Progress in Botany/Fortschritte der Botanik 42

Progress in Botany Morphology' Physiology' Genetics Taxonomy· Geobotany

Fortschritte der Botanik Morphologie . Physiologie . Genetik Systematik . Geobotanik

Editors/Herausgeber

Heinz Ellenberg, Gottingen Karl Esser, Bochum Klaus Kubitzki, Hamburg Eberhard Schnepf, Heidelberg Hubert Ziegler, Mtinchen

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1980

With 18 Figures

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-67875-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-67873-8 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-67873-8

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re·use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means and storage in data banks. Under §54 of the German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use a fee is payable to "Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort", Munich.

© by Springer.Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1980.

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1980

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

2131/3130·543210.

Contents

A. MORPHOLOGY

I. Cytology

a) General and Molecular Cytology. By Dr. ANTHONY W. ROBARDS

1. Techniques .••...••.....•..•....••.•.••...•........•.. 1 2. Cell Walls ••......•......•••.•.....•....••..•.•...•.. 2

a) Polysaccharides and Protein ...••.....•......•..••. 2 b) Primary Cell Wall Growth •...•...••..•..•......•..• 3 c) Cell Wall Encrustation and Impregnation ....••..... 3

3. Plasmalemma .....•.•..........•.........•...•......... 5 a) Membrane Chemistry ...••................•..•...•.•. 5 b) Electron Microscopy of the Plasmalemma .....•.•..•• 6

4. Microtubules and Microfilaments ................•..... 7 a) Microtubules ........•..............•........•..... 7 b) Microfilaments ..............•...•..•....•..•.....• 8

5. Plasmodesmata .................•.•.......•..•••.....•. 9 a) Structure and Distribution ......•..•...••.••.•..•. 9 b) Function of Plasmodesmata •............••...•...•.• 10

6. Cell Wall Synthesis and Orientation •................. 11 References .......•...•............•.......•.....•..•.... 12

b) Cytology and Morphogenesis of the Prokaryotic Cell. By Professor Dr. GERHART DREWS ••...•.•.......•••.•....•• 16

1. Cell Wall ••••••........•............•..•............. 16 a) External Layers .........•.....................•... 16 b) Cell Wall of Archaebacteria ..........•.......•...• 17 c) Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Cell Walls .......• 17 d) Cell Shape, Cell Division, and Growth of Cell Wall 18

2. Specialized Cells ..•....••...........••..•........... 19 a) Endospores .•........•...•......•...............•.. 19 b) Spores and Heterocysts in Cyanobacteria .•......... 20

3. Flagella and Movements of Spirochetes ...•.......••.. 20 4. Membrane- and Cell Differentiation ...............•... 21 References .......•..••.••..•....•..................•.... 22

c) Special Cytology: Morphology and Morphogenesis of Eukar­yotic Algal Cells. By Professor Dr. GORDON F. LEEDALE •.• 25

1. Organisation of Vegetative Cells, Excluding Nuclei and Ce 11 Cover ings •......•••................•..•...•• 25 a) Chloroplasts .............•..••.....•....•..•.••... 25 b) Flagella and Flagellar Roots .........•..........•• 26 c) Golgi Bodies (Dictyosomes) .......•........••...... 26 d) Microtubules, Microfilaments ...•.•...........•..•. 27 e) Glands and Gland-Like Cells ....................•.. 27

VI Contents

2. Nucleus and Nuclear Division ........................ 28 3. Cell Coverings, Including Cell walls and Scales ..... 30

a) Cell Walls ....................................... 30 b) Diatom Frustules ................................. 31 c) Scales ........................................... 32 d) Periplasts, Thecae, and Pellicles ................ 32

4. Reproductive Stages ................................. 32 5. Parasitism and Symbiosis, etc. ...................... 34 6. Viruses ............................................. 34 References •......................................•....• 34

II. Morphologie und Anatomie der h6heren Pflanzen: Verglei­chende Morphologie des Vegetationsk6rpers einschlieBlich der Blliten. Von Professor Dr. WOLFGANG HAGEMANN ........ 37

