1

CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT

As Malaysia’s roads become more congested, the Works Ministry has the daunting task

of ensuring they are constantly in good condition and safe for motorists. Road infrastructure

development is generally synonymous with the overall growth of a nation. Malaysia has had a

tremendous increase in road mileage since the last 40 years, expedited by her independence.

With the convenience of road development comes issues that cause specific inconvenience to the

people, namely poor road condition during rainy seasons, traffic congestion and road accidents.

During the rainy seasons, many areas will have potholes and other types of problems, creating a

dangerous condition and causing accidents as drivers react to avoid them.

2

Potholes, cracks, and other problems on roads and pavements can lead to accidents. Road

pavement shall be strong, smooth, rough, economical, and complying with sanitary and hygiene

requirements. These characteristics depend on the type and structure of pavement, traffic

volumes and driving speed, road significance as well as materials used for road construction. The

most important characteristics of pavement are its strength, smoothness and roughness. When

pavement is not strong enough, rutting or even breaching occurs, and rolling resistance increases

considerably. Therefore, it is extremely important to design such road pavement structure, which

complies with the imposed requirements.

Successful chip seal construction depends on a combination of rational science and

qualitative judgment in the field. Success is usually measured by a lack of customer complaints

that sometimes occur when loose aggregate chips come in contact with windshields at high

speed. Allowing traffic on a fresh chip seal too soon can result in windshield damage if the

asphalt binder lacks sufficient strength to resist dislodgement. Therefore, timing the removal of

traffic control is a key element in the success of any chip seal project. A desirable addition to the

technology would be a quantitative process that identifies when a chip seal is ready for

uncontrolled traffic.

3

In order to complete our project for BFC 3042, we are required to conduct a survey

on pavement condition to identify the damage which occurred and propose a suitable pavement

method work to local authority.

1.1 SCOPE

For this task we are required to conduct a survey on the pavement condition in the

certain road, along 1kilometer. We have to do a few methods to complete this survey. We

had picked up the main road from Parit Jelutong. At the site survey, we have to determine

some categories of pavement distress and damage. From the data obtained, we have to

discuss and analyze the suitable method to regarding the condition.

1.2 AIM

We had survey a few roads in the radius of UTHM. We found that Parit Jelutong is

most suitable site that we chose to continue the project as it is nearby to UTHM. The

respective road had a few sort of damaged that easily can found on their pavement due to

transportation of oil palm material in and out from the particular place.

1.3 METHOD

For the method of analyzation, we collect the data by filling the damage found into

the condition survey data sheet. We also did the sand patch method in order to covers the

determination of the average texture depth of paved surface sand to give the volume of

voids. For the treatment, we use chip seal to assure that the damage occurred has been

treat and the road will be use safe and smoothly.

4

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The movement of people and goods throughout the world is primarily dependent upon a

transportation network consisting of roadways. Most, if not all, business economies, personal

economies, and public economies are the result of this transportation system. Considering the

high initial and annual cost of roadways and since each roadway serves many users, the only

prudent owner of roadways is the public sector. Thus it is the discipline of civil engineering that

manages the vast network of roadways. The surface of these roadways, the pavement, must have

sufficient smoothness to allow a reasonable speed of travel, as well as ensure the safety of people

and cargo. Additionally, once the pavement is in service, the economies that depend upon it will

be financially burdened if the pavement is taken out of service for repair or maintenance. Thus,

pavements should be designed to be long lasting with few maintenance needs.

The accomplishment of a successful pavement design depends upon several variables.

The practice of pavement design is based on both engineering principles and experience.

Pavements were built long before computers, calculators, and even slide rules. Prior to more

modern times, pavements were designed by trial-and-error and commonsense methods, rather

5

than the more complicated methods being used currently. Even more modern methods require a

certain amount of experience and common sense. The most widely used methods today are based

on experiments with full-scale, in-service pavements that were built and monitored to failure.

Empirical information derived from these road tests is the most common basis for current

pavement design methods. More recently, with the ever-expanding power of personal computers,

more mathematically based pavement design methods such as finite element analysis and refined

elastic layer theory have been introduced. These methods require extensive training to use and

are not developed for the inexperienced. Types of pavements can be broadly categorized as

rigid, flexible, or composite. The characteristics of these types are reviewed in the following

articles.

RIGID PAVEMENT

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

COMPOSITE PAVEMENT (OVERLAYS)

In this literature review, we need to spend and focus over the aspect that involving in

pavement design criteria. It is centralized as three of analytical important prospect in this part of

literature review for the Project gaining information as listed below;

PAVEMENT STRESS

DESIGN OF CHIP SEAL

TYPES OF PAVEMENT DISTRESS

Rigid pavement can be constructed with contraction joints, expansion joints, dowelled

joints, no joints, temperature steel, continuous reinforcing steel, or no steel. Most generally, the

construction requirements concerning these options are carefully chosen by the owner or the

public entity that will be responsible for future maintenance of the pavement. The types of joints

and the amount of steel used are chosen in concert as a strategy to control cracking in the

concrete pavement. Often, the owner specifies the construction requirements but requires the

designer to take care of other details such as intersection jointing details and the like. It is

6

imperative that a designer understand all of these design options and the role each of these plays

in concrete pavement performance.

Load transfer is the critical element at joints and cracks. In undo welled, unreinforced

pavements, any load transfer must be provided by aggregate interlock.

Source: Highway Engineering Handbook, 2nd edition

Aggregate interlock is lost when slabs contract and the joints or cracks open up. Also,

interlock is slowly destroyed by the movement of the concrete as traffic passes over. Given large

temperature variations and heavy trucks, aggregate interlock is ineffectual, and faulting is the

primary result.

Where a long joint spacing is used and intermediate cracks are expected, steel

reinforcement is added to hold the cracks tightly closed (JRCP). This allows the load transfer to

be accomplished through aggregate interlock without the associated problems described above.

Contraction joints do not provide for expansion of the pavement unless the same amount of

contraction has already taken place. This contraction will initially be from shrinkage due to

concrete curing. Later changes in the pavement length are due to temperature changes. Where

7

fixed objects such as structures are placed in the pavement, the use of an expansion joint is

warranted. Expansion joints should be used sparingly. The pavement will be allowed to creep

toward the expansion joint, thus opening the adjacent contraction joints. This can cause

movement in the adjacent contraction joints in excess of their design capabilities and result in

premature failures.

