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IndexChapter No.ContentsPage No.

1Introduction of Marginal Costing2-4

2Meaning and Definition4-5

3Features of Marginal Costing5

4Advantages of Marginal Costing6

5Disadvantages of Marginal Costing7

6Basic principal of Marginal Cost pricing8

7Absorption Costing (meaning)8

8Advantages and disadvantages9

9Marginal costing V/S Absorption Costing10-11

10Contribution Analysis12-13

11Break-even-analysis 13-14

12Assumption and Limitation 15-16

13Cost-Volume profit (C.V.P) Analysis17

14Marginal costing and Decision making18

15Technique of Costing 19-21

16Marginal Cost equations22-25

17Absorption Costing pro-forma25-26

18Marginal Costing pro-forma 27

19Problems 28-32

20Conclusion33

21Sources 34

INTRODUCTION TO MARGINAL COSTING

The costs that vary with a decision should only be included in decision analysis. For many decisions that involve relatively small variations from existing practice and/or are for relatively limited periods of time, fixed costs are not relevant to the decision. This is because either fixed costs tend to be impossible to alter in the short term or managers are reluctant to alter them in the short term. Marginal costing distinguishes between fixed costs and variable costs as convention ally classified. The marginal cost of a product is its variable cost. This is normally taken to be; direct labor, direct material, direct expenses and the variable part of overheads. Like Marginal costing or job costing, Marginal costing is not a distinct method of ascertainment of cost but is a technique which applies existing methods in a particular manner so that the relationship between profit & the volume of output can be clearly brought out. Marginal costing ascertains marginal or variable costs & the effect on profit, of the changes in volume or type of output, by differentiating between variable costs & fixed costs. To any type of costing such as historical, standard, Marginal or job; the Marginal costing technique may be applied. Under the Marginal of Marginal costing, from the cost components, fixed costs are excluded. The difference which arises between the variable costs incurred for activities & the revenue earned from those activities is defined as the gross margin or contribution. It may relate to total sales or may relate to one unit.For the business as a whole, Contribution earned by specific products or group of products, are added so as to calculate the pool of total contribution. The fixed costs of the business are paid from this pool & then the part of the total contribution which remains becomes the profit of the business as a whole.A typical format for Marginal costing statement is as below:Product types or departments A B C Total

Sales RevenueX X X XLess Variable cost of production XX X X Contribution X X X XLess: Fixed Costs XTotal Profit XUnder Marginal costing, for the calculation of profits for individual products or departments, no attempt is made- only calculation of individual Contribution is done. The fixed cost does not allocated to or gets absorbed by the individual products or departments. Thus, accounting techniques relating to the treatment of fixed costs will not influence the decisions which are based on Marginal costing system.Examples of typical problems which require executive decisions are: At a lower price should a particular order be accepted or declined? Should purchase of a particular component be made from an outside supplier or manufactured within the factory? Concentration should be given on which products? By which profit-mix, profit will be maximized? What should be the effect on the business when an existing department is being closed or a new department is being opened? To make up for wage rise, what should be the additional volume of business?

MEANING OF MARGINAL COSTING

It is the amount by which total cost increases when one extra unit is produced, orthe amount of cost which can be avoided by producing one unit less. Accordingly, marginal cost may also be defined as the variable cost incurred due to a specific activity. It is concerned with variable costs, because fixed costs by definition do not change with the volume produced.

DEFINATION OF MARGINAL COSTING

The Official C.I.M.A Costs of the Terminology defines Marginal costing as, Theaccounting system in which variable costs are changed to costs units and fixedperiod are written off in full against the aggregate contribution. Its special value is in decision-making Accordingly, Marginal cost = Variable cost = Direct material + Direct labor +Direct expenses + Variable overheads.

Marginal costing is formally defined as: the accounting system in which variable costs are charged to cost units and the fixed costs of theperiod are written-off in full against the aggregate contribution. Its special value is in decision making. The term contribution mentioned in the formal definition is the term given to the differencebetween Sales and Marginal cost. Thus MARGINAL COST = VARIABLE COST DIRECT LABOUR+DIRECT MATERIAL+DIRECT EXPENSE+VARIABLE OVERHEADS CONTRIBUTION SALES - MARGINAL COST. The term marginal cost sometimes refers to the marginal cost per unit and sometimes to the total marginal costs of a department or batch or operation.

