Project Management

An artist's impression of the Homebush Bay master plan for the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games.

Project Management techniques allow vast undertakings to be managed effectively.

When planning a project it is important to consider the human and material resources that

are available.

Project Management gone wrong. It has been reported that the construction of this building will cost up to four times the original estimate for the project.

It is an example of a project executed in an atmosphere of delay and controversy and featuring

not only an extraordinary budget blow-out but a court battle and the resignation of the chief Project

Manager.

Project management overview and definition

Projects are singular, but non-routine, events with precise objectives which must be achieved within a set timeframe. Projects are broken into a set of activities designed to fulfill the stated objectives. Examples of projects include the building of a house, the holding of an event like a party or even something as simple as completing a school assignment.

Project Management requires the organisation of people, equipment and procedures in an appropriate way to get a project completed within a set timeframe and budget. A Project Manager is responsible for the coordination of all these resources in order to achieve the project objectives.

The following need to be considered when planning a project

Purpose and aim of the project

Resources available both human and material

Costing, human and time constraints

The tasks, procedures or activities required to complete the project

Project management techniques are used by organisations because they ensure that organisational objectives and system objectives are being met in a timely, accurate, relevant and complete manner. They provide a way of controlling people, resources and procedures, and clearly identify the tasks that must be completed and the desired completion time.

Project Management History

Even before the time of the Pyramids humankind has had to devise plans for completing set projects.

Project Management is not a new concept. Even in the time of the Ancient Egyptians a form of project management was needed to coordinate the construction of the great pyramids. Modern project management tools were, however, not developed until the early 1900s with the creation of the GANTT chart method. Further refinement in project management tools came about in the 1950s with the development of the Critical Path Method (CPM) and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). These three tools form the basis for documenting and managing the progress of projects. All of these tools produce graphical representations of projects, and all current project management software includes these components.

Interviews with Project Managers

Vanessa Duis, 29, works as a Project Manager coordinating CD-ROM and Internet content. She works to extremely tight deadlines within a multimedia organization alongside a variety of developers, designers, film-makers, authors and editors. Read her comments about how Project Management techniques are used within the multimedia industry.

Question: You currently work for a developer of CD-ROM and Internet content. Can you tell me how you got into

this line of work? My initial background was working for a UK-based traveller’s magazine. I used this experience working with written

content to move into the multimedia and Internet industry. Question: You are currently working to upgrade your Project Management skills. Why have you chosen Project

Management as your career path? In the last few years’ businesses have really started to see the importance of Project Management. If you scan any national

newspaper you will find a number of jobs for people with Project Management skills. This was not the case a couple of

years ago. Within the workforce contract work is becoming more common. This means that employees are more likely to

work on short set projects that must be completed within a specific time frame. Project Management techniques are

extremely useful for organising work when strict budgets and timeframes are involved. I have decided to focus on

upgrading my Project Management skills because I find that these skills are highly regarded in all industries, but

especially in the field of any Internet-based or multimedia work. Question: What type of person makes an exceptional Project Manager? The best Project Managers I have come across like to take a complex problem and to break it down into smaller,

manageable components. They are highly organised and usually quite logical in their outlook to problems. You will find

that most Project Managers have a ‘can do’ approach; they understand that all problems have solutions.

Question: What are the challenges that a Project Manager faces on a daily basis? Project Managers are often faced with very complex briefs. Sometimes projects can be broken down into hundreds or

even thousands of tasks. This means that any project plan is extremely involved. Working in the multimedia industry you

also find that the scope of projects can change on a daily basis. The other issue for Project Managers can be how to make

a compromise between what senior management require from their employees and what is actually able to be completed

in the time frames that they set. The whole process of Project Management is thus one of continual negotiation and re-

negotiation.

Question: What was the most challenging project you have managed to date? Project Management sets boundaries and tasks that need to be followed to complete a project. However you cannot

assume that your workforce is static. Once I was nearing the completion of a project and working to a very tight deadline

when, unexpectedly, the whole company was restructured. As you can imagine this was extremely challenging, however

the project was still completed on time and within budget.

Question: What project management tools do you use to coordinate projects? I find GANTT charts to be the most useful tool for coordinating projects. I also track information in Excel spreadsheets.

Question: Why is Project Management such a ‘buzz’ word in the IT industry at the moment?

The IT industry is constantly changing. It evolves from day to day. Project Management techniques allow a means of

keeping track of constantly changing information. With an industry that is in a constant state of flux I think it is quite

understandable that these techniques have surfaced as a key to the completion of any project.

Project Management Methodology

This Information Technology resource reviews the phases of Project Management. Begin by drawing some preliminary conclusions about which phase is the most expensive. Why might this be the case? Which stage is least expensive? Use the graph below.

There are several distinct phases or steps involved with managing a project. There are many versions of the phases described. Regardless of which version you read they will all encapsulate the following concepts:

Phase 1: Investigation

Once a project is defined, further research is needed in order to determine whether or not it is worthwhile pursuing.

This phase:

Involves the initial commissioning of the project

Involves the identification of the initial aim and goals

Involves investigation into the possible ways the project could be completed

Is undertaken by top level management or strategic planners

This phase would provide a project brief to the project team or project manager.

Phase 2: Planning and Design

This phase is important as it provides the foundation for the following phases. The aim of this step is to ensure that the objectives can and will be met within the set time and budgetary constraints.

This phase involves:

Defining the exact purpose of the project and clearly defining the objectives to be achieved

Breaking the project into tasks or activities and defining the purpose of each

Estimating the shortest and longest possible time required for each activity

Identifying milestones and key time markers in the project that keep the project on schedule

Determining the sequence of activities and any constraints affecting the sequence. For example, some tasks must be completed before other ones can start, or particular resources might be required for the activity. This also includes:

Deciding which activities should be completed before others can commence

Identifying activities that can be done simultaneously or must be done at the same time

Assigning resources, people, materials and equipment to activities

Estimating the cost of resources

Drawing up a calendar of events

The deliverables or final output of this phase could include:

A project plan for management review

A GANTT chart

A PERT diagram, including a critical path, or a network diagram

Phase 3: Production

During this phase the plan is put into operation. It ought to provide a completed project, ready to be 'handed over to' clients. Alternatively, it may end in a full implementation, i.e. at the end of an internal organisational project.

This phase involves:

Providing the resources

Completing the activities

Monitoring, controlling and recording the progress of the project on the GANTT chart

Comparing the current progress to the planned schedule

Updating and refining the schedule as required

Monitoring resource use to ensure no budgetary blowout

Ensuring milestones and overall goals are met

Phase 4: Evaluation and Monitoring

As part of the evaluation and monitoring phase of Project Management the project

team is decommissioned or reassigned new tasks.

The initial part of this phase is the transferal or hand over of the project. Of course this project may not always have a single product as the final result. Either way, the objectives of the project at this point should be met.

Once the project is transferred to the client the project team is 'decommissioned', reassigned new tasks or placed into new project teams. Some members of the group may be utilised in observing the full implementation of the project or in supporting or monitoring its implementation.

It is also at this point the management will assess the success of the project. This assessment is based on the elements of efficiency and effectiveness:

Quality: How well it has met the objectives? What is the final quality of the product?

Cost: Did the project stay within the budget specified and proposed use of resources?

Time: Did the project finish on or before the specified date? Was it the shortest possible time for the project?

Timeliness: Was the project completed in time for the information

to be of use?

Accuracy: Are there any errors in the product?

Relevance: Does the project/product include only those elements required by the client?

Completeness: Does the client have everything they need in order to do their work and make their decisions?

Revision

Try the following Project Management revision activity to review what you have learned so far.

Use the following question and answer activity for further revision.

