s u s t a i n a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t

TRANSIT ORIENTATED DEVELOPMENT REPORT

Submission Date: 23 September 2009 - History and Theory in Design 6 (KDA322) S2:2009 Applied Contemporary Theory Comparative Essay - Xavier Mouche Student No 046835

History &TimePhenomenology Sense

Function & CirculationDiagramming

Flexibility of SpaceLanguage

Curvilinearity

“The physical form of the city depends as much upon the forces within the environment, the soci-ety and its technology as it does on ’functions’ as architects define them” (Brown 1990, p.13).

The process of architectural and urban de-sign projects often requires the consideration of history and past architecture. It explores the dif-ferent layers of architecture during the course of time and analyses the implication they may or may not have had upon society. This essay will aim at introducing an experimental proposal for the development of a new Hobart suburban precinct or Transit-Oriented-Development (TOD). The TOD will be a mixed-used development inclu- ding residential, market, and commercial com-ponents, and transport infrastructure. The design of the development will explore and respond to the social, the local cultural and political context, with the intention to promote sustainable urban and community growth. Some of the fundamen-tal problematics examined will be sensation and function. The application of aspects of sensa-tion such as phenomenology and heterotopia will be considered in conjunction with the com-peting demands of function such as circulation, diagramming and flexibility of space. This essay will attempt to provide functional, sustainable and social solutions guided by some key archi-tectural theories and significant contemporary building examples. Additionally, this essay will consider whether or not the usefulness of curvi-linear shapes is greater than that of rectilinear forms, and question whether organic forms may be more in tune with the human environment.

Significant events throughout Architecture’s history confirm that so-ciety can react adversely to an unbalanced relationship with its environment. In his book, Charles Jenks describes the adverse pub-lic response to the Pruitt Igoe housing scheme, an iconic example of rectilinear modernism which was built in St. Louis in 1972 “Charles Jenks, in his influential The Language of Post Modern Architecture (1977), argued that modern architecture had run its course. He even provided a precise “death” of modernity: in St. Louis, Mis-souri, on July 1972, at 3:32 p.m., when several of the 14-story slab blocks that together formed Pruitt Igoe, a prize-winning social hous-ing scheme designed by Minoru Yamasaki and built only 20 years before, were demolished” This was the final proof, according to Jenks, that modern architecture could not live up to its promises and failed to provide its users with a liveable environment (Senott 2004, p.1047). See figure 1.

Figure 1: Pruitt Igoe housing scheme, St Louis USA, 1972.Picture Source: www.pomo2009.wordpress.com

The rectilinear apartment block, emphasised uti- lity and purely functional requirements over nature aesthetical values. Despite the developer’s good intentions, to provide a new functional system of housing, the subsequent demolition of Pruitt Igoe demonstrates how important it is for designers to provide an adequate architectural response to the environmental and social context. Although the design of Pruitt Igoe was short lived, its theoretical contribution has provided an important chapter in design history from which contemporary architects can continue to learn.

Therefore, in the context of the TOD project, while the functional approach of the design will still need to strongly guide the project, in order to create a harmonious community, the new design needs to evoke a strong connection between the environ-ment and the human senses.

When humans sense that the materials and the form of buildings, create an essential connection with the site and their direct urban environment this is referred to as the issue of phenomenology. Through his theory of phenomenology, JØrn Utzon discusses how the experience of architecture emerges in a community. “Utzon’s work embodies a visionary approach to architecture that is site specific and poetic, tectonic and humane; informed by a pro-found appreciation of nature and diversity of hu-man cultures, as source of inspiration and analogy, combined with a sense of architecture as art and an innovative approach to the use of technology” (Carter, A 2009, p. 1).

Utzon was able to loosen architecture form following the end of modernism through his approach to phenomeno- logy.

Thus, while the design approach of a TOD will inevitably be affected by its functionality, it is important to introduce, as Utzon proposes, a harmonious implementation of practi-cality in a humane approach to architecture. The design should provide users with a sense of connectedness to their history, as well as to the location and this should induce a sense of comfort and connection with their environment (figure 2).