FEATURES OF MARGINAL COSTING

Classification of costs into fixed costs & variable costs is done under Marginal costing system. Also semi-fixed or semi-variable cots get further classified into fixed & variable elements. To the product, only variable elements of cost, which constitute marginal cost, are attached. After the marginal cost & marginal contribution are taken into consideration; price is fixed. From the total contribution for any period, fixed cost for the period are deducted. The profitability of a department or product is decided by the marginal contribution. At variable production cost, the valuation of work-in-progress & finished product is made.

ADVANTAGES OF MARGINAL COSTING

As there is involvement of computation of variable costs only in Marginal costing, it is easy to understand & operate the same. Among different products or departments, arbitrary apportionment of fixed costs is avoided & the under-recovery or over-recovery problems are eliminated. Any attempt of measurement of relative profitability of different products or different departments becomes complicated due to the arbitrary apportionment of fixed costs. Analysis of contribution, break even charts & analysis of cost-volume-profit-analysis are resulted out of a Marginal costing system; for making short term decisions all of these are important. More uniform & realistic figures are resulted out of Marginal costing system because fixed overhead costs are excluded from valuation of stock & work-in-progress. Apportionment of responsibility of control can be more easily done since to each level of management only variable costs are presented over which they have control. The effects of their decisions can be more readily seen by all levels of management- sometimes even before taking of an action.

DISAVANTAGES OF MARGINAL COSTING

The Marginal of separating semi-variable or semi-fixed costs into their variable & fixed elements is an arbitrary exercise which at different levels of output may be subject to fluctuations & inaccuracy. Consequently, a substantial degree of error may be contained in the basic cost information which is used in decision making Marginal. When selling prices are based on marginal costs, great care need to be exercised, as in the long run, all fixed overheads should be covered by the prices & a reasonable margin over & above the total costs should be left. Under many circumstances, the deduction of contribution made by some production units may be difficult. Thereby the effectiveness of the system is lost. Since on the basis of variable costs only the valuation of stock of finished goods & work-in-progress is done, they are always understated. As result profit is also understated. More effective utilization of present resources or by expansion of resources or by mechanization, increased production & sales may be effected. The disclosure of this fact cannot be done by Marginal costing.

BASIC PRINCIPAL OF MARGINAL COST PRICING

For years economists have noted the benefits of marginal cost based prices and have advocated their use. Not until fairly recently, however, has the concept of marginal cost pricing received widespread attention in electric utility rate setting in the United States. Economic theory states that maximum economic benefits to society can be achieved if prices are set equal to marginal costs. Marginal cost is the cost of producing one additional unit of an industry's output, other things remaining the same. If the price of all units sold is set equal to the marginal cost, the customer will pay an amount that adequately reflects the cost to society of producing the product. In this way, economic efficiency is achieved in that society's scarce resources are used in productive Marginals where the prices of finished goods and services adequately reflect the actual costs of producing them.

ABSORPTION COSTINGMEANINGAbsorption costing refers to the analysis of the cost data for the purpose of allotment of costs to cost units. In absorption costing fixed as well as variable costs are charged to products. We have already seen in the previous chapters on unit costing, Marginal costing and contract costing, how the direct costs and overheads, whether fixed of variable, are charged to the individual product, Marginal or contract. The Technique of absorption costing thus refers to the principal of allocation, apportionment and absorption of costs used for ascertaining the cost of a product, Marginal or contract.

Advantages of Absorption Costing: It recognizes the importance of fixed costs in production; This method is accepted by Inland Revenue as stock is not undervalued; This method is always used to prepare financial accounts; When production remains constant but sales fluctuate absorption costing will show less fluctuation in net profit and Unlike Marginal costing where fixed costs are agreed to change into variable cost, it is cost into the stock value hence distorting stock valuation. Disadvantages of Absorption Costing: As absorption costing emphasized on total cost namely both variable and fixed, it is not so useful for management to use to make decision, planning and control; As the managers emphasis is on total cost, the cost volume profit relationship is ignored. The manager needs to use his intuition to make the decision.