This is showed, how the good implementation and idea given to review the overall

literature of Project Making Process with high intention of other fundamental idea in highway

engineering.

2.1 PAVEMENT STRESS

Pavement Stress is considered to be under the flexible pavement. The basic idea of

pavement stress starting from the loading area and impact on the pavement. Rutting in

asphalt pavement includes densification and shear flow of hot-mix asphalt, but the

majority of severe instable rutting results from shear flow within the asphalt mixtures. In

recent years, another type of surface distress called Top-Down Cracking (TDC), which is

usually found in longitudinal path, has become more common in asphalt pavement, this is

also considered as a shear-related failure. As a result, shear stress is believed to be one of

the critical factors affecting pavements performance, and it is necessary to well

understand shear stress in asphalt pavements. To gain an accurate understanding of the

effect of shear stress on pavement performance, a laboratory method of applying tire-

pavement contact pressure is employed in this paper. The results are compared for

differing loading conditions. The effects of tire pressure and stress components in terms

of vertical and horizontal stress on shear stress are comprehensively investigated by

three-dimensional finite element method. In addition, the effects of asphalt layer

thickness and interface conditions are also discussed.

8

Car loading is the most important aspect in order to effect the load distribution on

pavement surface to the base. Rutting influenced by the load of car, and regularly

happened on the mid of section in single road. We need to predict and understand stress

- strain distribution within the pavement structure as they relate to failure cracking and

rutting.

In Flexible Pavement Stress Analysis, there are two (2) types of prediction stress in

pavement that occur.

1. Numerical Models

2. Ideal Models

Numerical Models

Need model to compute deflections (δ) and strains (ε). Numerous models available with

different:

–Capabilities

– Underlying assumptions

– Complexity

– Material information requirements

Ideal Models

Predicts and Input Parameters

• Stresses

• Strains

- Static & dynamic loads

- Material properties

- Traffic

- Environment

9

Available Models in these fields of highway analysis that use widely in real site as

below listed;

o Multilayer Elastic Theory

o Finite Element Methods

o Viscoelastic Theory (time and temp.-dependent behavior)

o Dynamic Analysis (inertial effects)

o Thermal Models (temperature change)

But most widely used is;

o Reasonable Results

o Properties Relatively Simple to Obtain

Falling Weight Deflectometer

Use elastic theory to predict the deflection basin for the given load. Then iterate with

different module configurations until the calculated deflection basin matches the

measured. This Process using the tools;

• Small trailer

• Dropping Weight

• Geophones

• Deflection Basin

10

This Pavement Stress generated by the theory of Multilayer Elastic Theory. And a

few assumptions were taking part of the analysis to make sure that will be reasonable and

practice to be done. As result, a graph generate by the findings in the analysis as theory

assumption had made before the analysis. The figure of finding as showed below.

Figure Generating Finding from Analysis Theory

Source: Dr. Christos Drakos, University of Florida

11

Graph: One-layer Solutions (Foster & Ahlvin 1954)

Shear stresses due to circular loading.

Source: Dr. Christos Drakos, University of Florida

Asphalt concrete pavement, also referred to as flexible pavement, is a mixture of

sand, aggregate, a filler material, and asphalt cement combined in a controlled process,

placed, and compacted. The filler material can range from quarry crushing dust and

asphalt-plant bag house fines to wood fibers (cellulose). There are many additives that

can be used in asphalt concrete mixes to encourage thicker cement coatings, more elastic

mixes, stiffer mixes, and less temperature-sensitive mixes. Flexible pavements can be of

a type constructed on a prepared sub grade, which is called full-depth asphalt concrete

pavement (FDACP), or of a type built on an untreated granular base, which is not as

carefully identified by the industry but is referred to herein as deep-strength asphalt

concrete pavement (DSACP).

12

2.2 DESIGN OF CHIP SEAL

There are a few questions about the Chip Seal that play around the fields of

construction especially among the people who lively involved in the industry of road

maintenance. To clarify the questions issue that emerged in terms of right knowledge

and fundamental of Chip Seal, the Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide (MTAG) US,

were using to keep maintain and briefly explain the Chip Seal Design.

2.3 MAINTENANCE TECHNICAL ADVISORY GUIDE (MTAG)

2.3.1 Chip Seal from MTAG Review.

Application of asphalt binder on existing pavement followed by a layer of aggregate

chips. The treatment is then rolled to embed the aggregate into the binder.

o Performance

•Typical treatment life: 5 to 10 years

•Function of climate, existing pavement condition, traffic, type of chip

seal

o Average cost

•$2.50 to $5.00/yd2 (depending on oil price)

13

The chip seal practice were doing and apply base on where and when the necessary

work were implementing to solve the road maintenance problem base on the criteria that

listed below to make sure the capability and workability of work in high intensity of

enduring quality of pavement for the live years.

o Surface for light to medium traffic (ADT < 30,000)

o Waterproof layer

o Skid resistant surface

o Seal the surface

o Address bleeding

o Temporary base course cover

o Define shoulders

Picture: Chip Seal Process

14

After we defined the necessarily when and where, we have to know that the chip seal

also have some condition that not related to the main aspect. So, we have to consider the

right time when we are not going to use the Chip Seal as condition prefer below;

o Structurally deficient pavements

o Cracks >1/4 in width unless sealed

o Large number of potholes

o Rutting >1/2 in

o Ride quality needs significant improvement

In order to the step of success in chip seal design, the right key of chip seal design

we have to consider so that the work going to be success and done properly.

o Proper surface preparation

o Use the right binder and clean aggregates

o Follow the construction specs, including the need for traffic control

o Chip seal in good weather conditions

Picture: Criteria Design Step and Process

15

2.3.2 Chip Seal Variations

o Applications

o Single chip seals

o Double or triple chip seals

o Cape seals

o Fabric and chip seals

o Scrub seals

o Asphalt Binder Types

o PME

o PMA

o AR

(Single Chip Seals)