Test your understanding. Print out the following summary sheet then fill in the blank spaces to

complete the document. Answers are provided on page two. A. Introduction to Project Management

Project Management requires the organization of three things: people, equipment and procedures. Project managers are

concerned with how to get a particular job done. The jobs, or projects, coordinated by project managers have set activities

that are required to meet stated objectives. The first documented Project Management techniques were in the early 1900s

with the development of the GANTT chart method. The principles of Project Management were refined further in the

1950s with the development of the Critical Path Method (CPM) and the Program Evaluation and Review Technique

(PERT). B. The Phases of Project Management

Project management is characterised by four specific stages. These distinct steps are: Investigation, Planning and Design,

Production and, lastly, Monitoring and Evaluation. During the Investigation phase the initial commissioning of the

project takes place and goals and aims are identified. At the end of this phase a project brief is given to the project team

or project manager. During the Planning and Design phase milestones and key time markers are identified to keep the

project on schedule. It is also important during this phase to break the project into tasks or activities and to define the

purpose of each. The Production phase should provide a completed project, ready to be 'handed over’ to clients. In the

final phase of Project Management, the Evaluation and Monitoring phase, the success of the project is assessed. The

project is assessed based on effectiveness and efficiency factors.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1. What is the role of a Project Manager?

Project Managers concern themselves with how to get a particular job done. They organise people, equipment and

procedures in an appropriate way to get a project completed in time and within budget.

2. Why are project management techniques used by organisations?

Project Management techniques ensure that organisational objectives and system objectives are met in a timely, accurate,

relevant and complete way. They provide the adequate control of people, resources and procedures and clearly identify

tasks that must be completed and the desired completion time.

3. When were the first project management techniques documented?

The first documented techniques were in the early 1900s with the development of the GANTT chart method.

4. Project management methodology has four distinct phases. What are they?

Phase 1: Investigation Phase 2: Planning and Design Phase 3: Production Phases 4: Monitoring and Evaluation

5. What does Phase 1, the Investigation phase of project management, involve? Who undertakes this phase?

This phase involves the initial commissioning of the project, the identification of initial aims and goals and investigation

into the possible way the project can be completed. The Investigation phase is undertaken by top-level management or

strategic planners.

6. List four steps in Phase 2, the Planning and Design Phase of project management.

Choose from any of the following:

• Defining the exact purpose of the project and clearly defining goals • Breaking the project into tasks or activities and defining the purpose of each • Estimating the shortest and longest possible time required for each activity • Identifying milestones and key time markers in the project that keep the project on schedule • Determining the sequence of each activity and any constraints affecting the sequence • Deciding which activities should be completed before others can commence • Identifying activities that can be done simultaneously • Assigning resources, people, materials and equipment to activities • Costing of resources • Drawing up a calendar of events

7. What does Phase 3, the Production Phase of project management involve?

This phases involves: providing resources, completing the set activities, monitoring, controlling and recording the

progress of the project on a GANTT chart, comparing current progress to the planned schedule, updating and refining the

schedule as required and monitoring resources to ensure there are no problems meeting the budget.

8. In the Evaluation and Monitoring phase of project management what questions might a Project Manager

address?

The Project Manager might address issues of quality asking questions such as: How well it has the project met the

objectives? Is the final quality of the product satisfactory? The Manager might also address issues of cost: Did the project

stay within the budget specified? Lastly issues of time would be considered: Did the project finish on or before the

specified date? Was it the shortest possible time for the project?

Project Management Tools

This resource covers the tools used by a Project Manager beginning with 'GANTT' charts.

GANTT charts

A project plan is often constructed within the planning phase. It contains all activities and milestones. These events are placed in a particular time sequence, ultimately producing something similar to a horizontal bar chart.

A GANTT chart displays tasks and costs along a horizontal time scale, much like a calendar. The time for each task is recorded, by indicating the start and finish dates. It should show the best possible way to complete the project in the shortest time. Activities can be done in parallel or sequentially, and the GANTT chart shows this clearly. Even though it lists tasks, it does not show the critical path as there is no indication of the relationship between tasks.

From this GANTT chart you can find out the following,

Activity 3.0.2 Production Build:

Has a duration of 10 days

Must be done after Order Production Materials and Final Code Release

Must be done before Ship Product

Is expected to start 6/8/99 (mm/dd/yy)

Is expected to finish 6/21/99 (mm/dd/yy)

Is on the critical path (indicated in red)

PERT Diagrams (network diagrams)

PERT diagrams or critical path networks use a graphical form to show relationships between activities and time frames.

Part of a PERT diagram. Notice that for each event start and finish dates are included.

They differ from GANTT charts in that they are better at identifying the relationship between tasks rather than the progress of tasks over time.

Key elements in developing a PERT diagram:

1. Activities - list of activities in the project and their dependencies

2. Nodes/Events - indicating the beginning or end of an activity

3. Network lines show the interdependence of events

4. Indication of the critical path - the sequence of dependent events that have the sum of longest duration

5. Indication of slack time - events not on the critical path usually have slack time, extra time for that event that does not effect the timing of other events thus not effecting the project time. That means that can fall behind schedule and there is no impact on the project completion date.

If you wish to have a play with creating your own GANTT charts and PERT diagrams, there a number of trial versions available on the Internet. Try the following web sites:

http://www.projectkickstart.com/

http://www.minuteman-systems.com/

Estimating Activity Time

When estimating the duration of the project, consider each task separately, the people doing the task, normal working times and, above all, be realistic.

Project Managers may be able to use historical data or experience to estimate duration.

Scheduling and Expediting

Projects rarely follow the plan laid out. During the project the Project Manager should assess each step. If there are delays they should identify alternate actions to bring the project back within the time constraints. Often this is done by putting more resources, time or money into a particular activity. This course of action should be thought through carefully. Time and costs need to be traded off in order to get the project completed.

After the critical path and the slack time in other activities have been identified, it may be possible to expedite (hasten) or crash the schedule. This involves identifying tasks that could possibly be reduced in time if enough money or resources were available. Again it is a matter of assessing whether the extra cost or effort is worth the saving in time.

Critical Path Method

The critical path is a series of activities which are vital to the event being completed on time. For example, a delay in one event will delay the completion of the project.

Revision

Try the Project Management tools revision activity to revise what you have learned so far.

Question:

You and a group of three friends are planning the end of year party for Year 12s. Construct a GANTT chart for this. Be sure to consider events that could occur simultaneously as well as dependent events, i.e. those that must be done before others start. Estimate the time for each event.

Test your understanding. Print out the following summary sheet then fill in the blank spaces to

complete the document.

A. Project Management Tools

A GANTT chart displays tasks along a horizontal time scale. GANTT charts should show the best possible way to

complete the task in the shortest time. Activities can be done in parallel or sequentially, and the GANTT chart shows this

clearly. PERT diagrams or critical path networks, on the other hand, use a graphical form to show relationships between

activities and time frame. On a PERT diagram network show the interdependence of events and the critical path is used

to show the sequence of events that have the sum of the longest duration. To allow for uncertainty when organizations are

estimating activity times, three estimates are provided, the pessimistic time, the most probable time and the optimistic

time.

Documentation

Problems arose for network administrator Phil Wales when setting up a new networked information system for 3RRR. Part of the problem for Wales arose because he didn't have any previous documentation to show him how the studio network had been set up. Letch explains the importance of documentation in this video.

Documentation is essential for the success of any information system. Documentation provides anyone who interacts with a particular system an overview of the system capabilities and its software. It may also include specific procedures which must be followed or be used to provide training or reference material. Application and information systems can fail to meet their full potential if there is inadequate documentation to support them. Without good documentation users may flounder and the efficiency gains expected from a new system will never be realised.

Read an interview with Sunita Marar, Procedures Manager at CitySearch (www.citysearch.com.au). Marar explains the necessity of documentation within the fast-paced and ever changing environment of an Internet company.

Sunita Marar, Business Communications Manager at CitySearch, explores the

importance of documentation within a fast-paced Internet company.

