1Project writing: the essential elements of a project

By Laust Schouenborg12 September, 2013

Goals for today

What is a project?What does it mean to argue

academically?

What is project design?

2Project as wrapped candy

Argumentation

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Project as wrapped candy

is supposed to argue, reason, prove, discuss, interpret, nuance, problematise, investigate, assess

is NOT supposed to agitate, confess, educate, speculate, convey, praise, proselytize, denigrate, postulate or entertain

Argumentation

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3Overall argument: The road from problem formulation to conclusion Consists of many small arguments

Argument = Claim + Substantiation + Scientific Basis

Argumentation

Project as wrapped candy

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Claim = that which needs to be demonstrated

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The project as an argument

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4Claim = that which needs to be demonstratedSubstantiation = that which supports the claim (theory, concepts, own or others empirical analyses)

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The project as an argument

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Claim = that which needs to be demonstratedSubstantiation = that which supports the claim (theory, concepts, own or others empirical analyses)Scientific basis = that which makes the reader accept the substantiation(scientifically recognised, suitable methods)

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The project as an argument

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Scientific basis

5Bonus points in substantiation!

Refutation = consideration of possible/likely counterargumentsCover = leaning on authorities(citing recognised academics theories, concepts and empirical analyses)Validity = discussion of degree of certainty, reach of argument

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The project as an argument

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Scientific basis

Method = a systematic approach to gathering and/or analyzing information to reach an answer to a question/or a solution to a problem

Also involves an account of the connection between: problem theory - metatheory

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Method

Method = problem handling

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Theory Data

6Methodology = knowledge about methods based on philosophy of scienceBasic position 1 (rationalism): operationalised method = procedure to discover truthBasic position 2 (post-rationalism): analytical strategy = choices related to the production of truth

Common premise: making your method explicit is necessary for establishing what counts as scientific basis and to modify a theory so it becomes suitable for analyzing your specifc problem

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Method

Method = problem handling

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nTheory Data

Methodology

1) The theory testing project (rationalism)

One or more theories are tested on a given phenomenon

Design: List the theories hypotheses about the given phenomenon

Based on this, derive the expected behaviour/outcome

Ascertain the actual behaviour/outcome

Compare the different theories predictions of the behaviour/outcome

Example: Realism vs. constructivism in explaining why the USA wants to

intervene in Syria

What it requires:

That the theories can in fact be tested and placed opposite each other

That it is possible to derive empirical expectations which can then be

tested

That the theories are able to make predictions about the same kind of

phenomenon

Four typical projects

7 2) The analytical project (rationalism)

Takes its point of departure in a specific empirical development or

phenomenon

Design: Theoretically informed analysis of concrete relations,

configurations or processes

Example: How can we explain Danish foreign policy towards Europe in the

post-Cold War era?

What it requires:

The theories used should be epistemologically compatible (dont combine

realism with Frankfurt School critical theory!)

Four typical projects

3) The philospohical/political theory project (post-/before-

rationalism)

Seeks to analyse, but within a political theory context

Design: Maps the broader theoretical/historical/empirical dimensions of

some subject and relate these to the thoughts of one or more political

theorists/philosophers

Example: How can we understand human rights in International Relations

via the thought of John Dewey and Isaiah Berlin?

What it requires:

The chosen political theorist/philosopher should be one of some stature

and should not have covered the specific case in detail (usually light on

methods in the rationalist social science sense)

Four typical projects

8 4) The critical post-structuralist project (post-rationalism)

Seeks to analyse and unsettle dominant notions of the truth

Design: Demonstrates different notions of truth via, for example,

discourse analysis and/or suggests how different notions of truth can

produce alternative possible (and desirable) political

outcomes/consequences

Example: How does the ideology of neoliberalism underpin the current

development paradigm in Africa?

What it requires:

The epistemological (how to know) and ontological (what can be known)

point of departure should be clearly spelled out

Four typical projects

Operationalisation: It should be feasible The theoretical concepts should be able to reach all the way down to

the empirical level Logical flow from the problem formulation, via theory and methods, to

the empirical data

Translates into concrete research strategy: What is it that Im asking? What am I asking with? How do I judge X?

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Operationalisation

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9Empirical data: Is it available? Is it manageable? Is it relevant?

Less is often more!

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1) Do your problem formulation, theory, method, data and conclusion make

up a coherent whole?

Can the method indicated actually produce an appropriate answer to the

question posed in the problem formulation?

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2) How can theory and data be connected and what is the status of each?

For example, is it the case which is most important and is theory mainly used

to explain it? Or is the most important thing to test the theory?

Checklist

3) Does a specific philosophy of science position follow from the choice of

theory, empirical focus and/or problem formulation

A) Is the combination commonly accepted within Global

Studies/International Relations, International Development Studies? If it

is a controversial combination, this needs to be discussed

B) If the project is designed as a synthesis of several theories, they need to

be epistemologically compatible

C) If the problem formulation indicates a philosophy of science focus, then

this of course needs to be discussed explicitly in the project

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4) Does a specific set of rules apply to the method used?

A) Quantitative methods, qualitative methods and discourse analysis each

have their own rules of procedure

B) Use that methods literature which focuses specifically on the method you

are applying (often the same method can be used differently within

different social science disciplines and in relation to different theories)

C) If possible, reference other exemplary studies within the discipline which

have successfully applied the method

Checklist

5) How and why is the method relevant to the project?

The method chapter/section should be focused on the actual project. No

repetition of textbooks (this only shows that you have read them, not that

you have understood how to use methods!)

Explain in concrete terms why, for example, a discourse analysis or a specific

case study is exactly right for your project

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6) What are the specific selections and deselections, and how are they

justified?

Selections and deselections in the process of narrowing down the problem

formulation should be discussed, as should selections and deselections with

respect to theory, methods and empirical data. Demonstrate that yours is the

best possible project design under the circumstances.

Concrete example: speeches of decision makers

Are perhaps relevant data for a poststructuralist

Perhaps an intervening variable for a classical IR realist

Not relevant for a structuralist

Checklist

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Outline of typical project

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Jackson, P.T. (2011) The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations: Philosophy of Science and Its Implications for the Study of World Politics, London and New York: Routledge.

Klotz, Audie & Cecelia Lynch (2007): Constructivist analysis: Strategies for Research in Constructivist International Relations, New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Alvesen, Mats & Kaj Skldberg (2000): Reflexive Methodology. New Vistas for Qualitative Research, London: Sage.

George, Alexander L. & Andrew Bennett (2005): Case Studies and TheoryDevelopment in the Social Sciences, Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press.

Bennett, Andrew & Colin Elman (2006): Qualitative Research: Recent Developments in Case Study Methods, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.9, pp.455-76.

Literature (mainly GS/IR)