(Double Chip Seals)

16

(Cape Seals)

(Fabric and Chip Seals)

17

(Fabric and Chip Seals)

2.3.3 Design, Materials & Specifications

Determine Quantity

o Residual asphalt content

o Asphalt cement factor = 1.0

o Emulsion factors range = 0.65 to 0.70

o Aggregate application rate

o Single chip layer

o No more than 10% excess chips

o 70% embedment recommended

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Chip Seal Design Methods

McLeod procedure

Asphalt Institute method

1. Determine aggregate size and specific gravity

2. Aggregate and binder quantities from table

3. Adjust aggregate (if necessary)

4. Adjust asphalt content based on condition of road (if necessary)

Material Selection –Binder

- Polymer-modified emulsions

- Polymer-modified binder

- Polymer-modified rejuvenating

emulsions (PMRE)

- Asphalt Rubber

Material Selection-Emulsion

Ingredients

- Asphalt

- Water

- Emulsifying agent (surfactant)

2.3.4 Asphalt Rubber Chip Seals

Binder Material Field Blended (min. 45 minutes and viscosity 1,500 cps-4,000)

hot asphalt, extender oil, crumb rubber, and high natural.AR binder application is

usually .60 gal / square yard through an agitated distributor truck attached with a

vapor recovery system. Aggregate Chips are always hot pre-coated, and applied at

35-40 lbs. per square yard.

19

Source: Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide (MTAG)-U.S

20

2.4 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DISTRESS

Fatigue (alligator) cracking

Bleeding

Block cracking

Corrugation and shoving

Depression

Joint reflection cracking

Lane/shoulder drop-off

Longitudinal cracking

Patching

Polished aggregate

Potholes

Raveling

Rutting

Slippage cracking

Stripping

Transverse (thermal) cracking

Water bleeding and pumping

2.4.1 Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

This section is a summary of the major flexible pavement distresses.

Each distress discussion includes (1) pictures if available, (2) a description of

the distress, (3) why the distress is a problem and (4) typical causes of the

distress.

Index of Pavement Distresses Shown on this Page

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Description

Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the HMA surface

(or stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading. In thin pavements, cracking

initiates at the bottom of the HMA layer where the tensile stress is the highest

then propagates to the surface as one or more longitudinal cracks. This is

commonly referred to as "bottom-up" or "classical" fatigue cracking. In thick

pavements, the cracks most likely initiate from the top in areas of high localized

tensile stresses resulting from tire-pavement interaction and asphalt binder aging

(top-down cracking). After repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect

forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces that develop into a pattern resembling

the back of an alligator or crocodile.

Problem

Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration, roughness,

may further deteriorate to a pothole

Possible Causes

Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by a myriad of things. A

few of the more common ones are listed here:

Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics

o Loss of base, sub base or sub grade support (e.g., poor drainage or spring

thaw resulting in a less stiff base).

o Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the stripped portion

contributes little to pavement strength so the effective HMA thickness

decreases)

o Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than anticipated in design)

o Inadequate structural design

22

o Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)

Repair

A fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the root

cause of failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit or coring the

pavement to determine the pavement's structural makeup as well as determining

whether or not subsurface moisture is a contributing factor. Once the characteristic

alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing is generally ineffective. Fatigue

crack repair generally falls into one of two categories:

o Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support.

Remove the cracked pavement area then dig out and replace the area of poor

subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if necessary. Patch over the

repaired subgrade.

o Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure. Place

an HMA overlay over the entire pavement surface. This overlay must be

strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated loading because the

underlying fatigue cracked pavement most likely contributes little or no

strength (Roberts et. al., 1996).

2.4.2 Bleeding

Description

A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually creates a shiny,

glass-like reflecting surface (as in the third photo) that can become quite sticky.

Problem

Loss of skid resistance when wet

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Possible Causes

Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot

weather and then expands onto the pavement surface. Since bleeding is not

reversible during cold weather, asphalt binder will accumulate on the pavement

surface over time. This can be caused by one or a combination of the following:

Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to mix

design or manufacturing)

Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application (as in the

above figures)

Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough room for the asphalt to

expand into during hot weather)

Repair

The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder

film on the pavement's surface but may not correct the underlying problem that

caused the bleeding:

Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to blot up the

excess asphalt binder.

Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a motor

grader or removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting surface is

excessively rough, resurfacing may be necessary (APAI, no date given).

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2.4.3 Block Cracking

Description

Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement up into rectangular pieces.

Blocks range in size from approximately 0.1 m2 (1 ft

2) to 9 m

2 (100 ft

2). Larger

blocks are generally classified as longitudinal and transverse cracking. Block

cracking normally occurs over a large portion of pavement area but sometimes

will occur only in non-traffic areas.

Problem

Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes

HMA shrinkage and daily temperature cycling. Typically caused by an

inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract with temperature cycles because

of:-

Asphalt binder aging

Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

Repair

Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the block cracking:

Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of

moisture into the sub grade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of

the crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after

developing small cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996).

25

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks with raveled edges).

Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay

2.4.4 Corrugation and Shoving

Description

A form of plastic movement typified by ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt

wave (shoving) across the pavement surface. The distortion is perpendicular to

the traffic direction. Usually occurs at points where traffic starts and stops

(corrugation) or areas where HMA abuts a rigid object (shoving).

Problem

Roughness

Possible Causes

Usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping) combined with:

An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix contamination,

poor mix design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of aeration of liquid

asphalt emulsions)

Excessive moisture in the sub grade

Repair

A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement should be investigated to

determine the root cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two

categories:

26

Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. Remove the distorted pavement

and patch.

Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the

damaged pavement and overlay.

2.4.5 Depression

Description

Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the

surrounding pavement. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill

with water.

Problem

Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water can cause vehicle

hydroplaning

Possible Causes

Frost heave or sub grade settlement resulting from inadequate compaction

during construction.

Repair

By definition, depressions are small localized areas. A pavement depression

should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure (i.e., sub grade

settlement or frost heave). Depressions should be repaired by removing the

affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of poor sub

grade. Patch over the repaired sub grade.