Who do you work for and what is your role within that company?

CitySearch.com.au is a network of online city guides and directories providing listings of events and businesses

throughout Australia. I work as the Business Communications Manager and my role is to manage the documentation of

company policy, product guidelines and standard operating procedures within the company at a national level. For

example, if senior management wish to change to the way that employees record customer information I assist in that

process. It is my job to liaise with people from all areas of the business affected by this change, research their individual

requirements, establish the most efficient method to complete the task and to document the new process.

When new information systems are implemented (and is this a common occurrence within an Internet company) why

do you think it is important to document the processes of that system?

Without adequate documentation the users of newly implemented systems cannot work efficiently. With clear

documented instructions detailing each task within a process, everyone is aware of the responsibilities of each area of

the business and the tasks they must complete with the process.

You handle a range of communication needs within CitySearch. What types of documentation do you use and who are

you documenting information for?

The Business Communications team writes for a wide audience including CitySearch employees, CitySearch clients and

users of the CitySearch website. Some examples include: product information and frequently asked questions for the

CitySearch site; corporate brochures; systems manuals; and policy, guidelines and standards for the company Intranet.

Are you also responsible for documenting programming code and technical information on the network used by

CitySearch?

No. This information is written by programmers within the Information Technology department of CitySearch. I work in

conjunction with this department when documenting user guides, to gain information from the developers of the

system.

How do you document system changes within CitySearch? What types of documentation do you use?

Paper-based documentation is kept to a minimum due to constant changes to procedures. Standard operating

procedures for each area are documented and uploaded onto the Intranet for all staff to access.

What would happen without the comprehensive documentation process that you have developed within CitySearch?

Change is simply a part of being an Internet company. With procedures and technology changing constantly it is vital

that all employees within the company are kept up to date with the latest developments. If our employees did not have

quick access to policies and procedures then we would be working at cross-purposes. Adequate documentation allows

us to work efficiently and effectively.

Types of Documentation

Documentation comes in a variety of styles to meet the needs of different types of users. For example, documentation produced for a technician may be different to that of a data entry operator because their roles require different levels and types of knowledge specific to their jobs. Documentation is produced throughout the development of any solution. It records all details to help current developers and users as well as any future ones.

Program Documentation

When developing a software solution the developer or programmer will document all steps of the process. The software product should be fully supported with technical documentation so that any programmer in the future can understand the process and the code that was developed.

System and Technical Documentation

System documentation involves developing and documenting all the processes of system development. This includes such items as data dictionaries, data flow diagrams, network diagrams and all other design documentation that occurred throughout development. All equipment will be logged and all the technical parts of the system must be documented for future reference.

User Documentation

Rob Appel, the CEO of ChaosMusic, at the launch of his music retailer's online store in Sydney. Visit ChaosMusic at http://www.chaosmusic.com.au and consider the

types of documentation provided for users of the site. Does the information provided enable users to interact with the site easily and effectively? Consider the brochure Appel is holding? How do you think

this was incorporated into the plans for user documentation?

User documentation is a set of documents that assist the user use the system, software or hardware being implemented. It normally consists of a set of paper based and online facilities to train or help the user. It can include training manuals, procedure guides, quick help cards, and frequently asked questions.

Paper Based Documentation

Paper based documentation is the traditional form of user documentation. It consists of manuals and reference guides that would be available in the computer section of your local bookstore or library. It also includes documents produced in-house that are specifically designed for the system. User manuals are the most common form of paper-based documentation. They cover, in a tutorial format, the steps required to complete the sort of tasks that an end user would perform on a routine basis.

Electronic Documentation

Over the last few years electronic documentation has become a popular way to give employees and/or end users the assistance they require to complete tasks. Most software packages now come with the help manual in printed as well as electronic form. Electronic documentation takes advantage of hypertext and other multimedia elements. Some packages also come with a CD-ROM to take the user through a series of tasks to familiarise them with the software or hardware operations. Because these forms of documentation are available at any time from the computer they are often referred to as being 'online'.

Other Media for Documentation

There are other forms of documentation. All are useful depending on the user and their needs. For example, there are many training videos and external web sites that provide the end user with help.

Documentation for different users

Specialist users, such as data entry operators or web developers depend upon the use of

information systems in order to do their work.

It is important to identify the user and their documentation requirements.

Users are normally categorised by their level of knowledge of the operation of the system:

Novice Need quick start guides, troubleshooting tips and user

manuals that explain basic processes in detail

Intermediate Need more detailed user manuals which assume some

prior knowledge, troubleshooting guides and simple

technical guides

Expert Need manuals with explanation of complex or

advanced features

Or by their level of involvement with the system:

Expert Support specialists, usually software or hardware

technicians whose role is to maintain the system?

Specialists These users depend on the use of information systems

to do their work. They may include data entry

operators, web developers and graphic designers.

Adjunct People for whom information technology assists them

in their work but is not essential. This group includes

medical staff, teachers, accountants, lawyers and store

managers.

Incidentals Occasional users of an information system. Examples

include a customer using a company's web-based

product catalogue to order goods, accessing point-of-

sale systems, or even interacting with an electronic

switchboard with voicemail.

When developing user documentation the level of knowledge and involvement should be considered. Documentation must be geared directly towards the needs of a particular user or group of users.

Print out the following revision activity and use it to test your understanding of the types of documentation required by different groups of users.

Print this page and complete the charts below: User Documentation required by the user

Novice

Intermediate

Expert

User Define this user group and give an example of an employee with

this level of involvement with the system

Experts

Specialists

Adjunct

Incidentals

Revision

Try the documentation revision activity to revise what you have learned so far.

Use this question and answer activity for further revision

Test your understanding. Print out the following summary sheet then fill in the blank spaces to

complete the document. Answers are provided on page two. Documentation is essential for the success of any information system. It helps those that interact with the system by

providing training or acting as a reference. Documentation records all the details that will help current developers and

users plus any futures ones. The software product should be fully supported with technical documentation so that any

programmer in the future can understand the process and the code that was developed. System documentation involves developing and documenting all the process of system development and includes such

things as data dictionaries, data flow diagrams and all other design documentation that occur throughout development. All

equipment will be logged and all the technical parts of the system must be documented for future reference, this would

include things like a network map. User documentation involves developing a set of documents that assist the user to use the system, software or hardware

being implemented. It would usually include items such as training manuals, procedure guides, quick help cards,

frequently asked questions, etc. Paper based documentation is the traditional form of user documentation. User manuals are the most common form of paper based documentation as they go through, in simple steps, the tasks that

the end user would perform on a daily basis. However, over the last few years, online documentation has become a

popular way to give employees and/or end users the help and assistance they require. When documenting processes it is important to identify the each user’s documentation requirements. Users are normally

categorised by their level of knowledge into one of three groups: novice intermediate and expert Users can also be

categorized by their level of involvement with the system into the following four groups: expert, specialists, adjunct and

incidentals. DOCUMENTATION 1. Why is documentation essential to the success of any information system? Documentation informs and explains the system. It helps those that interact with the system by providing training or

acting as a reference guide.

2. Explain at least three types of documentation. System and Technical Documentation: involves developing and documenting all the processes of system development

and includes such things as data dictionaries, data flow diagrams and all other design documentation that produced

throughout development. User documentation: involves developing a set of documents that assist the user use the system, software or hardware

being implemented. It normally consists of a set of paper-based and online facilities to train or help the user. Paper-based documentation: is the traditional form of user documentation. It consists of manuals and reference guides that

are usually available in the computer section of local bookstores or libraries. It includes in-house documents. User

manuals are the most common form of paper-based documentation. Online documentation: is usually a help manual in electronic form that takes advantage of hypertext and other multimedia

elements. Other forms of documentation include: videos, web sites and multimedia packages that provide the end users with the help

they need.