Figure 2: JØrn Utzon sketches of Bagsvaert ChurchDenmark 1974.Picture source: www.arcspace.com/ studio/utzon/pages/03.html

In response to Utzon’s principles, in term of space versus social be-haviour, French philoso-pher Michel Foucault (figure 4) wrote a scholar-ly article “Of Other Spac-es” (Foucault, M 1967) which offers an interes- ting and abstract analy-sis on how humans react in response to their direct environment. Foucault argues that the relation-ship between space(s) and history may have a greater impact upon so-ciety and social beha-viour than architecture or the environment itself. In brief, Foucault proposes that these other places or as he calls them het-erotopias monitors our behaviour through mem-ories of sites. “Places of this kind are outside of all places, even though it may be possible to indi-cate their location in real-ity. Because these places are absolutely different from all the sites that they reflect and speak about, I shall call them, by way of contrast to utopias, heterotopias” (Foucault, 1967, p. 4).

According to Foucault, heterotopias differ from all other sites in that they are conceived as spaces sep-arate to all others. He also argues that these ‘other spaces’ are categorized as discontinuous, socially defined places. For ex-ample, prisons, asylums, brothels, churches, roman baths or out of town motel rooms, (figure 3) are cat-egorised as places where people may experience a state of “crisis” or in transi-tion.Figure 3: Prison as one of Michel Foucault example as

an heterotopia, State Penitentiary Philadelphia, 1967.Picture source: archaeography.com/photoblog/ archives/2006/08/

Figure 4: Michel Foucault. Picture source: www.philosophyblog.com.au

When we compare Foucault’s theories with Utzon’s approach we observe that Utzon chooses to merge his architecture harmoniously to its surrounding while Foucault’s theories relate to a far broader system of spatial control. From my own experience, an example of a familiar urban form of heterotopia, is a large commercial kitchen. The confined spaces of poorly aesthetically designed kitchens are often environments that are recurrently in a state of “crisis” and con-sequently, also become places that fit the category of transitional spaces. A particular restaurant that I took over as a development consultant was a project that desperately required revamping for relaunching with the hope of turning it around. The previous owners unfortunately abused and totally neglected the space, as much as the workers within that space. The interesting aspect of that environ-ment was that, despite extensive redecoration with the attempt to disconnect the interior from its dreadful past, there was still a distinct-ly negative impression that could clearly be sensed. And not surpris-ingly, tragic and unforeseeable incidents continued to occur within the short period that I was there. More than during all of my previous years in the industry.

Perhaps Foucault’s in-sights into the impact of spaces may also explain, in part, the outcome of the Pruitt Igoe social hous-ing scheme. Heterotopic phenomenology also un-derlines the fact that un-happy spaces can pos-sibly become those other places, hence the oppo-sites of utopias. Addition-ally, the architecture of the kitchen space worked efficiently but was discon-nected with, and thus dis-enfranchised the individ-uals who worked there so the project encountered difficulties and ultimately failed to fulfil its purpose, just as the Pruitt Igoe’s scheme was challenged prior to its demise.

Figure 5: Commercial kitchen examplar. Picture source: www.pct.edu/profile/ restaurant

In developing a design solution for the TOD project it will therefore be important to take into account the failure of Pruitt Igoe, in terms of purely functional rectilinear modernism, the notion of phenom-enology, and the potentially malignant impact of heterotopias. In Australia, the diversity of human cultures in modern society is an-other factor that needs considering in this design project. Hence, architectural design should enhance community growth and influ-ence interaction within the Tasmanian suburban society (figure 6). In the case of the TOD design, this could possibly be expressed using Tasmanian materials in a setting and design which could reflect and blend with the local cultural context, but also more broadly repre-sents Tasmania’s cultural heritage and strong connection to her rich natural resources and tracts of unspoiled wilderness.