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2.4.6 Joint Reflection Cracking

Description

Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement. The cracks occur directly

over the underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection cracking does not

include reflection cracks that occur away from an underlying joint or from any

other type of base (e.g., cement or lime stabilized).

Problem

Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes

Movement of the PCC slab beneath the HMA surface because of thermal

and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated, however loading can hasten

deterioration.

Repair

Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal

to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the sub grade through the cracks and

(2) further raveling of the crack edges. In general, rigid pavement joints

will eventually reflect through an HMA overlay without proper surface

preparation.

High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks). Remove

and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

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2.4.7 Raveling

Description

The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the surface downward

as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles.

Problem

Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting in the raveled

locations resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance.

29

Possible Causes

Several including:

Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a result

of:-

o A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt binder to

bond with the dust rather than the aggregate

o Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are missing from the aggregate

matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the remaining coarse

particles at their relatively few contact points.

o Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is required to

develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA. The third figure above

shows a road suffering from raveling due to inadequate compaction caused

by cold weather paving.

Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires, snowplow

blades or tracked vehicles). The first and fourth figures above show

raveling most likely caused by snow plows.

Repair

A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of

failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:

Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement

and patch.

Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the

damaged pavement and overlay.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 FORMING GROUP

In week 1, lecturer told us there is a project for Highway Engineering subject

and she asked us to form in a group. Each group consists of 5 people but special

permission to our group where we contain of 6 students.

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3.2 PROBLEM AND SCOPE OF PROJECT

In week 3, lecturer gave us the problem and the scope of project. She briefly

explained the problem. The problem was about the roads that have been built are

often damaged due to vehicle load and environment. This situation requires the

maintenance work to be done so that it can provide comfortable riding to road

users. Each of the group has to conduct a survey of pavement conditions to

determine damages and recommend appropriate pavement preservation work to

local authorities. The local authority would like to use chip seal method to repair

the damaged road surface. Subsequently, students have to design an appropriate

chip seal treatment. The factors of the damage to the roads also need to be

reviewed, studied and related design aspects of the existing drainage system.

3.3 BRIEFING OR BRAINSTORMING SESSION

Our lecturer gave us a brainstorming on how to solve the related problem. In

this session, lecturer had given us some opinions such as the procedures and the

requirements of the project and the equipments that are needed for this project

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3.4 DISCUSSION / INVESTIGATING PROBLEM

After the lecturer briefed us the project problem and the group discussion on

26 July 2010, we had suggested few sites for our project which are Parit Jelutong,

Jalan Rengit, Taman Melewar road and Parit Haji Rais. To determine the site for

our project, we have to conduct a survey on the site so that the site that we choose

is fulfilled the requirements of this project such as minimum four cracks within

1km of the road. We decided to choose Parit Jelutong as our project site after we

conducted surveys on these few sites on 30 July 2010. Before we start the onsite

laboratory works, we were divided into several small groups. Each of the group

member has to identify the problems and do research on the problems in the

internet, books and journal. After that, the identified problems will be solved in

FILA table by using brainstorming method. The method of FILA table is as

followings:

FACTS IDEAS LEARNING

ISSUES

ACTION

PLANS

- the roads that

have been built are

often damaged due

to vehicle load and

environment

-Single chip seal

-Double chip seal

-Stress absorbing

Membrane (SAM)

-Membrane Inter-

layer (SAMI)

-Types of chip seal

-Design of chip seal

-Aggregate for chip

seals

- Identified the

cracks

- Based on data

analysis, recommend

a design of chip seal

to repair the cracks

33

3.5 ONSITE LABORATORY WORKS

We did our onsite laboratory works on 2 August 2010. First, we measured

1km for the length and the width of the road. At the same time, we counted the

traffic volume for the non-peak hour. Subsequently, we did the sand patch for 4

times at the distance of 250m each. The sand patch procedures are as following:

1. Ensure the pavement surface is clear of debris by sweeping the surface

with a small brush. Test area is to be clear of cracking and the pavement

area must be dry.

2. A known volume of sand, is measured and then poured onto the road

surface to form a cone, using the measuring cylinder.

3. Spread the sand with the spreading disc to form a circular patch. Apply

horizontal forces to the spreading tool and work outwards in a circular

pattern until the surface depressions are filled to the level of the peaks.

Sand is to be used only once.

4. Measure the diameter at four different angles, rotating 45° between each

measurement.

After we had done the sand patch, we identified the types of cracks, measure

the length, width and depth (pothole) and filled the data in the lab sheet.

Consequently, we counted the traffic volume again for the peak hour and non

peak hour from 11pm -2pm and 4pm-7pm.

3.6 LABORATORY WORKS

After we did the onsite laboratory works, we did the Flakiness and

Elongation index laboratory to determine the size of the chip seal to be used.

34

3.7 RESULT ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDATION

Based on the data that got from on-site laboratory works and laboratory

works, firstly we have to get the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) value. To

obtain PCI value, there are steps which are Distress Density, Corrected Deduct

Value and PCI Rating scale. The PCI value for section 1, 2, 3 and 4 are 54 (LOS

D, POOR), 83 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY), 81 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY) and

82 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY) respectively. The total PCI value for 1km road is

75 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY) which means section pavement is in satisfactory

condition, Level of Service is B and needed to preventive maintenance. Based on

the total PCI value for 1 km length of the road, we design the chip seal design.

According to our chip seal design, we recommend that the road shall be using

Double Chip Seal, the size for first layer is 14mm and the size for second layer is

6mm.

3.8 FINAL REPORT AND PRESENTATION

We submitted our final report and presented our project on week 12. On

Saturday 16th

October there will be a poster presentation will be carried out as

part of our evaluation.

3.9 FINAL EVALUATION

Final evaluation on our group will be given after we submitted our final

report and did our presentation based on quality of our report and presentation and

the way that we presented.