1. Allgemeines ......................................... 37 2. Meristeme ...............................•........... 38

a) SproBscheitelmeristeme .............•............. 38 b) Randmeristeme .................................... 41 c) Wurzelmeristeme .................................. 42 d) Sonstige Meristeme ..........................•.... 43

3. Blattmorphologie .................................... 44 4. Wurzeln ......•...................................... 45 5. Verzweigung und Wuchsformen ......................... 46

a) Farne .........................•...............••. 46 b) Angiospermen: dikotyle Baume .....•............... 47 c) Krautige Dikotyle ................................ 48 d) Monocotyle ...............•....•.................. 48

6. Infloreszenzen ...................................... 49 7. Blliten .................•.........................•.. 50

a) Allgemeines und Gesamtarbeiten ..•....•........... 50 b) Perianth ..............•....•..................... 51 c) Androeceum •.•.....•........................•..... 52 d) Gynoeceum .............................•.......... 52

Li teratur .............................................. 54

B. PHYSIOLOGY

I. Photosynthesis. Carbon Metabolism: Chloroplast Capabi­lity, and the Uncertain Fate of C02. By Professor Dr. ERWIN LATZKO and Dr. GRAHAME J. KELLY. With 2 Figures .. 58

1. Introduction .............................•.••....... 58 2. Fixation of CO 2 by RuBP Carboxylase ......•.......... 58

a) Movement of C02 to the Enzyme .................... 58 b) The Enzyme: RuBP Carboxylase ........•........•... 59 c) Other Enzymes of the Calvin Cycle ......•...•..... 60 d) Light-Mediated Regulation •.........•............. 61

3. Products of C02 Fixation: A Consideration of Chloro-plast Capability ..•••..........••.................•. 62

4. Release of CO 2 by Photorespiration .................. 66 a) The 02-Uptake Reaction .............•........••... 66 b) CO 2-Release Reactions ...•...•.....•..•........... 67 c) Why Do Plants Photorespire? ...................... 68

5. Capture and Recapture of C02 by PEP Carboxylase ...•. 70 a) C4 Metabolism .......•..........................•. 70 b) C4 Pathway •....•....•.......•.....•.....•.....•.. 71

Contents VII

c) Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) ............... 72 References ............................................. 73

II. Metabolism of Carbohydrates. Chemistry, Occurrence and Biosynthesis of Plant Glycoproteins. By Professor Dr. GERHARD FRANZ and Dr. DIETER HAASS ..................... 80

1. Introduction ........•.............................•. 80 2. Chemical Structure of Plant Glycoproteins ........... 80

a) Carbohydrate Constituents of Plant Glycoproteins. 80 b) The Protein Part of Plant Glycoproteins .......... 81 c) Types of Protein-Carbohydrate Linkages ........... 82

3. Methods of Extraction and Purification ........•..... 82 4. Biological Significance of Plant Glycoproteins ...... 83

a) Lectins .....•...................•.•.•.••......•.. 83 b) Enzymes .•........................•............... 84 c) Cell Wall Glycoproteins .......................... 86 d) Glycoproteins With Other Biological Significance. 89

5. Biosynthesis of Plant Glycoproteins ........•........ 89 a) General Mechanisms ............................... 89 b) Significance of Lipid-Linked Precursors .......... 90

References .........•.................•................. 91

III. Secondary Plant Substances. Special Topics of Alkaloid Biosynthesis. By Professor Dr. HORST ROBERT SCHUTTE. With 7 Figures.................................... .. ... 96

1. Ajmalicine and Related Compounds ..•.......•......... 96 2. Dimeric Indole Alkaloids ............................ 98 3. Carnptothecin ....................•.............•..... 101 4. Ipecac Alkaloids ...•.....................•.......... 103 5. Tylohorine and Related Bases ....•...•.......•.•..... 104 6. Aberrant Alkaloid Biosynthesis ..........•....•...... 104 References ........................................•.... 108

IV. Growth. By Professor Dr. KARL D5RFFLING. With 4 Figures 111

1. Ethylene ............................................ 111 a) Prefatory Remarks ................................ 111 b) Biosynthesis ..................................... 111 c) Stress Ethylene Production ....................... 114 d) Metabolism of Ethylene and Mechanism of Action .,. 115 e) Physiological Role ....................•.......... 117