Offering similar principles as JØrn Utzon, architect Tadao Ando underscores that the primarily role of his architecture is to allow the presence of nature in modern urban life. He proposes that “architecture becomes a place where people and nature confront each other under a sustained sense of tension…(T)hat will awaken the spiritual sensibilities latent in contemporary humanity.” (Nesbitt 1996, p. 50). Ando also suggests that a close connection with nature is integral for the wellbeing of society, making society aware and grateful of its natural surrounding, as demonstrated in his design approach at the Naoshima Contemparary Museum in Japan (figure 7). In order to offer the community members the benefits of ap-plying Ando’s nature theory, the TDO brief could therefore incorporate and highlight Tasmanian’s four distinct seasons as part of a regional response in the design brief.

Figure 6: Sustainable Communities. Picture source: www.ksre.k-state.edu

Figure 7: Tadao Ando’s Naoshima Contemporary Art Museumin Naoshima Japan, 1992.Picture source: www.galinsky.com/buildings/naoshima

While it is certainly the place of architecture to subdue and monitor the strength of nature in order to offer best possible comfort and safety to its inhabitants it is impor-tant to remember that advanced technology has also as-sisted in improving human comfort since the industrial rev-olution. However, it is important for today’s architect not to over-capitalise on technology’s advancements to the detriment of the more subtle and aesthetic natural char-acteristics that architecture can contribute to the design of a project. “In the pre-industrial past, the production of meaning in architecture relied upon structured referen-ces to and associations with nature. Modern architecture embraced the machine analogy instead of the organic analogy. Although machines are often designed on the basis of natural systems, their use as a formal model pre-vented architecture from referring directly to nature. This is a problematic because, despite technological advanc-es, symbolizing man’s position within the natural world re-mains one of architectural roles”. (Nesbitt, 1996, p. 48). In addition, “Architectural discourse is not enough in itself to explain the appearance of specific forms, the derivation of typologies and the whole concatenation of a spatial genealogy. And the reason for this is that the discourse only makes itself felt within the context that is provided by a network of interaction combining various levels of ac-tion and transformations” (Hays, 1998, p. 296). Essentially, a TOD needs to establish a flexible and harmonious amal-gam of simple and direct networks as much as offering free-flowing movement and so a sustainable approach also needs to be implemented. This will inevitably create a tension between the competing forces in order to reduce the heavy motorized footprint on the delicate canvas of environmental responsiveness and responsibility.

Transit and transportation will also continue to grow and place greater demands on communities, resources and the urban environment unless we decide as designers to offer an alternate solution for this ever-growing condition. Past suburban transportation systems were purely driven by a technological emphasis. As twenty-first century citizens we need to sys-tematically remove ourselves from a motorized orientated city structure. “One could perceive transportation as an organising human behavioural phenomena. The human being attempts to control his environment with respect to quality and time – the primary driving forces in our develop-ment are conquering distance and reducing the time factor. Transport and movement can also be a self-serving device” (Gerkan, V 1997, p. 11). Human movement and the transportation policies will undoubtedly still shape and carve out our cities. By introducing sustainable solutions we can hopefully create new and healthier networks of interaction towards humanising suburbia again (figure 8). In a TOD program this can only re-ally be successfully accomplished whilst implementing a sustainable hy-brid powered public transportation system. In addition, car parking lots can be replaced by green public spaces and pedestrian walkways and bicycle-friendly streets can be developed. Similar commitments have been adopted in Asian and Scandinavian cities and proved to be ef-ficient and successful.

Figure 8: A futuristic city precinct by MVRDV Architects.Source: www.inhabitat.com

This sustainable approach needs to be understood and incorporated at the early stages of the TOD design phase. The linear pier design that houses the International Port Terminal in Yokohama, Japan (1996-2002), and was de-veloped by the architectural firm Foreign Office Archi-tects, offers a contemporary and sustainable approach to circulation pattern and movement. Their interest in the circulation pattern was to move forward from similar pro-grams already developed in the past “where circulation was organised and then “architecture” deployed on a circulation diagram, but in a more consistent manner in which circulation can literally shape space” (Alejandro & Moussavi, 2004, p. 228). The elongated pier offers a multi-functional approach. The upper level (roof) gives individuals a sense of a landscaped park environment where peripheral ocean views can also be enjoyed (fig-ure 9,9a), whilst being quite unaware of the activities taking place below. On the lower level, waiting areas, shops and restaurants were introduced. The architects wanted to develop a number of circulation paths where visitors can walk in one way and then out through a dif-ferent path using an interlaced looped program. “The connection between the circulation paths was always set as a bifurcation, so that rather than setting the pro-gram as a series of adjacent spaces with more or less determined limits, we articulated them in the continuity of a branched sequence along the circulation system” (Alejandro & Moussavi, 2004, p. 228). This design offered the additional advantage of connecting all parts of the pier precinct.