MARGINAL COSTING V/S ABSORPTION COSTING The difference between Marginal costing & absorption costing is as below:1. Under Marginal costing: for product costing & inventory valuation, only variable cost is considered whereas, under absorption costing; for product costing & inventory valuation, both fixed cost & variable cost are considered.2. Under Marginal costing, there is a different treatment of fixed overhead. Fixed cost is considered as period cost & by Profit/Volume ratio (P/V ratio), profitability of different products is judged. On the other hand, under absorption costing system, the fixed cost is charged to cost of production. A reasonable share of fixed cost is to be borne by each product & thereby subjective apportionment of fixed overheads influences the profitability of product.3. Under Marginal costing, the presentation of data is so oriented that total contribution & contribution from each product gets highlighted. Under absorption costing, the presentation of cost data is on conventional pattern. After deducting fixed overhead, the net profit of each product is determined.4. Under Marginal costing, the unit cost of production does not get affected by the difference in the magnitude of opening stock & closing stock. Whereas, under absorption costing, due to the impact of the related fixed overheads, the unit cost of production get affected by the difference in the magnitude of opening stock & closing stock.

Effects of opening & closing stock on profit: When income statements under absorption costing & Marginal costing are compared, the under mentioned points should be considered:1. The results under both the methods will be same in situations where sales & production coincide i.e., there is neither opening stock nor closing stock.2. Profit under absorption costing will be more than the profit under Marginal costing, when closing stock is more than the opening stock. The reason behind this is that, under absorption costing, a portion of fixed overhead, instead of being charged to the current period, is charged to the closing stock & carried over to the next period.3. Profit shown under absorption costing will be lower than the profit shown under Marginal costing, when closing stock is less than the opening stock. The reason behind this is that, under absorption costing, to the current period, a portion of fixed cost related to previous year is charged.Reconciliation of results of absorption costing & Marginal costing: When comparison of the results of absorption costing & Marginal costing is undertaken, the adjustments for under- absorbed & / or over absorbed overheads becomes necessary. Under absorption costing, on the basis of normal level of activity, the fixed overhead rate is predetermined. A situation of under-absorption &/or over-absorption arises when there is a difference between actual level of activity & normal level of activity. (i) Under-absorbed fixed overhead = Excess of normal level of activity over actual level of activity * Fixed overhead rate per unit. If there is under-absorption, the profit under absorption costing, before comparison with profit as per Marginal costing, should be reduced with under-absorbed fixed overheads. Alternatively, by adding the under-absorbed fixed overhead to the cost of production, the same objective can be achieved.(ii) Over absorbed Fixed overhead = Excess of actual level of activity over normal level of activity * Fixed overhead rate per unit. If there is over absorption, then before the comparison of profit as per absorption costing with the profit as per Marginal costing, with over-absorbed fixed overheads, the profit under absorption costing should be increased. Alternatively, by reducing the over-absorbed fixed overhead from the cost of production, the same objective can be achieved

CONTRIBUTION ANALYSISContribution is the most important concept in Marginal costing. It is, as seen above equal to Sales LessVariable Cost. Contribution is the profit before adjusting the fixed costs. Marginal costing is concerned with the `product costs` rather than the `periods costs`. Contribution indicates theProduct profit = product Income product cost i.e.Contribution = sale Value Variable cost.

Marginal costing assumes that ht excess of sales value over variable costs contributes to a fund which will cover fixed costs as well as provide the concern`s profits. The amount of contribution is credited to the marginal profit and loss account. The fixed costs are debited to the marginal profit and loss account. If the contribution is equal to the fixed costs, the concern is said to break- even profit. If the contribution is less than the fixed costs, there will be net loss. Thus, the fixed costs which are period costs do not affect the product cost. Fixed costs are directly adjusted in the profit and loss account prepared for the relevant period. The concept of contribution plays a key role in assisting the management in taking many important decisions such as-1. Deciding the break-even point,2. Deciding which article to produce, or continue or discontinue to produce, 3. Deciding the quantity of each article to be produce or sold,4. Fixing the selling price, especially in a trade depression, or for a special order.

The difference between contribution and accounting profit is explained below.No.1.2.3.ContributionIt is a concept used in Marginal costing.It is before deducting Fixed Costs.At break- over point, Contribution is equal to fixed cost.ProfitIt is an accounting concept. It is after deducting Fixed Costs.Profit arises only when Sales go beyond the break- even point.