35

CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

36

BRANCH : TRAFFIC LABORATORY UTHM DATE : 9 AUGUST 2010

SURVEYED BY: MOGANRAJ SAMPLE UNIT :

SECTION : 4 (1 km) SAMPLE AREA : 4.8m x 250m

01. Aligator Cracking (m2) 06. Depression (m2)

11. Patching &

Utility Cut

17. Slippage

Cracking (m2)

02. Bleeding (m2)

07. Edge Cracking

(m)

Patching (m2)

03. Block Cracking (m2)

08. Joint Reflection

Cracking (m)

12. Polished

Aggregate (m2)

18. Swell (m2)

04. Bumps and Sags (m)

13. Potholes(no)

19. Weathering/

05. Corrugation

(m2) 09. Lane/shoulder

14. Railroad Crossing

(m) Ravelling (m2)

Drop

(m)

15. Rutting (m2)

10. Longitudinal &

16. Shoving

(m2)

Transverse

Cracking

(m)

37

Sample 1 (for section 0 – 250m)

Determine the Distress Density and Deduct Value

DISTRESS

SURVEY QUANTITY TOTAL DENSITY (%)

DEDUCT

VALUE

01M 3.7 3.7

100*(3.7/1200)

= 0.31

14

10M 5.6 5.6

100*(5.6/1200)

= 0.47

6

13L 0.4 0.4

100*(0.4/1200)

= 0.03

42

Maximum allowable number of deducts, m

Highest deduct value, HDV = 42

m = 1 + (9/98)(100 – HDV)

= 1 + (9/98)(100 – 42)

= 6.33

Deducts values in descending order = 42, 14, 6

Number of deduct value = 3

Maximum Corrected Deduct Value, CDV

Number of deduct value greater than 2, q = 3

Total deduct value = 42 + 14 + 6 = 62

From Figure B – 45, CDV = 40

38

NO DEDUCT VALUES TOTAL q CDV

1 42 14 6 62 3 40

2 42 14 2 58 2 43

3 42 2 2 46 1 46

Maximum CDV = 46

Determine the Pavement Condition Index, PCI

PCI = 100 - CDVmax

= 100 - 46

= 54 (LOS D, POOR)

The PCI is 54. Based on the rating for PCI value of 54, this section pavement is in poor

condition, Level of Service is D and needed to major rehabilitation or deferred action.

39

Sample 2 (for section 250 – 500m)

Determine the Distress Density and Deduct Value

DISTRESS

SURVEY QUANTITY TOTAL DENSITY (%)

DEDUCT

VALUE

10M 11.3 11.3

100*(11.3/1200)

= 0.94

9

13M 0.3 0.3

100*(0.3/1200)

= 0.03

15

Maximum allowable number of deducts, m

Highest deduct value, HDV = 15

m = 1 + (9/98)(100 – HDV)

= 1 + (9/98)(100 – 15)

= 8.82

Deducts values in descending order = 15, 9

Number of deduct value = 2

Maximum Corrected Deduct Value, CDV

Number of deduct value greater than 2, q = 2

Total deduct value = 15 + 9 = 24

From Figure B – 45, CDV = 17

40

NO DEDUCT VALUES TOTAL q CDV

1 15 9 24 2 17

2 15 2 17 1 17

Maximum CDV = 17

Determine the Pavement Condition Index, PCI

PCI = 100 - CDVmax

= 100 - 17

= 83 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY)

The PCI is 83. Based on the rating for PCI value of 83, this section pavement is in satisfactory

condition, Level of Service is B and needed to preventive maintenance

41

Sample 3 (for section 500 – 750m)

Determine the Distress Density and Deduct Value

DISTRESS

SURVEY QUANTITY TOTAL DENSITY (%)

DEDUCT

VALUE

10M 3.6 3.6

100*(3.6/1200)

= 0.30

3

13L 0.4 0.4

100*(0.4/1200)

= 0.03

9

13M 0.3 0.3

100*(0.3/1200)

= 0.03

15

Maximum allowable number of deducts, m

Highest deduct value, HDV = 15

m = 1 + (9/98)(100 – HDV)

= 1 + (9/98)(100 – 15)

= 8.82

Deducts values in descending order = 15, 9, 3

Number of deduct value = 3

Maximum Corrected Deduct Value, CDV

Number of deduct value greater than 2, q = 3

Total deduct value = 15 + 9 + 3 = 27

From Figure B – 45, CDV = 15

42

NO DEDUCT VALUES TOTAL q CDV

1 15 9 3 27 3 15

2 15 9 2 26 2 19

3 15 2 2 19 1 19

Maximum CDV = 19

Determine the Pavement Condition Index, PCI

PCI = 100 - CDVmax

= 100 - 19

= 81 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY)

The PCI is 81. Based on the rating for PCI value of 81, this section pavement is in satisfactory

condition, Level of Service is B and needed to preventive maintenance.

43

Sample 4 (for section 750 – 1000m)

Determine the Distress Density and Deduct Value

DISTRESS

SURVEY QUANTITY TOTAL DENSITY (%)

DEDUCT

VALUE

01M 0.2 1.1 1.3

100*(1.3/1200)

= 0.11

8

13M 0.3 0.3

100*(0/3/1200)

= 0.03

15

Maximum allowable number of deducts, m

Highest deduct value, HDV = 15

m = 1 + (9/98)(100 – HDV)

= 1 + (9/98)(100 – 15)

= 8.82

Deducts values in descending order = 15, 8

Number of deduct value = 2

Maximum Corrected Deduct Value, CDV

Number of deduct value greater than 2, q = 2

Total deduct value = 15 + 8 = 23

From Figure B – 45, CDV = 16

44

NO DEDUCT VALUES TOTAL q CDV

1 15 8 23 2 16

2 15 2 17 1 18

Maximum CDV = 18

Determine the Pavement Condition Index, PCI

PCI = 100 - CDVmax

= 100 - 18

= 82 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY)

The PCI is 82. Based on the rating for PCI value of 82, this section pavement is in satisfactory

condition, Level of Service is B and needed to preventive maintenance.

45

Calculation of the PCI section Jalan Parit Jelutong

PCIS = ∑PCIri x Ari

∑Ari

Where,

PCIS = PCI of pavement section.

Ari = Area of the random sample unit i.

PCIS = (54 + 83 + 81 + 82)(1200)

4800

= 75 (LOS B, SATISFACTORY)

The PCI is 75. Based on the rating for PCI value of 75, this section pavement is in satisfactory

condition, Level of Service is B and needed to preventive maintenance.