Figure 9, 9a: International Port Termi-nal, Yokohama Japan, 2002. Source: www.galinsky.com/buildings

For designs to be effectively translated from inanimate diagrams and models to effective functional TOD’s, consider-ation must be also be given to the chal-lenges that will be posed by the animate aspects, or dynamics, of the design. The Yokohama International Port Terminal offers a dynamic stream of movement connecting passengers to the inhabit-ants of the city through an aquatic land-scape design. In order to achieve such a complex array of opportunities a dex-terous diagram program was required. Diagramming illustrates the variation of how the design is conveyed and repre-sented, but also acts as a means to vi-sualize and monitor the evolvement of a design. Architectural critic Robert Somol in his article, Diagram work, asserts that “The diagram has achieved the status that since the Renaissance had been re-served for a drawing as the defining trait of the architectural discipline. Without the burdens of virtuosity or rationality, the diagram is the product neither of craft art (the single hand) nor the industrialized mechanisation (corporate production): it is a function of the virtual” (figure 10). So-mol also mentions that according to this virtual function, the diagram can act as a technique to prevail over the “antino-mies of post-war formalism, not the least of which is that between the “real” and “the representation” (Somol 1998, p. 23).

Figure 10: Virtual diagram.Source: www.pfaffmann.com

Evidently a concise diagramming program will be re-quired for our TOD conceptual phase and beyond, in order to organise all materials that describes perfor-mance. It will need to absorb and embody increasing levels of complexity and information without necessarily altering the nature of its performance (Stephen Loo, As-soc. Prof. University of Tasmania, 08.2009).

Aside from the efficient functionality and diagramming program, Foreign Office Architects’ Yokohama Terminal offers a creative form of organization in urban design. Initially, delineated by Alison Smithson in her 1974 article How to recognize and Read Mat-Build-ings, the approach of Mat-building design consists of practical systems that can provide a solution for a flexible and even adapt-able urban environment. In Yokohama’s Terminal, Foreign Office Architects introduced shallow and dense sections (figure 11) con-nected by sloped walkways and double storey voids, which im-proved human interaction and allowed easy access and move-ment for both pedestrians and inward goods. Another flexible arrangement of Mat-building design is the unifying roof structure. Capable of repetitive and adjustable construction it promotes a new type of urban field, emphasising internal functions and activi-ties for users.

Figure 11: Yokohama Ferry Terminal.Source: www.galinsky.com/buildings

In his architecture publication Mat Urbanism: The Thick 2-D, Archi-tecture Stan Allan highlights an effective Mat-Building example in an urban market context (figure 12). “Working with a very different architectural vocabulary the 1997-98 project by Enric Mirabelles and Benedetta Tagliabue, involving the reconstruction of the San-ta Caterina Market in Barcelona, responded to the constant flux of demolition and rebuilding in historical city centres. On a site where a long history of building and rebuilding has left its traces, Mira-belles and Tagliabue inscribed new traces and overlaid new uses, without erasing the old. The site is excavated for parking, the mar-ket uses are preserved, and new public spaces and housing were proposed. Instead of clearing and ordering the site, the architects respected the eclectic mix of activities typically associated with a city centre. This complex mix in turn required a high degree of spatial invention to accommodate three different disparate activi-ties in such close proximity. A highly figured, lightweight roof both unified these competing functions and registered, by it’s own de-formations, the integral tensions created on the site (Allen 2001, p. 119). Although this example does not refer to a suburban context, it could certainly be part of the design philosophy of an innovative approach for the development of a TOD. Furthermore, this flexible approach also takes into account and examines future possibilities of reorganization within the development.