BREAK EVEN ANAYSISBreak even point means the point of no profit and no loss. BEP is the volume of output or sales at which the total cost is exactly equal to the revenue. Below the BEP the concern makes losses, at the BEP, the concern makes neither profit nor loss, above the BEP, the concern earns profits.The focal point of this analysis is the determination of the sales volume (in pesos or in units) that will equal its total revenues to its total costs, thus, where the profit equals zero. As stated earlier, since direct connection of expenses to production cannot be conclusively established under functional classification of costs, analysis under CVP, as well as BE analysis, is directed towards cost behavior. Thus, if we reclassify our costs from functional to behavioral, our income statement would look like this:Salesxx

Less: Variable Cost (VC)(xx)

Contribution Margin (CM)xx

Less: Fixed Cost(xx)

Profit (loss)xx

Contribution Margin (CM) is the excess of sales over variable cost or the excess from sales when variable costs are deducted. It can be computed per unit or total. In computing for the CM per unit, simply deduct the VC per unit from the selling price of each unit. This is also synonymous with marginal income, marginal balance, profit contribution and others.

Assumptions and Limitations Underlying BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS

1. All costs are classified as either fixed or variable. If not impossible or impractical, dividing costs into the variable and fixed cost elements as an extremely difficult job. This is attributable to the inherent nature or characteristics of the cost per se. 2. Fixed costs remain constant within the relevant range. Fixed costs remain unchanged at any level of activity within the relevant range, even at the zero level.3. The behavior of total revenues and total costs will be linear over the relevant range, i.e. will appear as a straight line on the BE chart. This is based on the idea that variable costs vary in direct proportion to volume; the fixed costs remain unchanged, hence drawn as a straight horizontal line on the graph within the relevant range; and that selling price is constant.4. In case of multiple product companies, the selling prices, costs and proportion of units (sales mix) sold will not change. This cannot always be correct. Sales mix ratio may be due to the change in the consuming habits of customers. Selling prices of the individual products may likewise change due to competition, popularity and salability of the products, etc.5. There is no significant change in the inventory levels during the period under review. Stated in another way, production volume is assumed to be almost (if not exactly) equal to the sales volume, which causes an immaterial (or none at all) difference between the beginning and ending inventories.6. Other assumptions which have already been discussed in the preceding numbers, are again credited and highlighted here as follows: Unit selling price will remain constant. Unit variable cost will not change. (This may include prices of the factors of production like material costs, labor costs etc.) There will be no change in efficiency and productivity. The design of the product will not change.(A change in the design of the product may bring about a change in production costs, selling price and production volume. Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis

Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis analysis is defined as a systematic examination of the relationships among costs, activity levels, or volume, and profit. CVP analysis establishes the relationship of profit to level of sales. And one of these relationships is the Break-even analysis.

Since direct connection of expenses to production cannot be conclusively established under functional classification of costs, analysis under CVP is directed towards cost behavior; the way costs behave or change with respect to a change in the activity level. Costs can be classified according to its behavior as:

1. Fixed CostsThese are costs that do not change regardless of changes in the level of activity within a relevant range. In other words, they remain constant regardless of the change in the activity level per total; however, fixed cost per unit is inversely proportional to the activity level.2. Variable CostsIn total, these costs change directly and proportionately with the level of activity. As the activity level increases, variable cost per total will also increase proportionately to the increase in activity level. However, variable cost per unit remains constant, within the relevant range.3. Semi-Variable CostsCosts that varies with the change of activity level but not proportionately, they are called semi-variable costs. They may either increase at an increasing rate or increase at a decreasing rate. A typical example of this is the cost of electricity (increasing at an increasing rate) because it is subject to graduated brackets, thus, the greater the consumption, the higher the rate per kilowatt hour as they will be categorized in a higher bracket.4. Semi-Fixed CostsThis kind of costs has the characteristics of both variable and fixed cost and is usually known as the step function cost or step cost. Like semi-variable cost, semi-fixed cost increases with activity level but not proportionately. And like fixed cost, it is constant for some stretches of activity levels.5. Mixed CostsCosts that cannot be identified by a single cost behavior pattern are called mixed costs. This kind of cost is composed of variable and fixed cost. We have concluded earlier that costs are more meaningful when they are classified according to behavior. When costs therefore are mixed, it is important that we know how to segregate them. Some tools and techniques popularly used are the High-Low Method, Scatter Graph Method, Regression Analysis, and Correlation

MARGINAL COSTING AND DECESSION MAKINGThe supreme goal of every management is to maximize profits. To achieve this goal, management has to take several decisions regarding the marginal unit, the product mix, the pricing, making or buying an Article and so on. It has also to ascertain the cost that are controllable and establish a system to actually control them. Marginal costing is an effective policy decisions such as pricing, product mix, special offers, discontinued a product, optimum level of production, cost control and so on. It also help in profit planning`. Marginal costing enables the management to study different scenarios (cost and revenue situations) under various alternatives. The management can plan its short- term profits.