2. Abscisic Acid ....................................... 118 a) Reviews •....•..................••.........•...... 118 b) Methods of Determination ....•.•.................. 118 c) Biosynthesis and Metabolism ...................... 119 d) Mechanism of Action .............................. 120 e) Physiological Role ......................•..••...• 121

References •...........•...........•.........•.......... 122

V. Developmental Physiology. By Professor Dr. GUNTER FELLENBERG .•••.•.••.•...........•.....•.........•...... 126

1. Nuclear Proteins and Development ........•........... 126 a) Evolution of Chromosomal Proteins ....•........... 126 b) Chromosomal Proteins and Chromatin Structure ..... 127 c) Cell Cycle and Mitotic Activity in Relation to

Chromosomal Proteins .......•...•................. 1 29 d) Tissue Specifity and Variations in Chromatin ..... 130

VIII Contents

e) Flower and Embryo Development ...•.........•...... 132 f) Seed Germination ..•..........•..............•..•. 132 g) Effects of Environmental and Endogenous Factors

on Chromatin .......•..................•.......... 134 h) Concluding Remarks ...•.•.•....••............•.•.. 135

2. Root Formation ..••.......•.....•....•.....•.....•... 135 a) Origin of Root Formation .........•.....•......... 135 b) Effect of Phytohormones ......•...........•....... 136 c) Effect of Nonhormonal Factors •..•..............•. 137 d) Effects of Environmental Factors .....••..•.•..... 138 e) Mineral Nutrition •...............•...........•... 138 f) Effect of Light .........•....•................... 139

References ..•••...••........•..........•........••....• 139

VI. Bewegungen. Von Professor Dr. WOLFGANG HAUPT ....•.•..•. 143

1. Bewegung der Bakterien ..•.......•...............•... 143 a) Bau und Funktion der BakteriengeiBel ........•.... 143 b) Transduktionsvorgange bei der Chemotaxis der

Bakterien ......•...•........•.................... 144 2. Glei tbewegungen ......................•.....•......•. 145

a) Gleitbewegungen bei fadenformigen Cyanophyceen ..• 145 b) Bewegung der Myxomyceten und ihre Regulierung

durch AuBenfaktoren ................•....•........ 147 3. Bau und Funktion der Eukaryoten-GeiBel •..........•.. 149 4. Steuerung der freien Ortsbewegung durch Licht

(Photomovemen t) ............•..••.•.......•...••..... 1 51 Literatur •......•...•.........................•..... ~ •. 152

C. GENETICS

I. Replication. By Priv.-Doz. Dr. WILFRIED WACKERNAGEL Wi th 2 Figures ..•...................................... 154

1. Introduction ..•..•....•............................. 154 2. Does DNA Exist in a Structure Different from the

Classical Double Helix? .........•...........•....... 154 3. Initiation of Replication ........................... 155

a) Chromosomal Sites Determining Initiation ......... 155 b) Function of RNA Polymerases ..................•... 156 c) Regulation of Initiation .......•.••.•......••.•.. 157

4. Processes During Replication Fork Movement .......... 159 a) Strand Synthesis (Elongation) .................... 159 b) Unwinding of Parental Strands .................... 161 c) Changes in Tertiary Structure •................... 162

5. Fidelity of DNA Replication ......................... 164 6. Conclusion •.•....................................... 165 Ref erences .........•........•......•.....•............. 166

II. Recombination. Recombinant DNA Research. An Uptate of Techniques and Results. By Professor Dr. CORNELIS P. HOLLENBERG ...............................•............. 1 71

1. Introduction ........................................ 171 2. Cloning Systems ..................................... 171 3. E. cori Cloning Vectors ............................. 172

a) Vectors that Carry Two Replication Systems ....... 173 b) Vectors that Allow Inducible Expression of

Inserted Genes .................................•. 173

Contents IX

c) Phage A-Derived Vectors ..............•........... 174 d) Single-Stranded DNA Vectors ...........•.......•.. 174

