricted by law [ 1 lo]. Skotaville publishers, the only independent black publishing house in South Africa, claimed in October 1987 that the Central News Agency (one of the largest book chains in South Africa with about 200 outlets) had placed a political ban on its publications, not having purchased any Skotaville publications since the declaration of the state of emergency in 1986. The reason given was that the books did not have bar codes. A spokesman for the company said that the allegations were being investigated [l 111. In his study of the interrelatedness of censorship and book selection. Sales discovered a tendency of librarians to be cautious in their selection of politically controversial material. In his view statutory censorship creates a climate for voluntary censorship [112]. The report on The Use of Libraries for the Development of South Africa refers to the negative effect that voluntary censorship has on perceptions and use patterns of black people of the public library. This view is reinforced by the manifest success among local black people of the United States Informa- tion Services library in Soweto which is very popular partly on account of the perception that it provides materials of interest and relevance to its many black users and does not exercise voluntary censorship [ 1131. It is salutary to compare this situation with the general underutili- zation of public libraries by black people. One of the inescapable reasons is the failure to provide relevant material.

A few examples drawn from actual situations will serve to illustrate how perceptions regarding censorship might differ. A clause in the published selection policy of a provincial library service states that a book will be rejected inter alia if it constitutes a “threat to internal security” [114]. It might be argued that this clause is redundant since the official censors identify specific titles posing, in their opinion, such a threat, thus disqualifying such material even from consideration by librarians who are therefore relieved of making such judgments themselves. The second example relates to recent student demonstrations at a college of education in a black area. Among the demands of the students was that the library keep copies of “alternative” newspapers. The Rector’s response to this specific demand was that the provision of newspapers was adequate and that students were free to purchase other newspapers of their choice [115].

The organized library profession has attracted some criticism because of what is seen to be either indifference to or endorsement of the system of censorship. Switzer and Merrett, both of whom are researchers in the field of censorship as it affects libraries, are critical of the cautious and collaborationist role played by librarians and their failure to protest vigorously and publicly against the imposition of censorship which is inimical to academic freedom and the free flow of information [116]. SAILIS has, however, started to take a more visible and vocal position on censorship: In October 1987 the Institute issued a policy statement on censorship which called on librarians and information workers to promote the free flow of information.

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The statement, endorsed at the annual conference in Cape Town in September 1988, added that SAILIS opposed censorship on ethical grounds “where it unneceas@r@ curtails the full utilisation of recorded information for the benefit of all” (author’s emphasis) [117], a mod- ification that seems unnecessarily guarded and equivocal.

Merrett argues that libraries should have as their primary objective the collection of material documenting the struggle, both legal and illegal, so that the record is available and also to facilitate communication between South African democrats [118]. It would be perhaps imprudent for library schools to advocate the view that librarians break the law, but certainly they should point out the tendentiousness of the argument that it is in the best interests of the state for librarians to protect users from progressive or radical literature that is legally available for selection, particularly if there is a demand for such material.

PUBLISHING IN SOUTH AFRICA

The question of censorship is logically related to the publishing industry in South Africa as one of the determining factors of what is and can be made available for acquisition by libraries in South Africa. The publishing industry in South Africa is quite vigorous, having enjoyed very visible growth and development in the last two decades. The upsurge in literary and creative activity has been paralleled by the arrival and survival of a number of independent publishers such as Ravan Press, David Philip, Ad Donker, Taurus and Skotaville, all established within the last fifteen years and tending to view their activities in terms of hegemonic relationships. Gitlin’s articulation of hegemony is useful here:

. . . the successful attempt by a dominant class to utilix its control over the resources of state and civil society, particularly through the use of mass media and the educational system to establish its view of the world as all-inclusive and universal. . . . The dominant class not only attempts to influence the interests and needs of such groups, it also contains radical opportunities by placing limits on opposi- tional discourse and practice [ 1191.