WHEN MARGINAL COSTING IS USEFUL FOR FIXING PRICE

Marginal costing helps the management in taking price decisions. In Absorption costing, the prices are fixed so as to cover the total costs which include Fixed Costs as well as Variable Costs. In Marginal costing the price can be fixed on the basis of only Variable Costs. This can be useful in the following situations when supply exceeds demand pricing of new products utility services cut-throat competition in market Export orders or special orders.

Techniques of Costing

Besides the methods of costing, following are the types of costing techniques which are used by management only for controlling costs and making some important managerial decisions. As a matter of fact, they are not independent methods of cost finding such as job or Marginal costing but are basically costing techniques which can be used as an advantage with any of the methods discussed above.1. Marginal costing Marginal costing is a technique of costing in which allocation of expenditure to production is restricted to those expenses which arise as a result of production, e.g., materials, labor, direct expenses and variable overheads. Fixed overheads are excluded in cases where production varies because it may give misleading results. The technique is useful in manufacturing industries with varying levels of output. 2. Direct Costing The practice of charging all direct costs to operations, Marginales or products and leaving all indirect costs to be written off against profits in the period in which they arise is termed as direct costing. The technique differs from Marginal costing because some fixed costs can be considered as direct costs in appropriate circumstances. 3. Absorption or Full Costing The practice of charging all costs both variable and fixed to operations, products or Marginales is termed as absorption costing. 4. Uniform Costing A technique where standardized principles and methods of cost accounting are employed by a number of different companies and firms is termed as uniform costing. Standardization may extend to the methods of costing, accounting classification including codes, methods of defining costs and charging depreciation, methods of allocating or apportioning overheads to cost centers or cost units. The system, thus, facilitates inter- firm comparisons, establishment of realistic pricing policies, etc. Systems of Costing It has already been stated that there are two main methods used to determine costs. These are: Job cost method Marginal cost method It is possible to ascertain the costs under each of the above methods by two different ways: Historical costing Standard costing Historical Costing Historical costing can be of the following two types in nature: Post costing Continuous costing Post Costing Post costing means ascertainment of cost after the production is completed. This is done by analyzing the financial accounts at the end of a period in such a way so as to disclose the cost of the units which have been produced. For instance, if the cost of product A is to be calculated on this basis, one will have to wait till the materials are actually purchased and used, labor actually paid and overhead expenditure actually incurred. This system is used only for ascertaining the costs but not useful for exercising any control over costs, as one comes to know of things after they had taken place. It can serve as guidance for future production only when conditions in future continue to be the same.

Continuous Costing In case of this method, cost is ascertained as soon as a job is completed or even when a job is in progress. This is done usually before a job is over or product is made. In the Marginal, actual expenditure on materials and wages and share of overheads are also estimated. Hence, the figure of cost ascertained in this case is not exact. But it has an advantage of providing cost information to the management promptly, thereby enabling it to take necessary corrective action on time. However, it neither provides any standard for judging current efficiency nor does it disclose what the cost of a job ought to have been. Standard Costing Standard costing is a system under which the cost of a product is determined in advance on certain pre-determined standards. With reference to the example given in post costing, the cost of product A can be calculated in advance if one is in a position to estimate in advance the material labor and overheads that should be incurred over the product. All this requires an efficient system of cost accounting. However, this system will not be useful if a vigorous system of controlling costs and standard costs are not in force. Standard costing is becoming more and more popular nowadays

Marginal costing Equations

Sales Variable Cost = Contribution Contribution Fixed Cost = Profit Sales Variable Cost = Fixed Cost + Profit Profit Volume Ratio = Contribution / Sales Contribution = Sales * PV Ratio Sales = Contribution / PV Ratio BEP (in units) = Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit BEP (in rupees) = Fixed Cost / Contribution * Sales BEP (in rupees) = Fixed Cost / PV ratio Required Sales (in rupees) = Fixed Cost + Profit / PV ratio Required Sales (in units) = Fixed Cost + Profit / Contribution per unit Actual Sales = Fixed Cost + Profit / PV ratio Margin of safety (in rupees) = Actual Sales BEP Sales Margin of safety (in units) = Actual Sales (units) BEP Sales (units) Profit = Margin of safety * PV ratio