The System Development Life Cycle Overview

Information systems and products do not just 'happen' - they are usually the result of a process that identifies problems and creates solutions to them. The most successful information technology systems are those that are able to properly solve problems within an organisation. The development of information products and systems will usually follow a process that involves a number of distinct phases.

There are a number of names that this process is given, including: system life cycle, system development life cycle and system development methodology. We will use the term system development life cycle (SDLC) however, any of the other terms could be used interchangeably. In this job advertisement you will see that 'SDLC' has been used as a standard industry term.

Each of the phases has a series of events or steps that are completed in order to arrive at the final product.

The Planning Phase

When radio station 3RRR made a major transition from an outdated network to the installation and configuration of a new networked information system, Kath Letch, RRR Station Manager, oversaw the implementation. View a video that explores what the planning stage of this project involved.

There are many factors which may prompt change within organisations. Some examples include:

a change in government policy

the introduction of new, or amendment to existing, legislation

market trends

community attitudes and values

availability and cost of equipment

desire for increased competitiveness

employment agreements

health and safety.

Regardless of the reason, the development of any computer based information system should receive careful planning. Proper planning is important as it allows:

the scope of the project to be defined

potential problem areas to be identified

the sequence of the tasks to be identified

for the provision of a basis for control.

The planning phase will normally follow a sequence of steps including:

recognising the problem

defining the problem

setting project objectives

identifying constraints

conducting feasibility studies

creating project proposals

establishing control mechanisms.

A GANTT chart may be used to assist in the planning of a new system.

Note - the planning that takes places in this process is not the planning of the program or system, rather, it is the initial steps that take place to define the project and set the objectives that will be used to evaluate the overall success of the final solution.

The Analysis Phase

The analysis phase of the SDLC is where existing system(s) are studied with the aims of designing a new or improved system. In this phase, a number of important decisions are made - including who will work on the system, and the setting of specific performance goals for the system to achieve.

Data must be gathered on the strengths and weaknesses of the existing system by using methods such as:

observation

research

interviewing

sampling to trace procedural paths and information flows

The analysis phase has the following steps:

announcing the project

creating the project team

defining information needs

defining system performance criteria

creating a design proposal

At the conclusion of the analysis phase a decision on whether or not to proceed with the project must be made. This decision will be made based upon the information that is contained within the design proposal - hence it is important that the design proposal clearly identifies what resources will be required to complete the project and sets the major goals and the time frame for the completion of the project.

The Design Phase

The design phase, as the name suggests, is where the new system will be designed. In this phase the processes and data required by the new system are defined. In most projects, there will be a number of different ways in which the problem can be solved - and consequently, in this phase, it is important that a number of different alternatives are investigated to ensure that the most efficient and effective solution is adopted.

In this phase, the steps that are followed include:

preparing a detailed system design

identifying and evaluating alternative system configurations

selecting the best configuration

preparing an implementation proposal.

The Implementation Phase

The implementation phase is where physical and conceptual resources that are required for the project are obtained and integrated into the existing system to produce the final working system.

There are a number of steps that are followed in this phase, including:

planning and announcing the implementation

acquiring the hardware resources

acquiring the software resources

preparing the physical facilities

educating the participants and users

preparing an implementation schedule (or changeover)

changing over to the new system.

The Use/Evaluation Phase

Once the system has been implemented, the final phase in the project will be the use and evaluation phase. In this phase, the system should be in full use to meet the objectives that were initially identified in the planning phase.

The use/evaluation phase has a number of steps:

using the system

auditing the system (including a post implementation review)

maintaining the system

re-engineering proposals.

Some methods by which data can be gathered for this phase include:

recording equipment breakdowns

monitoring staff absentee rates

logging help desk enquiries

surveying customers

For each of these methods, some or all of the following criteria may be applied:

efficiency (time, cost, effort)

effectiveness (timeliness, accuracy, relevance, completeness)

maintainability

Revision

Before the phases of the SDLC are explored in detail use this revision activity to revise what you have learned so far.

Test your understanding. Print out the following summary sheet then fill in the blank spaces to complete the

document. Answers are provided on page two. A. The Planning Phase

In order to define the scope of a project and to identify potential problem areas the development of any computer based

information system must be carefully planned. The planning phase normally follows a sequence of steps including

recognising the problem, setting project objectives, conducting feasibility studies and establishing control mechanisms.

B. The Analysis Phase

During the Analysis Phase of the SDLC existing systems are studied with the aim of designing a new or improved system.

Steps involved in this phase include announcing the project, creating a project team, defining information needs,

defining system performance criteria and creating a design proposal. At the conclusion of this phase a decision must be

made as to whether or not the project will proceed. C. The Design Phase

During the design phase the processes and data required by the new system are defined. During this phase it is important

that a number of different alternatives are investigated to ensure that the most efficient and effective solution is adopted.

Part of the design phase involves preparing an implementation proposal. D. The Implementation Phase

In the implementation phase physical and conceptual resources required for the project are obtained. Some of the steps in

this phase include preparing the physical facilities, educating the users/participants changing over to the new system. E. The Use/Evaluation Phase

Once the system has been implemented the final phase in the project is the Use/Evaluation phase. During this phase the

system should be in full use and meeting the objectives that were set during the planning phase. This phase has a number

of steps including using the system, auditing the system, and re-engineering proposals.

The Planning Phase of the SDLC

Recognising the problem (factors prompting change within organisations)

The first and most important part of the development of a computer based information system is the identification of the problem. It could be something as simple as a warehouse manager being unable to quickly locate stock when it has to be transported elsewhere, the need to create a customer database or a more complex problem involving changes in the buying trends of customers. Computer based information systems are usually created in response to existing problems and it is the nature of these problems, and consequently the solutions that are needed, that will shape the final system.

The Planning Phase: defining the problem

The comment of a department store employee - My maths isn't too good, I can never add up the figures correctly on the sales docket - may translate into a problem of totals on sales dockets being incorrectly recorded, leading to a

loss of sales revenue and customer confidence.

Computer systems are developed to enable processes to occur in a more efficient manner, or to avoid problems which currently exist. The ability to clearly define the problems or the inefficiencies is the first step in creating successful computer systems. This is because, in order to build a successful computer based information system, it is necessary to identify the deficiencies of the current system.

Problem identification does not have to require extensive exploration of the current system's deficiencies. The detailed review of current practices and existing problems will be conducted in the analysis phase of the SDLC.

The Planning Phase: setting project objectives

In the planning phase broad goals for the entire project are set. In particular, it must be determined if the entire system or only part of the system needs to be replaced. Whilst this does not seem to be a significant step, it is very important to the overall project. It is through the setting of these broad system goals that the measurements of success can be determined. That is, at the completion of the planning phase, a clear picture of what the problem is has been established and equally important, a clear picture of what outcome will resolve the process has also been established.

It should be noted here that we have not identified what needs to built into the computer based information system. There is a very good reason for this - at this stage it is not relevant. In the problem solving phase, the focus is on identifying the problem and what would solve it - not how the problem has arisen and how it should be solved. By maintaining this focus, the solution is linked to the problem and through this a process for solving it developed. A computer based information system should never be created for the sake of creating it - it should be created to solve the problem that was identified.

Too often, a computer based information system will be created but will not solve the problem that it was intended to. This can usually be traced back to the initial planning phase. When the outcomes to solve the problem were established, they would focus on what the system could be made to do, rather than what it actually needed to do to solve the problem. Consequently the system that was built, even though it achieved its goals, did not solve the initial problem.

The quality of the initial planning will have a significant influence on the ability of the final product to solve the problem.

The Planning Phase: identifying constraints

Because we do not live in a perfect world, there will be negative factors limiting the nature of the system to be developed or modified. These constraints might include a fixed budget, necessity for quick implementation, integration and compatibility with existing systems or even issues related to staffing and retraining. Any adverse factors must be taken into account as part of the feasibility study.