Although the publishing industry in South Africa is relatively strong in African terms- of 13,500 titles published in Africa in 1986, South Africa accounted for half the book production, i.e. 67% titles [ 1201 -reference has already been made to some relevant publishing statistics, viz. the poor provision of material in the indigenous languages. It is clear from the publishing statistics as compared to population figures that South Africa, while in a better position than many African countries, is not self-sufficient: in 1986 Africa produced 24 titles per million inhabitants, while South Africa with a population of 23.4 million produced 290 titles per million inhabitants [121]. A comparison of fiires of imports from the United Ring- dom with those for the national imprint shows that the import of books is a key element in the book trade and the library scene in South Africa. Most recent export figures show that South Africa was the fourth most active importer of British books between 1984 and 1987 after the United States, Australia and the Netherlands (who undoubtedly redistribute a large number of imported books) [122]. The imports from Britain in 1987 accounted for 26,625,259 copies [123]. This dependence on Britain, among other countries, for material in no way alleviates the problem of material in the vernacular. (The question of language will be discussed in a later section.)

The issue of distribution can be conveniently considered under the rubric of publishing. Al- though more relevant material is now being published by the independent publishers and alter-


native structures, the problem of distribution remains serious since conventional trade outlets often do not make this material available. A director of Taurus, one of the independent publishers which was established in explicit opposition to the practice of censorship and to offer a progressive alternative to dominant Afrikaans culture, noted at a symposium in 1989 that the company relies heavily on a mailing list since they cannot depend on advance publicity and advertising for fear of banning. Although they had sent their catalog to a large provincial library service, none of their books was ordered [124]. A common feature of the distribution channels of many alternative publishers is their employment of informal and ad hoc methods, e.g. at political meetings, informal gatherings of interest or political groups, at trade union meetings and the like, many of them eschewing or making little use of established commercial channels. The vulnerability of this approach to distribution has been highlighted by the unprecedented decision of the Publications Board to ban the distribution of Down Sec- ond Avenue by E. Mphahlele except by the trade. This landmark decision tacitly acknowledges the state’s concern for the mainly black readers reached by informal means- the very people, according to American jurist Cheh, more likely to participate in organized resistance against the government by means of strikes, boycotts, marches or riots and who elicit particular vigilance from the state [125].

For libraries to build up a good collection of “alternative” material the normal distribution channels are inadequate because many of the progressive organizations and alternative or par- allel structures producing and publishing material do not have well established and contin- uous methods of distribution. In their description of the operation of an alternative resource center Berghammer and Karlsson note that some of their most interesting material has been acquired through personal contact at workshops and meetings within the progressive move- ment [126]. These documents are difficult to trace because they are not formal publications, are not handled through conventional trade channels and are often not lodged with the National Library in accordance with legal deposit laws. In fact, they can be classified as grey literature which is characterized in Wood’s useful definition as that material that is not distributed through normal bookselling channels, but has rather “haphazard or specialized distribution, poor bibliographic control, poor availability in libraries and unconventional format” [127]. Many experts in collection development in Africa stress the importance to libraries of good collections of grey literature including material produced by local, provincial, central or parastatal authorities and quangos. According to Raseroka, such materials, often produced in the form of national development plans, gazettes, citizens’ rights, civic duties, pamphlets, reports, magazines, newspapers, brochures, are very important in developing countries and their collection and organization are the primary task of librarians working in these countries [128]. Collection development librarians have to be alert to the possibilities of acquiring material by means of these unconventional and informal channels, because the sort of elusive material thus distributed can make an enormous contribution to the quality and relevance of the collection, depending on the type of user.

Another feature of uniquely local importance is the role of the oral tradition in African societies vis-a-vis dependence on the written word. Sitas, an industrial sociologist doing research in this field, stresses the importance of oracy in the cultural lives of the working classes in South Africa [129]. His stressing the importance of oracy reinforces the affirma- tion by delegates to the fiftieth IFLA General Conference held in Nairobi of the importance of oral traditions to the cultural development of a nation and the need for librarians to respond appropriately [130]. His survey of the cultural patterns of working class lives revealed that they typically spent only 8% of their non-working time reading, a very reasonable limit given the conditions of their lives which would have to change substantially for them to do