4. Other Cloning Systems .............•........•.•.•.... 175 a) Other Bacterial Systems ..•.•.....•••.....•...•... 175 b) Yeast System ...•....................•.••.....•.•. 175 c) Plant System ..•...•....•..•.•..........•.•......• 176 d) Animal Cell System .......•.•..•.................• 177

5. Recent Results of DNA Cloning •...........•.•......•. 178 a) Genome Structure ...•..............••............. 178 b) Microbial Expression of Eukaryotic Genes .....••.. 179 c) Yeast •...•................•........•....•.••..... 180

References •...••.••......•.........•..•.........•.•.... 182

III. Mutation. Insertion Mutagenesis. By Professor Dr. HANS-J. RHAESE .••••....•...•.......•.........•....•..•. 186

1. Introduction •...•.......•......•...........•.•...... 186 2. Definitions ......................•.......•.......... 187

a) Insertion Mutagenesis ...•.............•.......... 187 b) Transposable Elements ..•..............•...•.••... 187 c) Classes of Transposable Elements ......•......•... 188

3. Insertion Mutations in Prokaryotes •..•.•..•....•.••. 189 a) Mutations Caused by IS Elements ......•.•.•....... 189 b) Chromosomal Rearrangements (Mutations) Caused

by Tr ansposons ...•....•..........•.....••........ 191 c) Mutations Induced by Bacteriophage A and P2 ...... 192 d) Mutations Caused by Bacteriophage Mu ••••..•.•...• 192

4. Insertion Mu ta tions in Eukaryotes .............•..... 192 a) Mating Type Interconversion in S. cerevisiae,

an Example of Insertion Mutagenesis •.•••••.•••.•• 193 b) Antigenic Variations in Trypanosomes Are Caused

by Insertion Mutagenesis ....................•..•. 193 c) Evidence for Insertion Mutagenesis in Other

Eukaryotic Systems ...•...............•..•...•.... 194 5. Concluding Remarks ....................•......•...... 194 References .................•...................•..•.... 194

IV. Function of Genetic Material. Structure, Organization, and Expression of Fungal Genes. By Professor Dr. FRIEDRICH K. ZIMMERMANN .•.•.•......•.....•.........•... 197

1. The Organization of Fungal Genes .................... 197 2. Structure and Expression of tRNA Genes .............. 197 3. The Structure of Fungal Protein Genes .............•. 198 4. Gene Transposition ....•.....•.....•.........•...•.•. 201 5. Transcriptional Regulation in Fungi •................ 202 6. Osmotic Problems of Large Cells and Their Consequen-

ces for Regulation and Gene Structure ............... 203 7. The Arrangement of Functionally Related Genes ....... 204 8. Genetics of Nitrate Assimilation in Aspergillus nidulans 209 9. Regulation of Enzyme Synthesis and Feedback

Inhibition of Amino Acid Biosynthetic Pathways ....•. 210 References .....•.........•....••..................•.... 211

V. Extrakaryotic Inheritance

a) General Aspects. By Dr. PAUL TUDZYNSKI and URSULA VORNBERGER •......•.•...•.••............•.....••........ 21 4

1. Mitochondria ..•....•...................•..•........• 214

X Contents

a) Transmission of Mitochondrial Genes .............. 214 b) Expression and Map of Mitochondrial DNA .......... 215 c) The "Petite" Mutation .............•.............. 218

2. Other Extrachromosomal Genetic Elements ............. 220 a) Plasmid-Like DNA Species ......................... 220 b) Viruses .........................................• 221 c) Genetically Defined Elements without Known

Physical Basis ................................•.. 222 References ............................................. 222

b) Organelle Genes: Intervening Sequences and Alterations of the Genetic Code. By ELKE PRATJE and GEORG MICHAELIS With 1 Figure .......................................... 227

1. Introduction ..•....•.........•...................... 227 2. Split Genes ......................................... 227

a) The Gene for the Large Ribosomal RNA ............. 227 b) The Mi tochondr ial Oxi 3 Reg ion of Saccharomyces

cerevisiae Coding for Subunit I of Cytochrome c Oxidase •................•.......•..........•..... 228

c) The Mi tochondr ial Cob Reg ion of Saccharomyces cere-v,/-swe Coding for Cytochrome b .••..•............• 228