Feasibility Study Question 1

Can the system be created?

The first question that needs to be asked - Can the system be created? - seems like a rather obvious question. It is not as clear as it might seem. Often, when a system is being developed specifically for an organisation, there will be no existing system on which to base comparisons on. It may be that what seems like a simple idea cannot be created for whatever reason. While this step does not look in exacting detail, it will look at what the system is required to do, and if this should be able to be achieved

Feasibility Study Question 2

Does the company have the ability to create the system?

Once it has been established that the system can be created, the next question is - Can the company actually produce it? - in simple terms, does it have the expertise that will be required to create the system. This encompasses the project managers, programmers, technical experts etc. that will be needed during the project. If the expertise is not currently available, allowances need to be made in the project for this - either by outsourcing aspects of the project or employing the appropriate personnel to ensure the company has the appropriate skills available to complete the project.

Feasibility Study Question 3

If the system was developed, does the company have the ability to keep it operating at an acceptable level?

Once it has been established that the organisation has the appropriate skills to develop the system, the feasibility study must determine if the company will be able to keep the system operating at a level which will enable it to meet the original goals. In order to do this, it must first be determined what the level of operation will need to be to meet the goals, and once this is determined, it can be established what resources will be needed to allow the system to run at this level. It will then be possible to evaluate if the organisation has the appropriate resources - including human, technical and physical. It might be possible for the organisation to be able to implement the system without the need for additional resources, however it is also quite likely that the organisation will need to provide additional resources for the system to be implemented. If the organisation needs to alter the nature of the resources it has available, it should be identified in the feasibility study.

Feasibility Study Question 4

Can the system development costs and ongoing costs be justified on the improvements it will deliver?

At this point in the feasibility study, the costs associated with the proposed system will be clearer. The costs will be divided into two categories - establishment costs and ongoing costs. Establishment costs are those associated with the actual creation of the system. This would include all development costs, hardware purchases and the like. The establishment costs are one off costs and will not be repeated during the life of the system. Ongoing costs are the costs that will be faced each year in running the system. It includes the human resource costs, system consumables costs and the like. The ongoing costs must be low enough to justify the development of the system. That is, there is no point developing a new system to perform a job if the current system does it cheaper - unless there is some overwhelming need for change. The establishment costs will be incurred in the initial setting up of the system, however they will usually be viewed over the anticipated life of that system.

Feasibility Study Question 5

Is there a better way of solving the problem?

Having established what the proposed system will deliver and at what cost, the next step in the feasibility study is to review this material against other possible solutions. At this point, it may become clear there are better ways of achieving the desired outcomes - this may be because the system cannot deliver all of the required objectives, or enabling the system to do so would cost far more than can be justified. By revisiting other options, the company ensures the system which is finally approved is one which provides the best system for the money which is spent on it.

Feasibility Study Question 6

Should the system development go ahead?

At the conclusion of the feasibility study, it must provide a recommendation for the course of action. This recommendation will fall into one of three categories:

to proceed with the system as initially planned

to proceed with the system, but with alterations to the initial plan

not to proceed with the system as planned and to conduct further investigations into the options available.

Feasibility Study

Once the problem identification process has been completed and an idea of a solution (or a number of possible solutions) have been established, but before any large project is approved, a thorough investigation of the implications, costs and benefits of the system should be undertaken. This investigation is referred to as the Feasibility Study.

The main reason for conducting a feasibility study, in broad terms, is to see if creating the system will be worthwhile. What defines "worthwhile" will vary from company to company and system to system. Generally speaking, it is a balancing act - can the cost of developing the system be justified by the benefits the system will deliver?

The issues that a feasibility study will look at include:

can the system be created?

does the company have the ability to create the system?

if the system was developed, does the company have the ability to keep it operating at an acceptable level?

can the system development costs and ongoing costs be justified on the improvements it will deliver?

is there a better way of solving the problem?

should the system development go ahead?

Creating Project Proposals

The feasibility study will be presented to the management of the organisation who will make the final decision on whether to proceed with the proposed system development. If the proposal is given the approval to begin, the first step will be the analysis phase of the system development life cycle.

Establishing Control Mechanisms

A clear set of procedures and techniques must be established to ensure that proper controls exist on any data gathered in subsequent stages to ensure that it is valid. For example, it is often necessary to follow-up an interview or survey with direct observation to confirm your findings.

Key Issues Weighting A B C D

Operational

- meet requirements

- level of security provided

- education and training

- business competence

25% 9 7 4 6

6.5

8 9 9 7

8.25

10 6 7 8

7.75

6 7 10 8 7.75

Technical

- new equipment required

- utilization of current equipment

- technical support during and after installation

- expertise in developing systems for similar needs

30% 9 5 8 7

7.25

10 3 8 7

7

8 8 6 5

6.75

8 6 9 9

8

Scheduling

- timeframe for development and full implementation

15% Less than 3

months 8

2 months

10

3-5 months

6

4

months

7

Economic

- costs to develop

- payback time

30% $75,000 2 years

10

$100,000 3 years

7

$85,000 2.5 years

9

$90,000

2.75 years

8

Ranking 100%

The Analysis Phase of the SDLC

Announcing the Project

The Analysis Phase of the SDLC begins with members of the organisation being notified that system changes are under investigation so that they can be prepared to participate in the decision making if required. It also keeps people informed as to the progress of the changes at each stage.

The Analysis Phase: creating the project team

Whilst the Project Manager has overall responsibility for the proposed system changes, other personnel are needed to provide specialist input. For example, the project team would include system analysts who provide links with the users and technical analysts who determine the technical feasibility of the project.

The Analysis Phase: defining information needs

The process of analysing a computer system starts with a broad look at the system which is then broken down into smaller parts. Each of the smaller parts can then be broken down into even smaller parts and so on. This approach enables a complete analysis to occur, without the initial task appearing to be a task so large as to be unable to be completed.

The purpose of the analysis phase of the system development life cycle is to document what the current system does, and highlight the strengths and deficiencies in it.

In the analysis of the system, the following should occur:

identification and evaluation of sources of information

identification and description of the types of information needed to analyse the system

identification and description of the types of information needed to design the system

information flow and needs documented using system modeling tools

identification and description of problem areas in the current system, which are grouped and become the basis for the development of the new system.

The Analysis Phase: identification and evaluation of sources of information

When deciding what type of network was required for a new information system 3RRR management consulted staff extensively.

In order to perform an analysis of a system, the first step must be to identify the sources of information that will provide views on the running of the current system. This will involve the users of the information the system produces, users of the actual system and people who support the system.

Each of the groups will provide information that contributes to the construction of an overall picture of the running of the system. In each of the broad groups identified above, there will be different categories or subgroups within it. It is important that input is received from all of these parties so that a well-balanced overall view of the system can be developed.

In order to perform an analysis of a system a number of people must be consulted: users of the information

the system produces, users of the actual system and people who support the system.

When performing an analysis of the current system, the views of the users of the system are paramount in successfully recognising the strengths and identifying weaknesses present. The first task of the analyst will be to identify who they need to consult to find out about the current system. In doing this, they will need to identify the following users of the system: those who provide data, those who input data, those manipulate the data and those who receive data. As well as these groups, they will need to identify the group above this - those who own or run the organisation - for they will also have ideas as to what the system is doing, what it can be doing or what it should be doing. Although you would imagine the discussion with the users of the system would uncover this information, it is surprising just how often management's idea of what is happening is different to that of the users of the system.

The Analysis Phase: identification and description of the types of information needed to analyses the system

Having identified the sources of information, the next step the analyst must take is to establish what information can be gained from them. The information which can be gained from the manager will be different from the data entry clerk, which will be different from the customers and so on. The analyst must decide what information should be obtained from each source identified.