Figure 12: Santa Caterina Markets 1998.Image Source: www.essential-architecture.com

Interestingly, this previous concept also relates to Foucault’s Heterotopias theo-ry. By making an attempt to harmonious-ly interconnect the different places (or buildings/spaces) of the program with the flexible roof structure (figure 13), this new system could potentially conscious-ly, or subconsciously, diminish the hard contrast between the utopias and het-erotopias. Alternatively, such a design strategy could at least contribute to the reduction of these other “crisis” places that normally stand alone or apart from the norm. However, it may also be impor-tant to consider the possibility that het-erotopias may be necessary to maintain equilibrium in our cities and communi-ties. Architecture critic Jonathan Glanc-ey makes this interesting statement “It is the balance between order and chaos, the sensual and the rational, the drama of human life and the implied order of a dignified city plan that makes a great city what it is. (Glancey 2000, p. 229).

Figure 13: Santa Caterina Markets 1998.Image Source: www.essential-architecture.com

Therefore, while space remains a contentious issue, the literature supports the notion that a successful design must take into account the potential connectedness between the user and the development, and the development in turn should reflect the local cultural and environmen-tal features. Technological advances are inevita-ble, and will more than likely continue to rely on mankind’s ambition for progression. As designers we need to offer a solution in order to compen-sate for this universal trend. By offering a sustain-able approach as proposed in this essay, con-sistent with contemporary societal, corporate and government concerns, could a new archi-tectural language be developed, embedded with more natural aesthetic values and offered as an alternative to compensate the advances of technology?

Figure 14: Rem Koolhaas’s Seattle Public Library, 2004.Image Source: www. massengale.typepad.com

Greg Lynn’s essay on Architectural Curvilinearity (1993) proposes that curvilinear, fluid and folded forms may herald this new approach in response to the often ambiguous and contradicting sculptural forms (figure 14) of some deconstruc-tivist architects. “The movement refers mainly to an architectural language of displaced, distorted, angular forms, often set within conflicting geometries” (Senott 2004, p.350). Lynn also suggests that when contradiction is expressed through architecture, formal conflicts may arise as a consequence. “In response to architecture’s discovery of complex, dispa-rate, differentiated and heterogenous cultural and formal context, two options have been dominant; either conflict and contradiction or unity and reconstruction. Presently, an alternative smoothness is being formulated that may escape these dialectically opposed strategies” (Lynn, 1993, p. 8).

In contrast to diagonal forms, a curvilinear and fluid system of architec-ture could connect exterior and interior forces by gently folding them into each other. Lynn also proposes that the smooth spaces represent-ed by a curvilinear architectural continuity are capable of elaborate deformations in response to the schedule of structural, aesthetic and political implications of the structure. “This is not to imply that intensive curvature is more politically correct than an uninvolved formal logic, but rather, that a cunning pliability is often more effective through smooth incorporation than contradiction and conflict” (Lynn, 1993, p. 10). With the technology that deconstructivist architects have at their disposal, a new age of freedom in architecture language could be realized. A language simply inspired by our natural environment, morphed with in-nately familiar shapes (figure 15). In addition, this approach may also offer a solution to some extent, to disguise or distract from the tech-nological hardware within this folded architecture, hence detaching its occupant from today’s technology framework and linking the users closer to their natural habitat and phenomenology of place. Figure 15: Zaha Hadid’s Millennium Park Pavilions in Chicago 2009.

Image Source: www.architecturelist.com

The impression that a building has on its users is certainly linked to its function. For example, en-tering your favourite café certainly is a different experience to queuing at the post office. Mini-malist surroundings, including deconstructivist spaces may certainly offer a striking and inter-esting impression of a space, but at times one might question if the architect has attempted to be overwhelming different rather than simply creating an architecture that offers a sensitive and stimulating environment for the benefit of the user. While Rectilinear building components may be more cost effective as they can be manufactured in bulk, I believe that the more ornamental, natural and organic the architec-tural approach tends to be, the warmer will be my response, and the greater my sense of ease.