46

4.2 CHIP SEAL

Criteria of chip seal

Table Single Chip Selection Criteria

Existing Surface and traffic Nominal size

1st + 2

nd seal (mm)

Soft to medium surface with < 1000 vehicle per day 20 + 10

Hard surface with > 1000 vehicle per day 14 + 6

Table Double Chip Selection Criteria

Data gained from observation of total vehicles use the road, it is defined that total

vehicles use the road in a day are :

Traffic in lane volume per hour = 62 vph/hour/lane

Traffic in lane (vpd/lane) = 1488 vpd/day/lane

Existing Surface and traffic Nominal size (mm)

Soft surface, such as Penetration Macadam with < 1000 vehicle per

day

20mm

Soft surface with > 1000 vehicle per day 14mm

Medium surface, such as rolled asphalt with < 1000 vehicle per day 10mm

Hard surface, such as Portland Cement Concrete or Asphalt Concrete

> 1000 vehicle per day

6mm

47

Design of Chip Seal For Jalan Parit Jelutong

Proposed of Double chip seal for preventive maintenance at Jalan Parit

Jelutong, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat Johor.

DETERMINATION OF SIZE, SHAPE AND GRADING OF SEALING CHIPS

Class No.

(a)

Thickness

Range

mm

(b)

Tally

Stones In

Class

Total

tally (c)

Cum.

Tally (d)

Cum

percent

(e)

(a) x (c)

(f)

1 <1 0

2 1 - 2 1.5 4 4 4 8

3 2 - 3 2.5 4 8 8 12

4 3 - 4 3.5 5 13 13 20

5 4 - 5 4.5 5 18 18 25

6 5 - 6 5.5 10 28 28 60

7 6 - 7 6.5 13 41 41 91

8 7 - 8 7.5 14 55 55 112

9 8 - 9 8.5 13 68 68 117

10 9 - 10 9.5 13 80 80 120

11 10 - 11 10.5 13 92 92 132

12 11 - 12 11.5 8 100 100 96

13 12 - 13 12.5

14 13 - 14 13.5

48

For 6mm:

Aggregate Average Least Dimension, ALD:

ALD6mm = [ (f) / (c) – 0.5 ]

= [ 793 / 100 – 0.5 ]

= 7.97 mm

For 14mm:

15 14 - 15 14.5

16 15 - 16 15.5

17 16 - 17 16.5

18 17 - 18 17.5

19 18 - 19 18.5

20 19 - 20 19.5

21 20 - 21 20.5

22 21 - 22 21.5

23 22 - 23 22.5

24 23 - 24 23.5

25 24 - 25 24.5

(c) = 100 (f) = 793

49

Class No.

(a)

Thickness

Range

mm

(b)

Tally

Stones In

Class

Total

tally (c)

Cum.

Tally (d)

Cum

percent

(e)

(a) x (c)

(f)

1 <1 0

2 1 - 2 1.5

3 2 - 3 2.5

4 3 - 4 3.5

5 4 - 5 4.5

6 5 - 6 5.5 1 1 1 6

7 6 - 7 6.5 3 4 4 21

8 7 - 8 7.5 6 10 10 48

9 8 - 9 8.5 12 22 22 108

10 9 - 10 9.5 10 32 32 100

11 10 - 11 10.5 13 45 45 143

12 11 - 12 11.5 10 55 55 120

13 12 - 13 12.5 12 67 67 156

14 13 - 14 13.5 10 77 77 140

15 14 - 15 14.5 7 84 84 105

16 15 - 16 15.5 6 90 90 96

17 16 - 17 16.5 4 94 94 68

18 17 - 18 17.5 4 98 98 72

19 18 - 19 18.5 2 100 100 38

20 19 - 20 19.5

21 20 - 21 20.5

50

Aggregate Average Least Dimension, ALD:

ALD14mm = [ (f) / (c) – 0.5 ]

= [ 1221 / 100 – 0.5 ]

= 12.27 mm

Binder Rate of Application, R

R = ( 0.138 x ALD + e ) x Tf

Where :

ALD : Average Least Dimension (mm)

e : Bitumen needed to fill road surface

Tf : Factor to allow an increased application rate for low traffic volume to

delay Durability failure

For 6 mm:

R = [ ( 0.138 x 7.97 ) + 0.004 ] x 1.0021

= 1.106 l/m2

22 21 - 22 21.5

23 22 - 23 22.5

24 23 - 24 23.5

25 24 - 25 24.5

(c) = 100 (f) = 1221

51

For 14 mm:

R = [ ( 0.138 x 12.27 ) + 0.004 ] x 1.0021

= 1.701 l/m2

Aggregate, C

C = 1.364 x ALD

Where :

C = Cover Aggregate (kg/m2)

ALD = Aggregate Average Least Dimension (mm)

For 6 mm:

C = 1.364 x ALD

= 1.364 x 7.97

= 10.87 kg/m2

For 14 mm:

C = 1.364 x ALD

= 1.364 x 12.27

= 16.74 kg/m2

52

4.3 SAND PATCH DATA

Volume = 45 ml

Ø = 2.5 cm

h

Height = 9.30 cm

Point

Diameter

1

Diameter

2

Diameter

3

Diameter

4

Diameter

5

Diameter

6

Average

(mm)

1

510 510 480 500 510 480 498.33

2

490 450 470 480 460 470 470.00

3

450 450 450 460 450 440 450.00

4

510 540 510 540 530 530 526.67

Average Diameter = 498.33 + 470 + 450 + 526.67

4

= 486.25 mm

53

The texture depth, T

T = 4V

D2

Where :

V = Volume (ml)

D = Diameter (mm)

T = 4V

D2

= 4(45)

(486.25)2

= 2.42 x 10-4

mm

4.4 COST RATE ESTIMATION

- Proposed of Double layer chip Seal for preventive maintenance at Jalan Parit

Jelutong, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor Darul Ta’zim.

- For 4800 m2

area of chip seal will bring two (2) days work.

First layer

Supply and Lay Modified Bitumen or Equivalent for the Chip Seal Layer

o For bitumen application rate of 1.10 litres /sq .m to 1.30 litres/sq.