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more reading. Newspapers tended to dominate their reading, and only 2% had read books in the last two to three years. An interesting finding of his research related to the role of the gatekeeper in disseminating information and promoting discussion. Sitas found that there were opinion leaders in the oral community (e.g., a shop steward) who read books often obtained from the union’s collection. He would discuss his reading with his co-workers, who would challenge him with questions about the meaning of the material-e.g. the meaning of Zulu nationalism, the meaning of liberation, what is the ANC and questions relating to practical tasks or skills. Among the most popular reading was Mandela’s speech from the dock, The Trial of Andrew Zonda and a collection of black poetry, Black Mamba Rising: South African Worker Poets in Struggle (1311. This collection of poetry is interesting because of its relationship with the oral tradition [132]. A lot of black creativity is inaccessible to whites because of the tradition of oral performance: poems, songs, stories and eulogies are recited on the streets, in clubs, at funerals or rallies. This is a collection of oral poetry originally per- formed at such public gatherings, while its subtitle reflects the relationship between literature and liberation, a phenomenon that will be discussed later.

Research findings such as Sitas’ provide librarians involved in the selection of material and the promotion of reading with insights into readership patterns and tastes which could be valuable in their professional work. Unfortunately this type of research tends not to be reported in library and information science literature, thus underlining the point made earlier that librarians and educators involved in this area need to be informed about alternative publishing patterns and the role of reporting of related academic research in their professional lives. Rahnema suggests that traditional knowledge be recorded on cassettes and that these sound documents with their transcripts be held in libraries with more traditional formats [ 1331. Du Plooy sees a role for audio-cassette tapes bearing basic community information in reaching people with limited literacy skills, to be distributed by public libraries and by school libraries [ 1341.

The crucial question of language has been touched on in the discussion of book production in South Africa. In common with other African countries the question of language, as Zell points out, is a fundamental one expressed in the tension between publishing in indigenous languages or in English (and French) [135]. The black writer needs to communicate with his brothers and sisters in the language they can understand, usually a black African language. But he also needs, as writer Kunene points out, to communicate with white South Africans so that they can share and appreciate the black experience. For this reason many writers have chosen English as their medium [136]. Kunene refers to the communication gap between white and black thus:

White people as a group do not know the African languages, and any black wishing to talk to them has to defer to this white man’s deficiency. The most recent example of this is the English language poetry that gushed out of the students of Soweto and other black townships following the bloody mas- sacre of school children by police beginning 16th June 1976 [137].

At the First Conference on South African English Literature held in Bad Boll in 1986, the only South African delegates were black writers and critics; this fact and the title of the conference, “South African Literature: Liberation and the Art of Writing,” highlight the importance of English as a medium of black writing and the theme of resistance in contemporary black literature and encapsulate two important issues that should be addressed in any discussion of publishing in South Africa and the provision of relevant, local literature [138].

While Kunene acknowledges that black South African literature in English will continue


to grow, he argues that it is important for blacks to speak to people in their own language “thus reinforcing their pride and sense of identity” [139]. Writing in the vernacular tends to be cautious and mainly for use in the schools. The problem of a lack of a black adult readership is attributed, in part, to the impact of publishing for the school market. Books deemed not suitable for schools have little chance of commercial viability or success [140].

Notwithstanding the problems of illiteracy identified earlier, there is a growing black readership whose existence and demands cannot be denied. Mutloatse, writer and publisher, comments on the hunger for books in the black community and the insistence on appropriate literature, a need that is not being met either because of statutory censorship, self-censorship, or neglect:

“The black community is hungry, and hungrier since 16 June 1976: ever-ready-and. . . willing to lay its hands on ‘relevant’ writing, writing by blacks about blacks” [141].

Mattera, a black South African poet, castigates white South Africans (and by implication librarians) for having imposed their culture and literature on black people [ 1421. Implicit support for his observation is found in the publication of the report on the role of libraries in development, where it is reported that black librarians were very concerned about the need for a supply of appropriate reading material and proposed that provincial library services should establish book selection committees of black librarians to select material for black libraries. It was estimated in the same report that in one large library system as many as 70% of the books held by black libraries were considered unsuitable for their communities in spite of appeals made by black librarians for more relevant books [143]. In a survey of colored reading tastes in the Cape a prominent reason given by the respondents for not joining the public library was their inability to understand the materials offered by the library [144].