It is unusual for one user to be the exclusive source of information about the system. Most aspects of the system will have some degree of overlap - it may be that significant detail will come mainly from one source, but there will usually be other users who are also impacted, and information must be collected from them as well.

As well as identifying who will be capable of supplying what information in this step, the analyst must also make decisions about the reliability and suitability of the sources. Information collected must be evaluated for bias and relevance and given the appropriate weighting in the overall analysis of the system. For example, while a manager and a data clerk would both have opinions on the usefulness of the financial reports produced by a particular system, the manager's opinion would have more weighting, but conversely, the data clerk's opinion has more significance in areas relating to the ease of data entry.

Sometimes, the analyst will identify the need for other information in order to fully analyse the system. In this case, they would need to document where this information can be obtained. An example of this would be the need to conform to government privacy regulations with regard to the release of confidential data on individuals.

The Analysis Phase: identification and description of the types of information needed to design the system

The analyst must ensure the new system meets all relevant regulations and standards - and to do this, they must first identify who the appropriate authorities are, and investigate and document the standards that are relevant to this

system.

Having established the type and sources of information needed to analyse the existing system, the next step is to identify and describe the information that will be needed to design the new system. While this sounds very similar to the previous step, there are some differences that must be noted.

Much of the information needed to design the new system will come from the same sources used previously. The designer of the new system must take into account information from all relevant sources. Some of this information will relate to mandatory standards (that is, minimum standards imposed by government or regulatory authorities - usually relating to Occupational Health and Safety issues, or data security/privacy law). The analyst must ensure the new system meets all relevant regulations and standards - and to do this, they must first identify who the appropriate authorities are, and investigate and document the standards that are relevant to this system.

There will be other external sources of information that an analyst may need in the design of a new system. These sources will usually provide the analyst with expert advice on various aspects of the proposed system - focusing on areas where time and/or money can be saved through applying skills or designs from other projects to this system. In essence, the system allows for the incorporation of developments in other projects into this one to ensure that the final product uses the most appropriate technologies available.

The Analysis Phase: information flow and needs documented using system modeling tools

Seavision Multimedia. Information flow within the company showing how the various employees interact with each other in the system.

An important phase in the development of the new system is the documentation of the information flow within the existing system. In this step, all the data in the system is recorded from when it is received, through manipulation in the system, until the final information is produced. In each phase it is important to note who is providing the system with the data,

performing the manipulation and receiving the information that is produced.

There are a number of tools that are used to represent these features - Data flow Diagrams (DFDs), Context Diagram and Entity Relationship diagrams. The reason why this stage is so important, is that it allows the analyst to develop a complete understanding of the way in which the various parties interact with each other in the system, and thus design a system that will be responsive to the needs of all of the parties involved. It also has the benefit of identifying the areas in which the company has direct control, and those for which it must rely on outside sources. Obviously, when designing a new system, there is no point in changing areas which the company has no control over, such as specifying data must be received in a particular way, when the person who is supplying that data is under no pressure or obligation to change the way in which they supply the data.

The Analysis Phase: identification and description of problem areas in the current system

In the final stage of the Analysis Phase the analyst will reconstruct the DFDs to outline where proposed changes to the

system will take place.

Identification and description of problem areas in the current system, which are grouped and become the basis for the development of the new system is the final stage of the analysis phase. Here the analyst will look at all of the data that they have collected and decide where the current system's performance can be improved. The analyst will then reconstruct the DFDs to represent the proposed changes, as well as detailing the processing that will take place in each part of the system. In this final stage, the analyst will describe what has to happen at each point in the proposed system. These descriptions will form the basis for the development of the new system.

The Analysis Phase: defining system performance criteria

These outline the standards that the system must achieve. In other words, what is the minimum level of tasks that the system can handle. This would include the objectives that the proposed changes are to achieve. These criteria must exceed the levels of performance of the old system.

The Analysis Phase: creating a design proposal

The final part of this stage involves summarising all the data gathered and linking it to the problem. From this a broad proposal for a system design is constructed. It recommends the main areas of change based on the analysis. This is the deliverable part of the Analysis stage of the SDLC.

The Design Phase of the SDLC

Detailed system design

The design phase of the System Development Life Cycle follows the planning and analysis phases. Once a broad proposal has been drawn up, the individual components must be broken down and specific designs created. This will include designs for desired Input and Output.

The Design Phase: factors to be considered when designing the output requirements

In the Design Phase it is usual practice for programmers to

begin by identifying the output requirements of the proposed

system.

There are a number of output

devices that can be incorporated into any system.

Consider why the manner in which output is to be created and/or displayed is actually of

great significance to the design of a computer system.

If output is primarily screen based then the

dimensions of the output screens is a determining factor and must be considered

when designing output.

In a top down approach to system design, the programmer will start by identifying the output that the system will need to produce. There are a number of possible output formats that must be considered, including such items as: printer, screen, plotter, audio, email, links to web pages, automated fax facilities and computer output microfilm. There are many more possible output devices that could be incorporated into any system - it will depend on the technology that is available to the developers.

There are sound reasons for starting the system development with the design of the output. The system will be implemented to help improve efficiencies or to solve a problem. In order to do this, the first step will be to determine what can be done to help the situation. Once this has been done, a clear picture of what has to be produced can be identified. This will shape the output requirements of the system. While the output may seem to be the last part of the system that should be developed, it should not be. In order to make the system a success it must be able to produce the outcomes that can solve the problem, therefore the output required needs to be identified early in the process.

Once the output has been identified, it will place constraints on the system. These constraints will include requirements of data to be collected to produce the output, and to the limitations imposed by the technologies used to create the output. While it may sound minor, the manner in which output is to be created and/or displayed is actually of great significance to the design of a computer system. This is because it can quickly change the nature of the resources that are required by the system to produce the output. For example, if the system is to collect pictures that are displayed over the web, then the file size will not have to be as large as those that will be printed.

Some of the major constraints on output include:

Printers - the print quality, e.g. Laser/inkjet/colour, and the nature of the information to be produced. For example, if a receipt is to be printed and needs to be made in duplicate, then an impact printer will need to be used or the item printed twice.

Screen - If the output is primarily to be screen based, then the screen will impose a number of limitations on the output. The output will need to be designed to fit into the screen size. If the screen is monochrome, then colour cannot be used, etc.

If the system is to collect pictures that are displayed over the web, then the file size will not have to be as

large as those that will be printed.

The Design Phase: factors to be considered when designing the input Requirements

GIGO - Garbage In, Garbage Out!

Having established what the system needs to produce to meet its goals, the next area of interest is establishing what data needs to be obtained to produce that output. The design of the input is vital to the successful creation of a computer system. Put simply, the input must be collected from the various sources with a minimal amount of errors, and with the greatest possible speed. A common term used to describe data entry is GIGO - garbage in, garbage out. This expression highlights the importance of input design to the quality of the program produced. The final output will only be as accurate as the data put into the system - and the quality of that data will be partly determined by the quality of the design of the collection methods.

There are a number of techniques that a good programmer will use to ensure that the data they collect is of the best quality possible. They will limit the opportunities for the user to enter the wrong data, and will ensure the user does not have to enter data twice.

When designing input, the programmer should:

Identify duplicate data - Efficient program design requires that the program only collect and store each data element once. Programmers should analyse the data requirements and identify where data is used more than once and ensure it is collected just once. It is important to do this - while it may be easier to collect data more than once, rather than create highly complex data structures, this approach compromises the integrity of the information produced, as it allows for more input errors and the creation of conflicting outputs.

Identify methods of reducing input errors - When collecting data, the programmer should make use of as many of the features available to ensure that the data being collected is as free from errors as possible. This can be achieved through

the use of features like drop down boxes, radio buttons, check boxes etc. that limit the user to selecting from pre-defined "correct" options. By carefully constructing input screens, it is possible to limit the number of areas the users can enter invalid data.