3. Genes Lacking Intervening Sequences ................. 230 4. The Altered Genetic Code of Mitochondria ............ 231 References .•....•.•.........................•.......... 231

D. TAXONOMY

I. Systematics of Bacteria. By Professor Dr. OTTO KANDLER and Professor Dr. KARL-HEINZ SCHLEIFER. With 1 Figure .• 234

1. Introduction ........................................ 234 2. Nomenclature ....................•...........•....•.. 234 3. Systematics ......................................... 235

a) The Higher Categories ....•...............•....... 235 b) The Lower Categories .............•....•....•..... 238

4. Techniques and Criteria for Classification .......... 239 a) Numerical Taxonomy ...............••.......•...... 239 b) Serology ......................................•.. 239 c) Bacteriophage Typing ............................. 241 d) Chemical Composition of Cell Constituents ......•. 241 e) Genetic Characteristics ....•...................•. 245

References .............................•..•........•... 246

II. Systematics and Phylogenetics of the Algae. By Dr. DIETER MOLLENHAUER ....•...........•................•... 253

1. Generalities ....................•...•......•.......• 253 a) Standard ................•..•..............•...... 253 b) Procedures of Performed Science .........•...••... 253 c) Literature Tools, Techniques to Control Unlimited

Growth of Published Results ..•..........•.•...... 253 d) Sociology and Customs •....•.................•.•.. 254 e) Theory .....................•...........•..•.•.... 254 f) Concepts, Comparative Studies of General

Importance .......•.......•....•...........••..... 255 g) Methods •.......•................•................ 255

Contents XI

h) Biospecies ....................................... 256 i) Ecology .........................•................ 256 k) Distribution ..........................•.......... 256 1) Benefit from Applied Science ..................... 257

2. Bacillariophyceae ................................... 257 3. Chrysophyceae sensu lato ..•......................... 258 4. xanthophyceae ....................................... 259 5. Dinophyceae ......................................... 259 6. Red and Brown Algae ................................. 259 7. Euglenophyceae ...............................•...... 262 8. Chlorophyta ......................................... 262

a) Further Research in Chlorococcales and Chloro-sarcinales ....................................... 264

b) Tetrasporales .....•.............................. 265 c) Families with Filamentous Habit sensu latissimo .. 265 d) Siphonous Taxa ....•.............................. 265 e) Conjugatophyceae ................................. 266

References .•...........•..•.....••..••................• 266

III. Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Fungi. By Professor Dr. EMIL MULLER ..................•.............•....•...••. 270

1. General Considerations and Phylogeny ......•......... 270 2. Myxomycetes ....................................•.... 272 3. Oomycetes, Hyphochytr iomycetes ...................... 272 4. Chytridiomycetes ............•..................•..•. 273 5. Z ygomycotina ••...........•................•......... 273 6. Ascomycetes .........................•..•......•..... 275

a) General Aspects .................................. 275 b) Taxonomy .•.•....•.•........•.•.....•..•.........• 277

7. Basidiomycetes .........•.........................•.. 278 a) General Aspects .............•....•..........•.... 278 b) Taxonomy of Homobasidiomycetes .•...........•..... 279 c) Uredinales, Ustilaginales .......•.....••.......•. 280

8. Deuteromycetes ......•.........•..................... 281 References .............•.......................•.•..... 283

IV. Systematik der Flechten. Von Professor Dr. HANNES HERTEL

1. Morphologie ......................................... 288 2. Entwicklungsgeschichte ..............•............... 289 3. Zur Phylogenie von Flechten ............•............ 290 4. System .............................................. 291 5. Floristik ........................................... 296 6. Ausbreitungsbiologie, Arealkunde ......•.•........... 298 7. Soziologie .......................•.................. 299 8. Flechtenchemie ................................•..... 299 9. Sonstiges .............................•............. 300 Li ter a tur ......................•....................... 300

v. Systematik der Bryophyten. Von Professor Dr. WOLFGANG FREY. Mit 1 Abbildung .••.......••......•......•........ 306