In the process of creating relevant literature many of the conventions that white book selectors might be accustomed to will be disregarded and in their place new and perhaps shock- ing forms will emerge. Mutloatse’s challenge to the critics regarding the emergence of an angry black literature could be equally addressed to book selectors:

We will have to donder [thrash] conventional literature: old-fashioned critic and reader alike. We are going to pee, spit and shit on literary convention before we are through; we are going to kick and pull and push and drag literature into the form we prefer. We are going to experiment and probe and not give a damn what the critics have to say. . . . We are not going to be told how to re-live our feelings, pains and aspirations by anybody who speaks from the platform of his own rickety culture [145].

Mutloatse’s sentiments reflect the position of many black writers working currently in South Africa, viz. their engagement with the liberation struggle. Young award-winning novelist Menan du Plessis supports the vision of those writers who see their writing as an instrument in the struggle for liberation:

“No longer is it merely the case that cultural freedom is one of the ends of the liberation struggle. Cul- tural activity has itself become one of the means to freedom” [146].

It is not possible to discuss South African literature, especially black writing, without reference to the political situation because the content of a lot of black writing results from the fact that art and politics are inseparable because apartheid pervades every aspect of black people’s lives [147]. This identification with the struggle has led to the establishment of the non-

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racial Congress of Southern African Writers (COSAW) whose main aim is to assist in the struggle to liberate South Africa from racism and apartheid [148], recalling Eagleton’s assess- ment of the relationship between literature and politics in South Africa: “There is no need to drag politics into literary theory: as with South African sport, it has been there from the beginning” [149]. One of the methods COSAW employs to promote writing is the promotion of reading; this is done by circulating suitcases full of books in the townships of Kroonstad, Welkom and Harrismith [150].

The development of black writing in English has been helped by the creation of a number of outlets, including Staffrider, first published in 1978, “one of the most successful cult jour- nals ever published in South Africa, providing an artistic and literary forum for the oppressed communities. ” Its establishment was motivated by a desire to provide an outlet for the inex- perienced and untried and to resist “officially sanctioned culture and its concomitant aims of domination” [151]. It is a widely read literary magazine with poems, stories, essays, songs, photographs, graphics and a lively blend of art forms. It recognizes and serves a reading public mainly in the black townships and has contributed to the development of the black township reading public, with a reported regular circulation of 10,000 copies [152].

Another way of promoting readership is by adapting and interpreting material to render it more accessible and acceptable to groups whose access has been historically restricted. Rec- ognizing that much information is in a format and style unsuitable for the people likely to need it, grass-roots initiatives to address this issue have developed. These enterprises, loosely termed resource centers, spend some effort in interpreting, reformatting, repackaging and producing information to make it accessible and comprehensible to those literate people who, in the words of black writer and academic Mphahlele, “are not educationally,equipped to penetrate literary complexities” [ 1531. Many of these people are the victims of the apartheid educational system described in an earlier section but who are nonetheless interested in under- standing their current context and helping to shape the future. An example of a medium that is a useful and accessible source for presenting issues of importance to adult readers is Learn and Teach magazine, which has unfortunately also suffered from the restrictions of banning. Local historian Luli Callinicos has recently won the prestigious Noma award (presented to authors in developing countries) for her Working Life, Factories and Popular Culture on the Rand, 1886-I940 designed to make history accessible to working class readers. It forms part of the People’s History Project based at the University of the Witwatersrand which aims at drawing on the experience of workers and at helping them understand their situations.

Another suggested medium of popular writing is neo-literates’ own writing. According to Hutton, a researcher in literacy needs, the following themes need to be addressed in writing for those with less advanced reading skills:

l Bible stories l health l legal rights l map reading l community history l light recreational reading l geography l trade unions l political systems l economics l humour [154].


The only remarkable thing about this list is that is has appeared in various guises and forms in various publications with apparently little effect or impact on material selection in public libraries. The project team researching the role of libraries in development reports on a situation in a large rn~ci~ library service that is presumably not atypical. Operation Upgrade, a nation-wide literacy organization with extensive contacts among neo-literates and urban black populations, sent copies of its publications designed to meet some of these manifest needs to the library service for consideration for acquisition. They were not purchased, presumably because they did not meet book production standards [ 1551. This represents a lost opportunity for, according to Operation Upgrade, new literates are highly motivated readers and would use the library if suitable material were provided, such as that produced by Oper- ation Upgrade and other literacy agencies [ 1561.