Identify data validation checks - While it is possible to limit the users choices to pre-defined choices, it may not always be possible or practical to do so. An example would be postcodes. While all postcodes are pre-defined, there are so many of them it would not be possible to list them all on a screen, so another method must be employed to make sure the data is accurate. Writing code to check the data is accurate can do this. For example, the postcodes could be checked to see if they fall within the expected range for the state given. While this relies on the user to input correct data, it does reduce the amount of incorrect data the system collects.

Input screen/method design - Thought needs to be given to the actual design of the input collection screens or methods. Care needs to be taken to ensure the screens that collect the data are arranged in an attractive and logical manner. If data is to be entered from a form, then the data collection screens should follow the general format of those screens to make data entry easier, and therefore less prone to errors.

The Design Phase: factors to be considered when designing the processing requirements

The processing requirements of the system are simply the steps the program will need to perform to organise the data collected into the form the final output requires. The programmer needs to identify what manipulation will need to take place, and where in the program it will need to occur. Furthermore, the programmer will need to identify where the steps need to be repeated to reduce the amount of code needed. For example, if the solution involves a database, the programmer will have to know which fields are to be linked and in which tables data is to be stored.

The Design Phase: evaluating alternative system configurations

There may be different possible solutions available to the project team. The designers must decide which is the most appropriate choice for the particular system undergoing change. They may use a cost/benefit analysis to assist in evaluating alternate system configurations. Key criteria include a comparison of:

Cost (both at implementation and ongoing)

Compatibility of components (how well the proposed system will fit in with the existing system in terms of hardware and software)

User-friendliness of procedures

User-friendliness of equipment

The Design Phase: select best configuration

Based on the cost/benefit analysis, the project team identifies and justifies the most appropriate system configuration.

The Design Phase: prepare implementation proposal

The deliverable of the design phase is a detailed report identifying the preferred system and its specific hardware and software requirements. In addition, general timelines for the introduction of the changes are provided.

The Implementation Phase of the SDLC

Having established the preferred design of a computer system, the next phase of the System Development Life Cycle, is to commission the development of the preferred design. Depending upon the size of the organisation in question, the actual writing of the software code may be done internally by the computer department, or out sourced from specialist computer firms. As with any solution development, there will need to be the usual development and testing procedures in place to ensure that the programs being written actually function properly. However, regardless of whether the program is being written internally or externally, when discussing the SDLC, we regard this process as a single step of "software development". The software development is only the first step of the implementation phase. There are a number of actions that need to be completed to ensure the successful implementation of a system. Once the software has been developed, the first step is to plan and announce the implementation.

The Implementation Phase: planning and announcing the implementation

Planning the implementation involves identifying where the system changes will be made, identifying the operators that will be effected by the changes, identifying equipment to be modified, introduced or made redundant, identifying staff training requirements and developing a timeline for the introduction of the new system. Once this has been done, an announcement of the changeover will be made to all users of the system. The form that this announcement will take will depend upon the particular system in question, but typically it will involve all of the staff of the company, not just those directly affected. This is done because the productivity of the staff in the divisions where the implementation is taking place may be affected, and it is important that all staff within the company need to be aware of these unique (and temporary) factors. Similarly, it is not uncommon for an organisation to notify customers and clients of such changes as well. If we think about this, it is not surprising, as they may be affected by the changes, and it important that they are aware of the temporary arrangements that may be in place.

The Implementation Phase: acquisition of new equipment (hardware and software)

For a large company hardware upgrades can involve replacing hundreds of PCs - thus the process can be a lengthy and complex one.

When considering hardware upgrades, issues such as the storage of the new equipment must be taken into consideration.

Hardware upgrades for Government Departments may need to follow certain guidelines. For example, there may be procedures for a tendering process.

As part of the system design process, there may have been the requirement for new equipment (hardware and software) or upgrading of the existing equipment. As part of the planning for the implementation process, this new equipment must be obtained. While this sounds a simple task, it can often be a long and tiresome process. For a large company, upgrading a system may involve replacing hundreds of PCs - and if the hardware is to be upgraded, there may be a number of different parts required for the different models of computers - all of which have to be sourced. Software might need to be purchased "off-the-shelf" then modified or custom-written to suit the specific needs of the system.

Depending upon the organisation, there might also be further company or statutory requirements to follow. For example, a Victorian Government Department would not be able to just go out and buy the equipment they need - they would need to conduct a tender. These sorts of requirements may slow the process down. It is very important that this phase of the process is handled properly. This is for a number of reasons - obviously there is the expense of the equipment, but there are also other issues - if there are going to be a hundred new PCs for example, they will need to be stored from the time the company receives them to the time the system is actually implemented. In order to do this the company would have to have available a reasonably large storage facility. If it were a chain of stores that was upgrading their computer system, the new computers would need to be delivered to the appropriate stores as they were ready to be upgraded. In addition, new software would have to be tested for compatibility and to ensure that it was capable of handling the tasks required by the users of the system. This process requires careful planning to ensure the smooth introduction of the new system.

In addition to acquiring new equipment, the old equipment must be dealt with as well. It will be necessary to determine the most appropriate course of action for this - disposal, sale or redeployment within the organisation. Either way, there will be company or statutory requirements that will need to be followed that are similar to those that were followed when purchasing equipment. It is important that the acquisition of equipment is timed to allow for the smooth introduction of the new system. Exactly how this will require the delivery of the equipment will vary from system to system, however, careful planning at this point will save significant time and effort later.

The Implementation Phase: preparing the physical facilities

The next part of the implementation process is preparing the physical facilities. How important or large a step this is will depend upon the system in question. It may be as simple as clearing a desktop to accommodate a PC to removing doors to allow the entry of large equipment. In some specialist cases, it may even involve changes to such things as the air conditioning and/or filtering equipment, security access etc. Each system will need to be analysed to identify where changes to the physical environment will be required and how those changes will be implemented. It is also important to identify the importance of the physical changes to the system, and thus the order in which they need to be completed. For example, if computer hardware to be used in the system can only operate at ten to twenty degrees, and there is no air conditioning, obviously the air conditioning must be installed before the new hardware.

The Implementation Phase: educating users

The more effectively the users are trained in the system, the less problems there will be with it.

Each type of training has benefits and disadvantages. What is important is that each company decides upon the most appropriate training based on its individual needs and requirements.

Where customers need to be included in the education program, the complexity of the education program delivery increases.

Having created the environment for the deployment of the new system, it is important that all of the users are educated in the use of the new system. While this is an obvious step, it is a very important step in the success of the new system. There are a number of training strategies a company might employ when implementing a new system - from onsite training to specialist courses.

Some of the factors that will need to be taken into consideration when designing a training program include: the existing skill sets within the company, the extent of the change, the funds available and the number of users to be trained. In addition to this, decisions made in the implementation plan will have an impact on the training programs as well. This is because there may be elements of a proposed training program that cannot be carried out until other parts of the implementation program are complete. For example, the training program cannot commence until after the new software has been written and tested, or if the training program is to involve "hands on" experience with the new hardware, this cannot happen until after the new equipment has been installed.

It is important that all users of the system are trained in its operation. If the customers of the company are one of the direct

users groups of the system (such as bank customers and ATMs) then they will need to be included in the education program.

Customer training increases the complexity of the program. This is because there is significantly less control over the training that can be given to the customers. (By this, it is meant that, while it can be mandated for employees to undergo an education program, you cannot make customers do this, even if it is in their best interests.)

The Implementation Phase: developing an implementation schedule

Once all of the elements of the new system are in place, the next step is to develop the implementation schedule (or cutover), and finally to cut over to the new system. Most systems have a staggered introduction - that is, elements of the system are introduced one at a time so that it is possible to ensure that they are working as intended before the next element is introduced. This is a common approach as it allows the developers to quickly isolate problems in individual sections of the system. If more than one element of the system is introduced at the same time and there is a problem, it may take some time to isolate where the problem is occurring.

