INTRODUCTIONProgramed instruction represent new methods in education, but they are based on teaching principal established before the development of media technology. Today programed learingin materials based on the new technology enjoy increasing popularity for several reasons: they apply sound psychological theories; the materials can easily be fitted into existing instructional programs, supplementing or replacing teachers; and almost all subjects can be programed. Unfortunately, there is, at present, a deplorable lack of standardization in technological design, and marketing procedures seem to stress the educational-toy characteristics of the material. Successful instruction requires a through knowledge of the application, logistics, and costs of programed materials. The programer has to have a clear concept of the goal of education and of the level of achievement expected of the students; he must master the subject to be taught; and he must be familiar with the characteristics of the students. With these factors in mind the must decide upon a suitable approach of the programed materials and then design the appropriate learning sequences. Equally important considerations are the cost, supply, maintenance, space, and staff problems created by machines. Appendices include a classification of variables in a programed learning situation and examples of programed sequences.

MEANING AND CONCEPT OF PROGRAMMED LEARNINGPressey's ideas were not so well received in the public and due to a lack of financial means he soon had to give up further research, yet in the 1950s his ideas were further developed by Skinner, who believed he can successfully apply operant conditioning not only to animal, but also to human learning. Skinner's ideas for improving the teaching/learning process were orientated mostly on two facts: first, that learners learn at different speeds, and second, that, in accordance with at the time dominant stimulus-response learning theories, the reinforcement must closely follow the displayed behavior. This, however is not the case in school settings, where the learners are forced to follow the lecturers speed of information sharing and usually receive delayed reinforcement as the teacher usually needs at least a day to correct their assignments. According to Skinner, in order to achieve efficient mathematical behavior, during the first four years of education, about 50000 reinforcements would be necessary, but in a classroom situation a learner could only get a few thousands of them. In Skinner's words, The simple fact is that, as a mere reinforcing mechanism, the teacher is out of date. Since employing a teacher or tutor for every learner would solve the problem, but would be virtually impossible, Skinner suggested and worked on introducing learning machines, on which each learner could work at his own pace and receive direct reinforcement after solving a task correctly. The basic principle of programmed instruction for Skinner, aside from reinforcement was behavior shaping - forming desired behavior through a number of small stimulus-response learning sessions. DEFINITIONS Although Skinners initial programmed instruction format has undergone many transformations, most adaptations retain three essential features: (1) an ordered sequence of items, either questions or statements to which the student is asked to respond; (2) the student's response, which may be in the form of filling in a blank, recalling the answer to a question, selecting from among a series of answers, or solving a problem; and (3) provision for immediate response confirmation, somtimes within the program frame itself but usually in a different location, as on the next page in a programmed textbook or in a separate window in the teaching machine. (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000:332) Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information. Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05, retrieved 16:22, 16 August 2007 (MEST)).

Styles/Types of programming There are three types of programming.1.Linear Programming.2.Branching Programming.3.Mathetics.Linear Programming: The founder of this programming is B.F. Skinner. It is based on theory of operant conditioning. It tells that A Certain direction can be given to human behavior, for this purpose activities is needed to divide in small parts and make their analysis.

Linear programming is based on five fundamental principles-1.Principles of small step.2.Principle of Active responding.3.Principle of immediate confirmation.4.Principle of self pacing.5.Principle of student testing.The assumption behind the linear programming is that student learns better if content is presented in small units, student response if immediately confirmed, results in better learning, students error create hindrance in learning. Student learns better in Laissez fairy environment.Frame size in small steps; include only one element of topic at a time. Each step is complete in itself. It can be taught independently and can be measured independently. Frame structure is based on stimulus-response-reinforcement. There are four types of frames. Introductory frames, Teaching frame, practice frames and testing frames.Responses in linear programming are structured responses and are controlled by programmer and not by learners. Immediate confirmation of correct responses provide reinforcement, wrong responses are ignored.It is used for secondary level students, used for achieving lower objectives of learning especially for recall and recognition, useful for student of average and below average intelligence can be used in distance education programme.Limitations of Linear programming-1.No freedom for student to response.2.Based on learning theories which were formulated by experience conducted on animals. A human being is more intelligent, than animals, he has got an intelligent brain.3.Every learner has to follow the same path; therefore, student may cheat from one another.4.Wrong responses are avoided in the programme. No remedy is provided for them.

Branching programmingThe founder of Branching programming is Norman A Crowder. It is based on configuration theory of learning. It is a problem solving approach. It is stimulus centered approach of learning. It is based on three basic principles- 1. Principle of Exposition, 2. Principle of Diagnosis, 3. Principle of remediation.Assumptions behind this programming are-A.Student learns better if he is exposed to whole situation or content.B.Student errors help in diagnosis.C.Student learns better if remediation is provided side by side.D.Student learns better in democratic environment.Frame size is large. There may be a Para or page in the frame. Frame structure is Exposition- Diagnosis- Remediation types. There are two types of frames- Home page (for teaching and diagnosis) & Wrong pages (for remediation). Responses not rigidly structured and responses are selected by learner and not by the programmer. Confirmation of correct responses provides reinforcement. Wrong responses also help in diagnosis of weaknesses of the learner. Remedy is provided on the basis of diagnosed weaknesses of the learner. Error helps in diagnosis of the weaknesses of learner. More than 20% error rate can be accepted. The purpose of Branching programming is to draw out weak points of learner and provide remedy for recovering those weaknesses.Branching programming is used for secondary as well as higher classes. Higher objectives can be achieved such as multiple discrimination etc. It is useful for students of above average and high intelligence. It can also be used in Distance education programmes.