CONCLUSION

This paper has demonstrate a partial failure of collection development policies to meet the needs of the underdeveloped and those disadvantaged by the system. This conclusion is borne out by the most recent research on collection development at a national level, where the investigation revealed a tendency in libraries and information centers to emphasize high level needs [ 1571. This being the case, the major effort and drive in collection development shculd not be directed to these institutions, but rather to those areas that have been identified here as requiring attention. Wilson and Ramphele, whose powerful exposition of the prevalence of poverty in South Africa and strategies for development has recently gained wide media coverage in South Africa, the United States and Europe, foresee a role for libraries in the transformation of South Africa and a new educational direction for library schools. Their ideas could well bear fruit if they were adopted by librarians and educators seeking to redress the imbalances of the past and to participate in social r~onstruction:

Where they are imaginatively run, whether in schools or neighbourhoods, libraries are heavily used even by those who are not considered highly literate. In the process of establishing such libraries, resource centres, or reading rooms, attention will also have to be paid to the training of suitable librarians and the development of appropriate strategiies so that each resource centre can better meet the needs (such as ifliteracy, unemployment, or simply a desire to know more about the wider world) of those living nearby [158].

REFERENCES

1. Malan, S. 1. “Library and Information Science Educational Issues,” hfousnion, 11, i (1973). 6. 2. Ibid., pp. 7-8. 3. Lessing, C. J. Die roi ven die Sui&&i+kaanse BibIioteek-vereniging in die bib#oteekontwikke&g in Suid-rifrika

(The Role of the South African Library Association in Library Development in South Africa). Unpublished D. Bibl. degree. Potchefstroom: University of Potchefstroom, 1983, p. 329.

4. Kesting, J. G. “South Africa, Libraries in the Republic of,* Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, Vol. 28, 1980, p. 231.

5. Swanepoel, A. J. “Die getal studente in Biilioteek en 1~~ departemente in Suid-Afrika: 1984 tot 1987” (The Number of Students in Library and Information Science Departments in South Africa: 1984-1987). south AfI&rn Journal of Library and Zdortnation Science, 56, 1 (1988). 12.

6. South African Institute for Librarianship and Information Science. Standards for Education for Libru~ und Information &Xence. Pretoria: SAILIS, 1987, p. 4.

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I. Ibid., p. 4. 8. Ibid., pp. 4-11. 9. Kerkham, A. S. “The Education of Library Technicians in South Africa,” South African Jaurnal of Library and

&formation Science, 56, 1 (1988), 7. 10. Swanepoel, op. cit., p. 12. 11. South African Post-Secondary Education. The Qualification and Study Programmes of Universities in South

Africa. Pretoria: Department of National Education, 1982. 12. Swanepoel, op. cit., p. 12. 13. Nassimbeni, M. “The Imperative for Change: Curriculum Revision in South Africa,” Education for Informa-

tion, 6, 2 (1988), 171. 14. Ibid. 15. Department of National Education. Die strukteer van die Suid-Afrikaanse stelsel van biblioteek- en inligting-

wese (The Structure of the South African System of Library and Information Science). Pretoria: The Depart- ment, 1988, p. 34.

16. Zaaiman, R. B. “Rasionele kurrikulumontwerp en die rol van situasie-analise” (“Rational Curriculum De- sign and the Role of Situational Analysis”), South African Journal of Library and Information Science, 42, 4 (1986), 1.

17. Ibid., p. 5. 18. A questionnaire was sent to all library schools in the country and to the three technikons currently offering the

diploma for library technicians. Responses were received from 12 of the library schools (92%), while the technikons provided a combined response (all offer a standardized course). The missing data were supplied by personal consultation, and in all cases the author examined the latest official university (and departmental) handbooks. Many of the respondents supplied course outlines, including topics for assignments, seminars and the like.

19. South Africa 1987-1988: Official Yearbook of the Republic of South Africa. Pretoria: Bureau for Information, 1988, p. 605.