This staggered introduction is commonly referred to as a "cutover". This is because the two systems cut over one another as each element is introduced. This is by far the most preferred method of introducing a new computer system however there are times when it is not possible to do this. Where the ability to introduce the system in sections is not available, - for example, the new system is not compatible with the existing equipment, which will be disposed of when the new system in commissioned - a different implementation method must be used. Most commonly, it will be one that involves the use of parallel systems.

As the name suggests, parallel system implementation is where two systems (the current and the new ones) are being run at the same time to perform the same job. While this duplicates the work, there are some significant advantages to this type of system. As the performance of the existing system is a known quantity, it gives us something to compare the performance and accuracy of the new system to. Often parallel systems will operate for a month or two before the old system is decommissioned. The biggest problem with parallel systems is that the duplication of the work can be costly however this must be viewed against the security of the knowledge that if the new system under performs, the old system can be kept operating until such time as all problems with the new system are sorted out.

Where the new system requires the old hardware and/or software to be removed, and it is not possible to have a cutover program or parallel systems, the only option available is the use of a trial system. This is where a small version of the system is set up and tried before the widespread introduction of the system. This trial emulates all aspects of the computer system to ensure that it will work properly. It aims to reproduce as closely as possible the "real life" situation the system will be used in. If the system is to be used in a number of locations, often this trial will occur in a single location which crosses over to the new system and evaluates its performance until it is satisfactory, at which time it is then introduced to the rest of the company.

The Implementation Phase: commissioning of the new system (changeover)

The final phase of the implementation phase is the commissioning of the new system. This is the point where the developers of the system hand control of the system to the company. At this point, it can be said that the new system is able to perform the tasks originally set out for it. However, this is not the end of the process - it just means the system is working the way it was intended to.

The Use/Evaluation Phase of the SDLC

Once the system has been commissioned, we enter the final phase of the System Development Life Cycle. This is the use/evaluation phase. Computer based information systems should be built for a purpose, not just because we can. Consequently in the analysis and design phases we set goals that the system was to achieve. In this phase we evaluate how well those goals have been met and how the system can be further improved. There are a number of areas that are evaluated in this phase.

The Use/Evaluation Phase: using the system

The Australian Tax Office uses an interactive form to gather information about the effectiveness of its website.

This area, as the name implies, looks at how well the system interacts with those who use it. Issues that may be investigated could include: Is the system user friendly, is it able to deliver the information required in a timely manner, can the appropriate people (staff and/or customers) access it? This data may be gathered through the use of surveying customers, logging help desk enquiries or monitoring staff absentee rates.

he Use/Evaluation Phase: auditing the system

In many systems monitoring methods are prescribed by external agencies - for example, an accounts system would need to meet the Australian Taxation Offices standards in the

reports that it generates, and in order to validate the integrity of the information produced.

In this area a continual monitoring process should be in place to ensure that the system is producing accurate information. In systems where there are no mandatory audits required, often the company will create checks of its own to ensure the accuracy of information being produced. A common example of this would be a stock take where the stock levels on the shelves are compared with the information contained within the system to ensure accuracy. These audits of the system will be built into the standard operating procedures of the company.

The Use/Evaluation Phase: maintaining the system

The Australian Tax Office's website features a specific page for the reporting of technical faults.

Computer based information systems need maintenance, just like any other piece of equipment. This could include software functions like the cleaning up of redundant files, compacting data files, upgrading of operating systems etc. to hardware maintenance, such as re-calibration of scanners and so on. Most companies will have a program of preventative actions designed to ensure that the system will operate efficiently at all times.

It is important that an accurate log of equipment breakdowns and maintenance requirements is kept so that it can be compared with the previous system.

The Use/Evaluation Phase: re-engineering proposals

In this step the system is evaluated for further productivity improvements and the cycle may begin again. The evaluation of the system is not a finite event that concludes with the project meeting the design goals. It is a regular process that continually reviews the system and searches for deficiencies and areas where improvements can be made. Once design goals and performance targets have been met the cycle can be considered over, but as it is a cycle, it can begin again - and in fact, normally does, as further enhancements of the system are identified and the process of developing them is followed.

Revision

Use this question and answer activity to review the phases of the SDLC.

THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

1. List the five phases of the SDLC.

1. The Planning Phase 2. The Analysis Phase 3. The Design Phase 4. The Implementation Phase 5. The Use / Evaluation Phase

2. Make a flow chart showing the sequence of steps in the Planning Phase of the SDLC.

Define/detail the problem

Set project objectives/goals

Identify constraints

Conduct a feasibility study

Create project proposals

Establish control mechanisms

3. During the Analysis Phase of the SDLC what must be identified in order to document what the current system

does and to highlight the strengths and deficiencies in it?

• sources of information

• the types of information needed to analyse the system

• the types of information needed to design the system

• information flow (documented using system modelling tools)

• problem areas in the current system

4. You are a manager in a company and are implanting a new information system. Who might you consult in order

to perform an analysis of the current information system?

In order to perform an analysis of an information system a number of people are consulted. They include: users of the

information the system produces, users of the actual system, and people who support the system. This incorporates those

who provide data, those who input data, those manipulate the data and those who receive data. As well as these groups it

is important to consult those who own or run the organization.

5. In a top down approach to system design, the programmer will start by identifying the output that the system

will need to produce. Why is it important to start the system development with the design of the output?

In order to make the system a success it must be able to produce the outcomes that can solve the problem that has been

identified. Therefore the output required needs to be outlined early in the process. Once output has been identified it

places constraints on the system. While it may sound minor, the manner in which output is to be created and/or displayed

is actually of great significance to the design of a computer system and therefore it must be identified as early as possible.

6. During the Design Phase of the SDLC what factors should a programmer consider when designing the input for

the proposed information system?

When designing input the programmer should: identify duplicate data, identify methods of reducing input errors, identify

data validation checks and give thought to the design of the input collect screens or methods.

Identify the problem

7. Implementing an information system can significantly affect the productivity and morale of employees. What

steps might a company take to make this process as smooth and stress-free as possible?

It is crucial that the implementation of an information system is carefully planned and that employees are informed about

the nature of the changes that will be taking place. This process involves identifying where the system changes will be

made, identifying the operators that will be affected by the changes, identifying equipment that is to be modified,

introduced or made redundant, identifying staff training requirements and developing a timeline for the introduction of the

new system. Once this has been done, an announcement of the changeover should be made to all employees. It should be

announced to all staff and not just those directly affected.

8. There are a number of methods for ‘cutting’ over to a new information system. Describe the various options and

the benefits of each.

The ‘cutover’ method: involves a staggered introduction where elements of the system are introduced one at a time. This

method makes it easier to ensure that the elements of the system are working as intended before the next element is

introduced and allows the developers to quickly isolate problems in individual sections of the system.

Parallel systems: as the name suggests, this is where two systems (the current and the new ones) are run at the same time

to preform the same job. While this duplicates the work, there are some significant advantages to this type of system. As

the performance of the existing system is a known quantity, it gives the developers something to compare the performance

and accuracy of the new system to.

The trial system: this is where a small version of the system is set up and trialed before the widespread introduction of the

system. This trial emulates all aspects of the computer system to ensure that they work properly. It aims to reproduce as

closely as possible the "real life" situation the system will be used in. Where the new system requires the old hardware

and/or software to be removed, and it is not possible to have a cutover program or parallel systems, then the use of a trial

system has significant benefits.

9. Computer based information systems need maintenance. What might this involve?

Maintenance of an information system might involve software functions like the cleaning up of redundant files,

compacting data files and upgrading of operating systems to hardware maintenance, such as the re-calibration of scanners.