Limitations of Branching programming1.It does not consider learning process whether learning is taking place or not. Main emphasis is on diagnosing the weakness of learners and providing remedy to them.2.There is no sequencing of pages. Student finds it difficult to follow the steps. He does not find it exciting or motivating, therefore he does not want to go through these pages.3.More emphasis on remediation rather than teaching. Hence, it is only a tutorial approach.Mathetics ProgrammingThe founder of Mathetics is Thomas F. Gilbert. Mathetics is defined as a systematic application of reinforcement theory to the analysis and construction of complex repertoires which represent the mastery in subject matter. It is based on connectivist theory of learning. It is a reverse chaining approach. It is based on Principle of chaining, Discrimination and Generalization. Mathetics programming is based on following assumptions.1.Chaining of responses helps in learning to reach up to mastery level.2.Reverse chaining of stimuli helps in learning, i.e. from whole to part, from Complex to simple.3.Completion of task provides motivation to students.Frames size is organized in small step but in a reverse chain i.e. from complex content to its small, simple units to attain mastery level; Frame structure is based on Demonstration-prompts-release. There are two types of frames- 1. Demonstration frames 2. Prescription frames.Responses are structured responses and responses determined by the programmer. Completion of task provides reinforcement. Wrong responses are ignored. Error helps in discrimination but not in learning. Its main purpose is to develop mastery of the content. Main focus is on Mathematics and grammar.It used for higher classes useful for complex and difficult task. It is useful for developing concepts of mathematics and grammar. It can be used in Distance Education.

Limitations of Mathetics programming:1.Main emphasis is on mastery of the content rather than changes in behavior of the learner.2.Retrogressive chaining of stimuli if not effective for terminal behavior.3.It is very difficult to develop retrogressive learning package.

Development of the Programmed Instruction MaterialThe developed of the programmed instruction materials in the form of programmed text or computer assisted instruction is a highly specialized job. The task involves the following main phases.Preparatory Phase.The preparatory phase occupies a very prominent place in development of the programmed instruction material. in general, the following activities or steps are to be executed during this phase.1. Selection of the topic or units to be programmed.2. Writing assumption about learner.3. Writing objectives in behaviour terms.4. Writing the entry behavior of the learners.5. developing specific outcomes of contents.

b. Development PhaseThe development phase covers the actual writing of the programme. The assumption about the learner, his entry behavior, the instructional objectives fixed in the form terminal behaviour, the outside of the contents chose, all are given the consideration while regarding it programme.In practice, the task of programme writing involves three steps, namely1. Designing of the frames.2. Sequencing of the frames.3. Editing of the programmes.c. Evaluating PhaseThe last phase of the development of the programmed learning material, evaluation phase is related with the try out and evaluation of the edited programmed material available in the form of sequenced frame. The main activities understand in this study are :1. Individual Try out2. Small group try-out3. Field try-out or testing4. Evaluation

PROGRAMME LEARNING MATERIAL NO. 1

Subject : Social StudiesClass - VITH Board - ICSE BoardTopic - Types of Market

1. A market is a place where goods, services and information are exchanged for month Markets consists of ................................. and .................. (Response, producers, consumers traders).2. People who produce goods are called producers. They make goods for consumers. Consumers are people whobuy goods and services for their personal uses. The people who act as intermediaries between producers and consumers are called Response : traders.3. Markets can be grouped into two broad categories : (Response : Wholesale and Retail). A wholesaler buy goods directly from the producers in bulk and sells it to the retailers. Retailers buy goods from the wholesaler and sells to the consumers.4. There are different kinds of retail stores, they include departmental store, supermarkets, Malls. Weekly markets, vendors and hawkers.

Evaluation1.Define the terms :a. Marketb. Wholesalersc. Retailersd. Producerse. Consumers2. Answer the following questions in detail:-a. WHAT are market? Name the different kinds of market.b. Differentiate between a wholesalers and a retail market.c. What are weekly Market?d. What is chain Store?

Programme Learning Material No-2

Subect:Social Studies Class:VIthBoard:ICSETopic:Water

1. _________ is he largest ocean, which covers a third of the Earth's surface. (Response : pacific ocean)2. Earth is also called blue planet because 71% of its surface is covered by water and only 29% is land. The part of earth covered by water is called _____________ (Response : Hydrosphyere)3. Water exits in three state: they are _____________ and __________ . There is a continuous inter change between these three states. (Response: solid, liquid and gas)4. The water cycle is driven by two main forces which are I. Heat from the sun evaporates water 2. The gravitational pull of earth which brings the water vapour back of Earth as precipitation and moves it down the slope of the land into stream and rives as surface flow and also underground flow. The water cycle is driven by two main forces, they are ______ and _______ (Response : heat and gravitational pull) 5. __________ % of earth's surface is covered with water (Response : 71 %)

Evaluation1- Define the terms:a. Hydrosphereb. Water Cyclec. The Realm of water

2- Fill in the blank:a. The part of earth covered by water is called __________.b. Water exits in three states: they are ______, ________ and ______________.c. ____________ is the largest ocean, which covers a third of the Earth's surface.d. __________% of earth's surface is covered with water?e. The transfer of water from one system of another and back is called ___________.