20. Ibid. 21. State Library. Annual Report 1988. Pretoria: State Library, 1989, p. 7. 22. Musiker, R. Companion to South African Libraries. Craighall: Ad Donker, 1986, p. 149. 23. Gertz, M. B. A Study of the Interaction in Book Selection between Provincial Library Systems and Their

Affiliated Public Libraries in South Africa. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1981, p. 335.

24. Natal Provincial Library Service. The Right Book: Book Selection Policy of the Natal Provincial Library Ser- vice. Pietermaritzburg: Natal Provincial Library Service, 1989.

25. Sales, D. A. W. The Interrelatedness of Book Selection and Censorship in Public Libraries with Special Ref- erence to the Position in the Republic of South Africa. Unpublished M. A. thesis. Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1981, pp. 101-102.

26. Swanepoel, A. J., Van Veelen, G. and Boon, J. A. “The Number of Students in Library and Information Sci- ence Departments in South Africa,” Mousaion, 3 (1985), 13.

27. Ibid. 28. Eave, R. A. B. “The Evolution of Allocation Guidelines at UCT Libraries,” Jagger Journal, 5 (1984/85), 66-69. 29. State Library, op. cit., p. 23. 30. Kurrikuleringbeplanning vir biblioteek- en inligtingkunde in Suid-Afrika (Curriculum Planning for Library and

Information Science in South Africa). Pretoria: HSRC, 1988. 31. Ibid., pp. 18-24. 32. Ibid., pp, 24-27. 33. Ibid., p. 31. 34. Ibid., p. 27. 35. Ibid., p. 18. 36. Ibid., p. 19. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid., p. 20. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid., pp. 27-28. 42. Ibid., p. 28. 43. Ibid., p. 29.


44. Ibid., p. 30. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid., p. 14. 49. Ibid., p. 110. 50. Ibid., p. 111. 51. Ibid., p. 113. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid., p. 114 54. Ibid., p. 115. 55. Ibid., p. 28. 56. Meijer, J. G. Voorraadbou in Suid-Afrikaans biblioteke: probleme en navorsingstemas (Collection Building in

South African Libraries: Problems and Research Topics). Pretoria: HSRC, 1986, p. 120. 57. Ibid., p. 131. 58. Ibid. 59. University of Cape Town. Vice-Chancellor’s Report for 1985. Cape Town: Unlversity of Cape Town, 1986, p. 2. 60. The Use of Libraria for the Development of South Africa: Final Report on an Investigation for the South Afri-

can Institute for Librarianship and Information Science. Zaaiman, R. B. (Project Leader). Pretoria: UNISA, 1988.

61. Zaaiman, R. B. and Roux, P. J. A. “The Use of Libraries for the Development of South Africa,” South Afri- can Journal of Library and Information Science, 57, 1 (1989), 8.

62. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 63. Zaaiman, R. B. “The Information Society in South Africa-An Exploratory Study,” South African Journal of

Library and Information Science, 53, 3 (1985), 136. 64. Wilson, F. and Ramphele, M. Uprooting Poverty: The South African Challenge. Cape Town: David Philip, 1989,

p. 272. 65. Ibid., p. 273. 66. UA Luxury SA Cannot Afford,” Cape Times, 19 April 1989, p. 6. 67. Shillinglaw, N. “The Contribution of the Public Library to Development in South Africa,” Free State Librar-

ies (July-September 1986), 14. 68. “Urban Population to Double by 2000,” Cope Times, 24 January, 1989, p. 4. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid. 71. Bethlehem, R. “Time Running Out: Structural Change and Policy in South Africa,” Indicator SA, 4, 3 (1987),

36. 72. Race Relations Survey 1987/88. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1988, p. 161. 73. Ibid., p. 162. 74. Dalton, G. “The Journal in the Post-Typographic Age-Are We Creating an Electronic Elite?” South African

Journal of Library and Information Science, 57, 1 (1989), 23. 75. Ibid. 76. Gottschalk, K. “The Limits of Counter-Revolution.” In Moss, G. and Obery, I. (eds.) South Afrcan Review.

Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1987, p. 505,. 77. Eagleton, T. Criticism and Ideology. London: Verso, 1976, p. 55. 78. Wilson and Ramphele. op. cit., p. 143. 79. Shillinglaw, N. YThe Public Library.” In Shlllinglaw, N. and Thomas, W. The Information Society. Craighall:

Ad Donker, 1988, p. 281. 80. “Apartheid Barometer: South African Languages,” Weekly Mail, 17-23 February 1989, p. 34. 81. South African National Bibliography 1987. Pretoria: State Library, 1988, pp. xix-xxi. 82. Ibid. 83. Ibid., p. xxi. 84. Natal Provincial Library Service, op. cit., p. 16. 85. “Apartheid Barometer . . _ , op. cit., p. 34. 86. Schoeman, E. South African Sanctions Directory 19461988. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Inter-

national Affairs, 1988. 87. Westra, P. “Suid-Afrikaanse biblioteke en prysstygings van publikasies” (“South African Libraries and Rises in

Cost of Publications”), SAZLZS Newsletter, 9, 5 (1989), 6-19.

98 M. NASSIMBENI

88. Ibid., p. 6. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid. 91. University of Cape Town. Vice-Chancellor’s Report 1988. Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1989, p. 14. 92. Ibid. 93. We&a, op. cit., p. 6. 94. Cape Provincial Library Services. Annual Report 1987. Cape Town: Cape Provincial Library Services, 1988,

p. 9. 95. Transvaal Provincial Administration. Annual Report 1986-1987. Pretoria: Transvaal Provincial Administration,

1988, p. 59. %. Ibid., p. 60. 97. Cape Provincial Library Services, op. cit., p. 9. 98. Westra, op. cit., p. 19. 99. State Library, op. cit., p. 13. 100. Gerryts, E. D. and De Bruin, H. “Rasionalisasie en samewerkii tussen Suid-Afrikaanse universiteits-biblioteke:

‘n verkemrende ondersoek en aanbevelinge” (‘Rationalization and Cooperation among South African University Libraries: An Exploratory Investigation and Recommendations”), South African Jouranl of Library and Infor- mation Science, 56, 4 (1988), 215.

101. Ibid., p. 256. 102. “Open Library Facilities,” SAILIS Newsletter, 9, 6 (1989), 7. 103. Ozynski, J. “The Age of Enlightemnent May Yet Dawn.” Weekly Mail Book Review/Books (Autumn 1989), 1. 104. Ibid., p. 2. 105. Ibid. 106. Rive, R. “How the Racial Situation Affects My Work,” English Academy Review, 2 (1984), 115. 107. Race Relations Survey, 1987/88, op. cit., p. 830. 108. Ibid., p. 832. 109. Dugard, J. “The R&ht to Criticize the Government.” Unpublished paper (No. 10) presented at the University

of Cape Town Conference on Censorship in 1980. 110. Streek, B. “State Control Gives the Lie to Reform Euphoria,” Cape Times, 11 April 1989, p. 7. 111. Race Relations Survey 1987/99, op. cit., p. 832. 112. Sales, op. cit., p. 202. 113. The Use of Libraries for the Development of South Africa, op. cit., pp. 49-50. 114. Natal Provincial Library Service, op. cit., p. 10. 115. “‘Kremlin’ closes after 3-day Boycott,” Weekly Mail, 14-20 April 1989, p. 9. 116. Switzer, D. “Censorship, Academic Freedom and South African Librarians,” Wits Journal of Librarianship

and Information Science, 5 (1988). 105-123; Merrett, C. “The Dark Hours: South African Libraries in a State of Emergency,” Wits Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 5 (1988), 124-132.

117. Race Relations Survey 1987/88, op. cit., pp. 831-832. 118. Merrett. op. cit., p. 129. 119. Cited by Alexander, N. “Ten Years of Educational Crisis: The Resonance of 1976.” In Education for Affir-

mation. Johannesburg: Skotaville, 1988, pp. 7-25. 120. Statistical Yearbook 1988. Paris: Unesco, 1988, pp. 6-12. 121. Ibid., South African National Bibiiography 1986. Pretoria: State Library, 1987, p. xix. 122. Bookseller (9 September 1988), 989. 123. Ibid. 124. Coetzce. A. “Publishing against the Hegemony: Afrikaans Publishing.” Unpublished paper delivered at the Sym-

posium on Publishing in a Time of Emergency, University of Cape Town. January 1989. 125. Cheh, M. M. “Systems and Slogans: The American clear and Present Danger Doctrine and South African Pub-

lications Control,” South AJrican Journal on Human Rights, 2 (1986), 45. 126. Berghammer, C. and Karlsson, J. “A Resource Centre for a Changing South Africa,” Wits Journal of Librari-

anship and Information Science, 5 (1988), 11. 127. Wood, D. N. “The Collection, Bibliographic Control and Accessibility of Grey Literature,” IFLA Journal, 10,