Ascertaining Missing figures

1. CONTRIBUTION= Sales Variable Cost= Fixed Cost + Profit= Sales * PV Ratio = (BE Sales in units * Contribution per units) + Profit= (BE Sales in value * PVR ) + Profit= Fixed Cost + (MS in units * Contribution per unit)= Fixed Cost + (MS in value * PVR)= Profit / MS in % = Fixed Cost / BE sales in%

2. PROFIT VOLUME RATIO (PVR)= Sales - Variable Cost / Sales * 100= Contribution / Sales *100= Fixed Cost + Profit / Sales *100= Fixed Cost / BE Sales in value * 100= Fixed Cost / BE Sales in units *100 / Selling price per unit= Profit / Margin of safety in value *100= Profit / Margin of safety in units *100 / Selling price per unit= Change in profit / Change in sales *100= 100 Variable cost to sales ratio3. BE SALES IN UNITS= Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit= BE Sales / Selling price = Fixed Cost / S.P. per unit Variable cost P.U= Actual Sales per unit Margin of safety in units

4. BE SALES IN VALUE= Fixed Cost / PVR= Actual Sales in value Margin of safety in value= Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit * Selling price per unit= BE Sales in units * Selling price per unit= Fixed Cost / 1- Variable Cost / Sales = Fixed Cost / % of Contribution to sales

5. BE SALES IN % OF SALES= Fixed Cost / Contribution *100= BE Sales / Actual Sales *100= 100 margin of safety (in %)

6. MARGIN OF SAFETY IN UNITS= Profit / Contribution per unit= Actual Sales in units BE Sales in units

7. MARGIN OF SAFETY IN VALUE= Profit / PV Ratio= Actual Sales in value BE Sales in value= Profit / Contribution per unit * Selling price per unit= Margin of Safety in units * Selling price per unit

8. PROFIT= Sales Total Cost= Sales (Variable Cost + Fixed Cost)= Contribution Fixed Cost= Margin of Safety in Value * PVR= Margin of Safety (% of sales) * Total Contribution= (Margin of Safety in % of Sales * Actual Sales) * PVR

9. SALES= Total Cost + Profit= Variable Cost + Fixed Cost + Profit= Variable Cost + Contribution= Contribution / PV ratio * 100= BE Sales + Margin of Safety

ABSORPTION COSTING PRO-FORMA

Sales Revenuexxxxx

Less Absorption Cost of Sales

Opening Stock (Valued @ absorption cost)xxxx

Add Production Cost (Valued @ absorption cost)xxxx

Total Production Costxxxx

Less Closing Stock (Valued @ absorption cost)(xxx)

Absorption Cost of Productionxxxx

Add Selling, Admin & Distribution Costxxxx

Absorption Cost of Sales(xxxx)

Un-Adjusted Profitxxxxx

Fixed Production O/H absorbedxxxx

Fixed Production O/H incurred(xxxx)

(Under)/Over Absorptionxxxxx

Adjusted Profitxxxxx

Reconciliation Statement for Marginal costing and Absorption Costing Profit

$

Marginal costing ProfitXx

ADD(Closing stock opening Stock) x OARXx

= Absorption Costing ProfitXx

Where OAR( overhead absorption rate) =Budgeted fixed production overheadBudgeted levels of activities

MARGINAL COSTING PRO-FORMA

Sales Revenuexxxxx

Less Marginal Cost of Sales

Opening Stock (Valued @ marginal cost)xxxx

Add Production Cost (Valued @ marginal cost)xxxx

Total Production Costxxxx

Less Closing Stock (Valued @ marginal cost)(xxx)

Marginal Cost of Productionxxxx

Add Selling, Admin & Distribution Costxxxx

Marginal Cost of Sales(xxxx)

Contributionxxxxx

Less Fixed Cost(xxxx)

Marginal costing Profitxxxxx

ProblemsQ.1 The Vijay Electronic Co. furnishes you the following income information of the year 1995.YearSales in RsProfit in Rs

First half ..Second half ..