54

Machinery

Descriptions Rate per day (RM) Quantity Days Total (RM)

20Tonne Dump

Truck 570 1 2 1140

TOTAL 1140

Manpower

Descriptions Rate per day (RM) Quantity Days Total (RM)

General

Labour 50 2 2 200

Driver 65 2 2 260

TOTAL 460

Raw Materials (Bitumen) 1.10 litres /sq .m to 1.30 litres/sq

(Average 1.2 litres/sq.m)

Description Rate per barrel

(RM)

Quantit

y

Total

Bitumen RM 500 29 14500

TOTAL 14500

NOTE :

1 Barrel = 200 litres

4800 m2 x 1.2litres/m

2 = 5760 litres

(5760 litres / 200 litres) = 28.8 » 29 barrels

4800 m2 need 29 barrels bitumen for first layer.

55

COST for 4800m2

ITEM COST (RM)

Machinery 1 140

Manpower 460

Materials 14 500

Cost 16 100

Profit 40% 16 100 x 0.4 = 6 440

Total for 4800 m² 22 540.00

Rate for 1 m² = 4800

00.22540

= RM 4.70/ m2 to be transfer in Bill of Quantity

56

Supply, Lay and Compact uniformly 16 mm pre coated cover aggregates as Chip

Seal Layer

a) Machinery

Description Rate per day

(RM) Quantity Days Total (RM)

Asphalt Paver 577 1 2 1154

7 Tonne Tandem

Roller

420 1 2 840

Sweeper 495 1 2 990

TOTAL 2 984

b) Manpower

Description Rate per day

(RM)

Quantity Days Total (RM)

Bitumen Worker 50 7 2 700

Operator 85 4 2 680

TOTAL 1 380

57

c) Raw Materials (Aggregate)

Descriptions Rate per tan(RM) Quantity Total (RM)

14 mm

Aggregate 38 178.886 6797.67

TOTAL 6797.67

NOTE :

- Quantity = Area x Thickness of Aggregate x Density of Aggregate

- Quantity = 4800 m2 x 0.014 m x 2.662 Mg/m3

= 178.886 tonne

d) Cost for 4800 m²

ITEM COST (RM)

Machinery 2 984

Manpower 1 380

Materials 6 797.67

Cost 11 161.67

Profit 40% 11 161.67 x 0.4 = 4 464.67

Total for 4 800 m² 15 626.34

Rate for 1 m² = 4800

15626.34

= RM 3.26/ m2 to be transfer in Bill of Quantity

58

SECOND LAYER

Supply and lay second layer modified bitumen or equivalent for the chip seal layer:

For bitumen application rate of 0.8 litres/sq.m to 1.0 litres/sq.

a) Machinery

Descriptions Rate per day

(RM) Quantity Days Total (RM)

20 Tonne Dump

Truck 570 1 2 1140

TOTAL 1140

b) Manpower

Descriptions Rate per day

(RM)

Quantity Days Total (RM)

General

Labor 50 2 2 200

Driver 65 2 2 260

TOTAL 460

59

c) Raw Materials (Bitumen) 1.10 litres /sq .m to 1.30 litres/sq

(Average 1.2 litres/sq.m)

Description Rate per barrel

(RM) Quantity Total

Bitumen RM 500 22 11 500

TOTAL 11 500

NOTE:-

o 1 Barrel = 200 litres

o 4800 m2 x 0.9litres/m

2 = 4 320 litres

o (4 320 litres / 200 litres) = 21.6 » 22 barrels

o 4800 m2 need 22 barrels bitumen for first layer.

d) COST for 4800m2

ITEM COST (RM)

Machinery 1 140

Manpower 460

Materials 11 500

Cost 13 100

Profit 40% 13 100 x 0.4 = 5 240

Total for 4800 m² 18 340.00

60

Rate for 1 m² = 4800

18340

= RM 3.82/ m2 to be transfer in Bill of Quantity

Supply, lay second layer modified bitumen or equivalent for the chip seal layer:

For bitumen application of 0.8 litres/sq.m to 1.0 litres/sq.

a) Machinery

Description Rate per day

(RM)

Quantity

Days Total (RM)

Asphalt Paver 577 1 2 1154

7 Tonne Tandem

Roller 420 1 2 840

Sweeper 495 1 2 990

TOTAL 2 984

61

b) Manpower

Description Rate per day

(RM) Quantity Days Total (RM)

Bitumen

Worker 50 7 2 700

Operator 85 4 2 680

TOTAL 1 380

c) Raw Materials (Aggregate)

Descriptions Rate per tan

(RM) Quantity Total (RM)

6 mm

Aggregate 40 76.666 3 066.64

TOTAL 3 066.64

NOTE:

- Quantity = Area x Thickness of Aggregate x Density of Aggregate

- Quantity = 4800 m2 x 0.006 m x 2.662 Mg/m3

= 76.666 tonne

62

d) Cost for 4 800 m²

ITEM COST (RM)

Machinery 2 984

Manpower 1 380

Materials 3 066.64

Cost 7 430.64

Profit 40% 7 430.64 x 0.4 = 2 972.26

Total for 4 800 m² 10 402.90

Rate for 1 m² = 4800

10402.90

= RM 2.17/ m2 to be transfer in Bill of Quantity

63

4.4.1 BILL OF QUANTITY.

PROPOSED OF DOUBLE LAYER CHIP SEAL PREVENTIVE

MAINTENANANCE AT JALAN PARIT JELUTONG

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT RATE

(RM)

QUANTITY AMOUNT

(RM)

1.

2.

3.

Supply and lay modified bitumen of

equivalent for the chip seal layer :-

I. For bitumen application rate of

1.10 litres per square meter to

1.30 liters per square meter.

Supply, lay and compact uniformly

14 mm precoated cover aggregates

as chip seal.