3 (1984). 278. 128. Raseroka, H. K. “Relevant Library Services in Developing Countries,” IFLA Journal. 12 (1986). 288. 129. Sitas, A. “Papered and Bound: Chartgin Readership and ‘Literacy in Natal.” Unpublished paper presented at

the Symposium on Publishing in a Time of Emergency. Cape Town, January 1989. 130. “Professional Resolutions of the Fiftieth IFLA General Conference 1984,” IFU Journal. 10,4 (1986) 400401.


13 1. Sitas, op. cit. 132. Sitas, A. Black Mamba Rbing: South @&an Worker poets in Struggle. Durban: Worker Resistance and Culture

Publications, 1986. 133. Rahnema, M. “The Sound Library: A Simple But Revolutionary Tool for Development,” Unesco Journal of

Information Science, Librarianship and Archives Administration. 4. 3 (1982), 155. 134. Du Plooy, A. P. “Community Information for the Functionally Illiterate in South Africa by Means of Audio-

cassettes,” Mousaion, 6, 1, series 3 (1988), 10. 135. Zell H. “Introduction.” In Taubert. S. and Weidhaas, P. (eds.) Book Trade of the World: Africa. London:

K. 6. Saur, 1984, p. 16. 136. Kunene, D. P. “Language, Literature and the Struggle for Liberation in South Africa,” Stqffrider, 6.3 (1986),

31. 137. Ibid. 138. South African Literature: Liberation and the Art of Writing. Proceedings of the First Conference on South

African English Literature, 1986. Bad Boll: Protestant Academy, 1987. 139. Kunene, op. cit., p. 47. 140. Galloway, F. (camp.). SA Literature 1983. Pretoria: HAUM-Liter&, 1987. 136. 141. Mutloatse, M. (ed.) Forced Landing: Ajiica South: Contemporary Writings. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1980,

p. 1. 142. Mattera, D. “Some Points about the Literature of Liberation in Present-day South Africa.” In South African

Literature: Liberation and the Art of Writing. op. cit., p. 20. 143. The Use of Libraries for Development in South Africa, op. cit., p. 36. 144. K8nig, A. C. and Meijer, J. G. Leesgewoontes van Kaapse kieurlinge (Reading Habits of Cape Coloureds).

Pretoria: HSRC, 1984, p. 74. 145. Mutloatse, op. cit., p. 5. 146. Bauer, C. and Powell, I. “Culture as You Don’t See It at the City Hall,” Week/y Mail, 21-27 November 1986,

pp. 14-15. 147. Mzamane, M. “Literature and Politics among Blacks in South Africa.” In Chapman, M. (ed.) Sower0 Poetry.

Johannesburg: McGraw-Hill, 1982, p. 150. 148. Malan, C. “1983: Literature and Context in South Africa.” In Galloway, op. cit., p. 11. 149. Eagleton, T. Literary Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983, p. 194. 150. Ozynski, op. cit., p. 2. 151. Oliphant, A. W. and Vladislavic, I. (eds.) Ten Years of Stqffrider 1977-1988. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1988,

. . . p. Vlll.

152. Randall, P. “Publishing in South Africa: Challenges and Constraints,” African Book Publishing Record, 9, 2 and 3 (1983). 107.

153. Mphahlele, E. “The Tyranny of Place and Aesthetics: The South African Case,” English Academy Review (1981). 6.

154. Fitzgerald, E. “Reading Will Put Them in the Light,” Cape Librarian, 33, 4 (1989), 3. 155. The Use of Libraries for the Development of South Africa, op. cit., p. 25. 156. Ibid. 157. Meijer, op. cit., p. 28. 158. Wilson and Ramphele, op. cit., p. 2%.

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