1. Allgemeines ............••........•...•.•....•....... 306 2. Morphologie und Anatomie •..........•................ 306

aj Sporen .......•..................••............... 306 b) Keimung und Protonema ..•.........•............•.. 307

XII Contents

c) Rhizoiden •••••••..•..•....•.••.•..•••..•..•..•.•• 307 d) Blattrippe ••.•••..•.••.•••.••.•••.••.•••...•••••• 308 e) Lei tgewebe •••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•.•••.•.••• 308 f) Gametangien •••••••••••••.••••••••.••••••....•••.• 308 g) Sporogon •••••.••••••••••••••••••.•••••••..•.•...• 309 h) Vegetative Vermehrung ••.•••••..••••..••••••••••.. 309 i) Verschiedenes •••••.•.•.•••••••••••••.•.•.••••••.. 309

3. Sys tema tik und Evo lu tion •...••.•••••••••••..••••..•• 310 a) Allgemeines .•.•.•••••••.••...•••.•••....•.••.•.•• 310 b) System ••..•••.•.••••••.•.••••.••••.••..••.••.•••. 310 c) Cytosystematik •.....••..•.•••••••••.•.••••••••.•• 312 d) Chemosystematik •••••.•••.•••••.••.••.•...•••••.•• 313

4. Geogr aphie und F lor is tik .•.••.•••••••••••..•..•••..• 31 4 5. Fossile Bryophyten •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 315 6. (jkologie und Soziologie ••••••.•••.••••••••.•.••••••• 316 Li teratur ••••.••..•.••••.••...••••..•.•••••...•.••.•... 317

VI. Systematik der Farnpflanzen. Von Dr. DIETER MEYER •••.•• 323

1. Bibliographie, Biographie, Sammlungen •••.•••.•.•.•.. 323 2. Systematik ••...•.•••••••••.••.•••••••.•••.••••...•.• 323 3. Cytologie, Bastardierung •••••.•••••.•.•..•.••.....•. 324 4. Morphologie, Anatomie, Biologie ..••.•••••.•••.•••.•• 325 5. Kultivierte Farne •••.••••••••••.••..••••..•.•..••.•• 326 6. Floristik •••••...•••••.•••••••.•••••.•••.......•..•• 326 Literatur ..•.•••.•••.•..••......••..•••..••.••.•••••.•. 327

E. GEOBOTANY

I. Areal- und Florenkunde (Floristische Geobotanik) • Von Dr. ECKEHART J. JJ\.GER ••..•••.•.•..•••.•••...•••..•• 331 ,. Floristische Grundlagen •.•...••...•......••.•...•..• 331

a) Europa (auBer Mediterrangebiet und Orient) •••.... 331 b) Sowjetunion ••....••..•.....•••...•....•..•...••.. 332 c) Sud- und Ostasien ...•••••..••.••.•.•••...•.•••..• 333

2. Floristische Kartierung •••••••••••..•......•..•.••.. 334 a) Rasterkarten-Atlanten .•...••••...•.•.•..••••....• 334 b) Heuristischer und praktischer Wert der Arealkarten 334 c) Kartenbibliographien .••••.••••••••....•••••..•.•• 334

3. Floristische Gebiets- und Hohenstufengliederung •••.. 335 a) Florengebiete •....••...•••••..••...•••...••..••.• 335 b) Hohenstufengliederung ...•...•..•.•.••...••..••.•. 336

4. (jkologische Ursachen der Arealgrenzen •••.••••••••••• 337 a) Vergleich von Areal- und Faktorenkarten •.•.••••.• 337 b) Beobachtungen und Messungen zur Wirkung der

Arealfaktoren •.•••..••..••..••....•..••.••...•..• 339 c) Arealausfullung und Diasporen-Verbreitung .•••..•. 340