4,05,0005,13,000

10,80032,400

From the above table you are required to compute the following assuming that the fixed cost remains the same in both the periods.(a) P/V Ratio.(b) Fixed cost.(c) Break - even point.(d) Variable cost for first and second half of the year.(e) The amount of profit or loss where sales are Rs 3,24,00.(f) The amount of sales required to earn a profit of Rs 54,000.

Solution:YearSales in RsProfit in Rs

First half ..Second half ..Difference ..4,05,0005,13,0001,08,00010,80032,40021,600

(a) P/V Ratio = Change in Profit/ Change in Sales*100 = 21,600/1,08,000*100 =20%(b) Fixed Cost S*(S/V) = F+P4,05,000*20/100 = F+10,800Or 81,000 = F+10,800 Or 81,000-10,800 = Fixed CostOr Fixed Cost = Rs 70,200Total Fixed Cost = 70,200*2= Rs 1,40,400

(c) Break-even Point = Fixed Cost/P/V Ratio = 1,04,400/20% = Rs 7,02,000

(d) Variable Cost (i) For the 1st half Sale Variable Cost = Fixed Cost + Profit Or 4,05,000-V.C. = 70,200 + 10,800 Or 4,05,000 -V.C. = 81,000 Or 4,05,000-81,000 = VC Or VC = Rs 3,24,000

(ii) For the 2nd half Sales-Variable Cost = Fixed Cost+ Profit 5,13,000-VC = 70,200+32,400 5,13,000-VC = 1,02,600 5,13,000-1,02,600 = VC VC = Rs 4,10,400

(e) The amount of profit/Loss where sales are Rs 3,24,000 Sales*(P/V) = Fixed Cost + Profit 3,24,000*20% = 1,40,400+Profit/Loss 64,800 = 1,40,400+Profit/Loss Loss = Rs 75,600

(f) The amount of Sales required to earn a profit of Rs 54,000 Sales*(P/V) = Fixed Cost + Profit Sales*(20%) = 1,40,400+54,000 Sales*20/100 = 1,94,400 20% of Sales = 1,94,400*100/20 = Rs 9,72,00Q.2 A manufacturer of packing cases makes three main types- Deluxe, Luxury, and Economy. Overheads are incurred on the basis of labour hours. Wages are paid at Re 1.00 per hour.Estimates for the cases show the following:ParticularsDeluxe(Rs)Luxury(Rs)Economy(Rs)

MaterialWagesOverheads

Net Profit/lossAverage Selling PriceAnnual Sales ( Units)10.006.0012.008.003.006.003.002.004.00

28.002.00

17.003.00

9.003.00

26.00

10,00020.00

20,00012.00

5,000

The manufacture felt that he would be well advised to discontinue producing the Deluxe and economy cases even though it would mean that some of production facilities would remain unused. He cannot increase the sale of luxury cases. It has been ascertained that 60% of the overheads is fixed.You are required to advise the manufacture.

Solution: Statement of cost and contributionParticulars Deluxe (Rs)Luxury (Rs)Economy (Rs)

Material Wages Variable Overheads (40%)Total Variable CostSelling PriceContributionLess: Fixed Cost (60%)Net Profit / LossP/V Ratio (Contribution*100)/Sales10.00 6.00 4.808.003.002.403.002.001.60

20.8026.0013.4020.006.6012.00

5.202.206.603.605.402.40

(-)2.805.20*100/26 =20%3.006.60*100/20=33%3.005.4*100/12=45%

Note: The above statement clearly explains that product Deluxe is incurring loss and also its P/V Ratio is less as compared to other two products. Hence it is advisable, that the manufacturer should discontinue the product Deluxe and increase the production of products Luxury and economy.

ConclusionsWhen I thought of studying Marginal costing and Decision Making first things in my mind is that, this is only one topic in our syllabus of Mcom part-1 but really the concept are deep and hard and after doing this project I come to know that how the combine topic which have give me 30 marks (Max) to score in writing exam is giving me knowledge of variances analysis and its benefits to industry at different levels. It is really helpful to deal with future topic of cost accounting.The theoretical constructs of economics texts are of little use; the platitude that increasing returns to scale cause marginal to fall below average costs being one example, since it relates only to brand new built from scratch systems.Marginal costs depend not only upon the timing of a postulated change in output but also upon the timing of the decision to adapt to it. Marginal costs are forecasts, and forecasts are rarely accurate. However, all decisions are founded upon uncertain expectations about the future effects of current choices.Marginal costing and decision making are rarely important concept of cost accounting and help full concept are future. I hope marginal costing and decision making is really good topic of costing. The technically using marginal costing and decision making are helpful.Here I conclude that this is very useful Project work given me by my project guide Mrs. Babita kakkare madam. Once again I would like to thank her for this great opportunity .