Supply and lay second layer

modified bitumen or equivalent for

chip seal layer:

II. For bitumen application rate of

0.8 litres/sq.m to 1.10/sq.m

m2

m2

4.70

3.26

4800

4800

22 560.00

15 648.00

64

4

Supply, lay and and compact 6mm

precoated cover aggregate as chip

seal layer.

m2

m2

3.82

2.17

4800

4800

18 336.00

10 416.00

TOTAL COST

66 960.00

Unquestionably, all of the design methods can effectively guide inexperienced

personnel through the process of chip seal design. The following best practices can be

drawn from a comparison of the chip seal design methodologies. To begin, the selection

of the binder is a very important decision and should be made after considering all the

factors under which the chip seal is expected to perform. After all, the primary purpose of

a chip seal is to prevent water intrusion into the underlying pavement structure, and the

asphalt layer formed by the binder is the mechanism that performs this vital function.

The previously explained design methods are all based on the assumption that

single-course chip seal design required the use of uniformly manner. The application

rates of all methods appear to be based on residual binder and each method has a

procedure for dealing with adjustments owing to factoring the loss of binder to absorption

by the underlying pavement surface and the aggregate being used. Contemporary design

practices need to determine binder application rated based on surface characterization,

65

absorption factors, traffic condition, climate consideration, aggregate selection, and the

type of chip seal being constructed. Another important discovery is that all methods have

a design objective for embedment to be between 50% and 70% of that seal’s depth.

Best practices for chip seal design are difficult to isolate, because there appears to be

such a large variation in practices from agency to agency. However, the following can be

identified as meeting this project’s definition for best practices:

Chip seal perform best only on roads with low underlying surface distress that will

benefit from this technology.

The international practice is to characterize the underlying road’s texture and surface

hardness and use that as a basis for developing the subsequent formal chip seal

design. Where the local council responses indicated a routine use of qualitative

characterization in the design process. Thus, the next logical enhancement would be

to incorporate international methods to quantitatively characterize the underlying

surface in the chip seal design process.

One of those enhancements would be to try using the racked-in seal as the corrective

measure for bleeding instead of spreading fine aggregate and sand on the bleeding

surface.

66

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.2 CONCLUSION

The conclusion in this area is quite evident. First, the selection of chip seal materials

is project dependent, and the engineer in charge of design must fully understand not only

the pavement and traffic conditions in which the chip seal will operate but also the

climatic condition under which the chip seal will be applied. It appears that the

widespread use of emulsion binder chip seal results from the nation that emulsion are less

sensitive to environmental conditions during construction. Additionally, as emulsions are

installed at a lower binder temperature they are probably less hazardous to the

construction crew. Binder performance can be improved through the use of modifiers

such as polymers and crumb rubber.

67

Next, the selection of the binder is dependent on the type of aggregate that is

economically available for the chip seal project. In other way, we could to bear

additional aggregate costs to ensure the quality of their chip seals are something that

should be seriously considered in this area.

The aggregate should be checked to ensure that electrostatic compatibility is met

with the type of binder specified. Also pre-coating of the aggregate appears to be required

for use with hot asphalt cement binders to ensure good adhesion after application.

Finally, it appears that the use of geotextile-reinforced chip seal is promising and should

be considered for those roads that have more than normal surface distress and for which

an overlay is not warranted. Therefore, several next practices can be extracted from the

foregoing discussion:

Conduct electrostatic testing of chip seal aggregate source before chip design

to ensure that the binder selected for the project is compatible with the

potential sources of aggregate.

Specify a uniformly graded high-quality aggregate.

Consider using lightweight synthetic aggregate in areas where post-

construction vehicle damage is a major concern.

Use life-cycle cost analysis to determine the benefit of importing either

synthetic aggregate or high-quality natural aggregate to areas where

availability of high-quality aggregate is limited.

Use polymer-modified binders to enhance chip seal performance

68

5.1 SUGGESTION

Since the failed pavement been identified and the sand patch method carried out, the

design using chip seal method have been analyzed. So the best ways to solve those

pavement failures are through the chip seal method, this is because of few concrete

reasons which are:-

More durable and long lasting

Protect and preserve the pavement from heavy climate weather

Extend pavement life

Basically chip sealing is a common pavement preservation tactic that prevents water

from seeping into an asphalt pavement's base course and sub-grade, while improving skid

resistance and rehabilitating weathered asphalt surfaces. This assessment has found that

chip seal practices can be instituted that will improve the reliability of maintenance chip

seals. Many of the best practices identified fell in the areas of construction procedures

and equipment management practice. This is not surprising, in that construction is the

most critical portion of the chip seal project life cycle.

The area that apparently been surveyed which is Parit Jelutong has the greatest

potential for enhancement is chip seal design. This is also the area in which

advancements in technical understanding will have the greatest potential to dispel the

view that the use of chip seals is merely an art. The major issue in chip seal design lies in

accurately characterizing the surface on which the seal will be applied, through using

engineering measurements of macro-texture and hardness.

69

APPENDIX

Measuring Distance Length of 1km taken Cone Been Placed

Sand Patch Circle Patching To a Circullar Shape

Sand Patch Diameter Taken Collecting Back The Sand

70

Shoving Edge Drop-off

Pothole

Crocodile Crack

Longitunal Crack Cracking

71

Length of Crack Measured Transverse Crack

Pothole Longitunal Crack

Aligator Crack Tranverse Crack

72

Edge Crack Pothole Depth Measured

Block Crack Crack Length Measured

73

REFERENCES

Garber N.J. and Hoel L.A. Traffic & Highway Engineering (3rd

Edition). US:

Brooks/Cole

Norman Edwards, Peter Keys (1996), Singapore - A Guide to Buildings, Streets, Places,

Times Books International, Victor R Savage, Brenda S A Yeoh (2003), Toponymics - A

Study of Singapore Street Names, Eastern Universities

Jones, Ken D., Arthur F. McClure and Alfred E. Twomey. The Types Road Failures.

New York: Castle Books, 1970.

Small, Kenneth A.; José A. Gomez-Ibañez (1998). Road Pricing for Congestion

Management: The Transition from Theory to Policy. The University of California

Transportation Center, University of California at Berkeley. pp. 213.

John Shadely, Acoustical analysis of the New Jersey Turnpike widening project between

Raritan and East Brunswick, Bolt Beranek and Newman, 1973

Michael Hogan, Highway Noise, 3rd Environmental Pollution Symposium