Ultimately, developers should consider what message will be conveyed to the public through the chosen architecture language and the representation of this TOD design. This essay has highlighted the main issues, and the theories from which they originate, which need to be addressed in order to generate a vibrant and a unique sense of community. These important design issues, a sense of connection between the design and the site; a creative response to spatial control; incorporation of aspects of the environment with the user into the design elements; sensitive but strategic placement of technology; and thorough planning for current and projected functional and circulation as-pects of the design, have been shown to be highly significant to a success-ful, contemporary TDO design. However, it can also be argued that the key problematic for the designer to consider, in terms of receptivity by users, is the use of curvilinear, rather than rectilinear, features. This design choice will influ-ence the development of a place where people feel naturally inclined to congregate, formally and informally. By linking architectural history theory to the problematics and issues of the TOD design, fresh new solutions can be de-veloped which offer innovative opportunities for sustainable suburban growth in all levels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Allan, S 2001, Mat Urbanism: The Thick 2D, in Hashim Sarkis, Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival, NY Prestel, New York.

Alejandro, Z & Moussavi, F 2004, Phylogenesis foa’s ark: foreign office architects, Actar Publishing, London.

Cattermole, P 2006, Buildings for Tomorrow, Thames & Hudson, London.

Carter, A 2009, Beyond Earth and the Sky The work of Jorn Utzon as an exemplary phenomenological approach to modern architecture made concrete, in 2nd International Architecture and Phenomenology Conference (Kyoto, 2009).

Curtis, W 1982, Modern Architecture Since 1900, Phaidon Press Limited, Oxford.

Darton, M 1990, The Illustrated Book of Architects and Architecture, Quintet Publishing Ltd, London.

Fleming, J, Honour, H & Pevser, N 1999, Dictionary of Architecture & Landscape Architecture, Penguin Books, London.

Fletcher, B 2001 (20th edition), Sir Banister Fletcher’s: A History of Architecture, Architectural Press, Oxford.

Foucault, M 1967, ‘Of Other Spaces’ http://.foucault.info/document.heteroTopia/foucault.heteroTopia.en.html

Gerkan, V 1997, Architektur für den Verkehr: Architecture for Transportation, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel.

Gehry, F & Forster, K 1999, Frank O. Gehry / Kurt W. Forster, Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern-Ruit.

Hays, M 1998, Architecture Theory since 1968, MIT Press, New York.

Ishida, S & Garbato, G 1989, Renzo Piano: Buildings and Projects 1971-1989, Rizzoli International Publications, New York.

Glancey, J 2003, The Story of Architecture, Dorling Kindersley Ltd, London.

Jenks, C 1990, The New Moderns: From Late to Neo-Modernism, Rizzoli International Publications Inc. New York.

Kahn, L, Brownlee, D & De Long, D 1997, Louis I. Kahn: In the realm of Architecture, Thames & Hudson, London.

Loo, Stephen, Associate Professor Architecture History, University of Tasmanina 2009.

Lucan, J 1991, OMA – Rem Koolhaas, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY AND WEB SOURCES Lynn, G 1993, Architectural Curvilinearity in Folding in Architecture, Architectural Design, London

Nesbit, K 1996, Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.

Papadakis, A 1995, Architectural Design Profile No.87: Deconstruction lll, Academy Group LTD, London.

Papadakis, A 1990, Urban Concepts: Denise Scott Brown, Academy Group LTD, London.

Sennott, R 2004, Encyclopaedia of 20th-Century Architecture, Fitzroy Dearborn, New York.

Somol, R 1998, Diagram of Matter in Diagram works, NY: Any Corporation, New York.

www.archaeography.com/photoblog/ archives/2006/08/www.arcspace.com/ studio/utzon/pages/03.htmlwww.architecturelist.comwww.artnet.comwww.essential-architecture.comwww.essential-architecture.comwww.flickr.comwww.galinsky.com/buildings/naoshimawww.galinsky.com/buildingswww.imagestheglobe.comwww.inhabitat.comwww.jingreed.comwww.ksre.k-state.eduwww.massengale.typepad.comwww.pct.edu/profile/ restaurantwww.pfaffmann.comwww.pomo2009.wordpress.comwww.philosophyblog.com.auwww.thestranger.com

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