Literatur ...•..•..••••..••.....•....••..••..•.•.••••.•• 342

II. The History of Flora and Vegetation During the Quater-nary. By BURKHARD FRENZEL •..•.•.••..•••..••.•.••.•••••• 346 1. The Plio/Pleistocene Transition .••...•...•..•..••... 346 2. Pleistocene History of Climate ••.•..•.•...••..•••••• 347 3. Pleistocene History of Flora and Vegetation ..•••..•. 348

a) General Topics .•.•••••.....•••..•.•.•••....••.... 348

Contents XIII

b) Interglacial Flora and Vegetation ................ 348 c) Pleistocene Faunas ............•.................. 350 d) Problems of the Glacial Vegetation ............... 350 e) The Late-Glacial ..............•.............•..•. 352

4. Holocene History of Climate ..................•...... 354 5. Holocene Paleoecology ............................... 354 References ............................................. 356

III. Vegetation Science (Sociological Geobotany). By Professor Dr. RUDIGER KNAPP ...................................... 361

1. Fundamental Perspectives, Textbooks, Bibliographies. 361 2. General Results and Methods ..•...................... 362

a) Numerical Approaches to Dispersion and Structural Pattern of Species in Vegetation ................. 362

b) Changes, Patterns, and Mosaics of Plant Communi-ties Induced by Natural Disturbances ......•...... 363

c) Vegetation Mapping ...........................•... 364 3. Arctic Vegetation ..................•................ 365 4. Temperate and Meridional Vegetation ................. 365

a) North American Prairies .......................... 365 b) Eurasian Steppe and Dry Grasslands ............... 365 c) Vegetation of Industrialized, Urbanized and

Related Areas in Central Europe ................•. 366 d) Mediterranean and Submediterranean Therophytic

Vegetation ....................................... 366 e) Vegetation of Circum-Mediterranean and Arid

Asian Mountains ..............•................... 367 5. Tropical and Related Vegetation ................•...• 367

a) Tropical Rain Forests ............................ 367 b) East Asian Tall Bamboo Vegetation ................ 368 c) Vegetation in the Intertropical Andes of South

America .......................................... 368 Ref erences ............................................. 369

IV. Experimental Ecology (Ecological Geobotany). By Priv.-Doz. Dr. WOLFGANG SCHMIDT .............................• 374

1. General ............................................. 374 2. Relations to Environmental Factors .................. 375

a) Climate, Mainly Temperature ...................... 375 b) Light ............................................ 377 c) Water ............................................ 379 d) Soil, Mainly Mineral Nutrients ................... 383 e) Other Chemical Factors ........................... 387

References ............................................. 390

F. SPECIAL TOPICS

I. Syrnbiosen: Mykorrhiza. Von Professor Dr. FRANZ H. MEYER 396

1. Ektomykorrhiza .................•............•....... 396 a) Syrnbiosepartner .................................. 396 b) Aufbau ........................................... 396 c) Physiologie ...................................... 397 d) 6kologie ......................................... 398

XIV Contents

2. Endomykorrhiza ...•.................................. 399 a) Symbiosepartner, Vorkommen ....................... 399 b) Aufbau .............................•............• 400 c) Physiologie .................................•.... 400 d) (jkologie ..............................•.......... 401

Literatur ...........................•.................. 403

Subject Index ....•...•.•..........•.•...•..•.•.............••.•. 407

List of Editors

Section A: Professor Dr. E. SCHNEPF, Lehrstuhl fur Zellenlehre der Universitat Heidelberg, Berliner Str. 15, D 6900 Heidelberg

Section B: Professor Dr. H. ZIEGLER, Institut fur Botanik und Mikro­biologie, Technische Universitat Munchen, Arcisstr. 21, D 8000 Munchen 2

Section C: Professor Dr. K. ESSER, Lehrstuhl fur Allgemeine Botanik, Ruhr-Universitat, Postfach 10 2148, D 4630 Bochum 1

Section D: Professor Dr. K. KUBITZKI, Institut fur Allgemeine Botanik und Botanischer Garten, Universitat Hamburg, Postfach

Sections E and F:

302 722, D 2000 Hamburg 36

Professor Dr. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. H. ELLENBERG, Lehrstuhl fur Geobotanik, Systematisch-Geobotanisches Institut, Untere Karspule 2, D 3AOO Gottingen