SOURCES

BIBLOGRAPHY:

Cost Accounting Ainapure & Ainapure Cost Accounting Chaudhari, Chopade

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The traditional technique popularly known as total cost or absorption costing techniquedoes not make any difference between variable and fixed cost in the calculation ofprofits. But marginal cost statement very clearly indicates this difference in arriving at thenet operational results of a firm.Following presentation of two Performa shows the difference between the presentation ofinformation according to absorption and marginal costing techniques:MARGINAL COSTING PRO-FORMASales Revenue xxxxxLess Marginal Cost of SalesOpening Stock (Valued @ marginal cost)xxxxAdd Production Cost (Valued @ marginal cost)xxxxTotal Production CostxxxxLess Closing Stock (Valued @ marginal cost)(xxx)Marginal Cost of ProductionxxxxAdd Selling, Admin & Distribution CostxxxxMarginal Cost of Sales (xxxx)Contribution xxxxxLess Fixed Cost (xxxx)Marginal Costing Profit xxxxxABSORPTION COSTING PRO-FORMASales Revenue xxxxxLess Absorption Cost of SalesOpening Stock (Valued @ absorption cost)xxxxAdd Production Cost (Valued @ absorption cost)xxxxTotal Production CostxxxxLess Closing Stock (Valued @ absorption cost)(xxx)Absorption Cost of ProductionxxxxAdd Selling, Admin & Distribution CostxxxxAbsorption Cost of Sales (xxxx)Un-Adjusted Profit xxxxxFixed Production O/H absorbedxxxxFixed Production O/H incurred(xxxx)(Under)/Over Absorption xxxxxAdjusted Profit xxxxxReconciliation Statement for Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing Profit$

Marginal Costing ProfitxxADD(Closing stock opening Stock) x OARxx= Absorption Costing ProfitxxWhere OAR( overhead absorption rate) =Budgeted fixed production overheadBudgeted levels of activitiesMarginal Costing versus Absorption CostingAfter knowing the two techniques of marginal costing and absorption costing, we haveseen that the net profits are not the same because of the following reasons:1. Over and Under Absorbed OverheadsIn absorption costing, fixed overheads can never be absorbed exactly because ofdifficulty in forecasting costs and volume of output. If these balances of under or overabsorbed/recovery are not written off to costing profit and loss account, the actual amountincurred is not shown in it. In marginal costing, however, the actual fixed overheadincurred is wholly charged against contribution and hence, there will be some differencein net profits.2. Difference in Stock ValuationIn marginal costing, work in progress and finished stocks are valued at marginal cost, butin absorption costing, they are valued at total production cost. Hence, profit will differ asdifferent amounts of fixed overheads are considered in two accounts.The profit difference due to difference in stock valuation is summarized as follows:a.When there is no opening and closing stocks, there will beno difference in profit.b.When opening and closing stocks are same, there will be nodifference in profit, provided the fixed cost element in openingand closing stocks are of the same amount.c.When closing stock is more than opening stock, the profitunder absorption costing will be higher as comparatively agreater portion of fixed cost is included in closing stock andcarried over to next period.d.When closing stock is less than opening stock, the profitunder absorption costing will be less as comparatively a higheramount of fixed cost contained in opening stock is debitedduring the current period.

The features which distinguish marginal costing from absorption costingare as follows.a.In absorption costing, items of stock are costed to include afair share of fixed production overhead, whereas in marginalcosting, stocks are valued at variable production cost only. Thevalue of closing stock will be higher in absorption costing thanin marginal costing.b.As a consequence of carrying forward an element of fixedproduction overheads in closing stock values, the cost of salesused to determine profit in absorption costing will:i.include some fixed production overhead costsincurred in a previous period but carried forward intoopening stock values of the current period;ii.exclude some fixed production overhead costsincurred in the current period by including them inclosing stock values.In contrast marginal costing charges the actual fixed costs of aperiod in full into the profit and loss account of the period.(Marginal costing is therefore sometimes known as periodcosting.)c.In absorption costing, actual fully absorbed unit costs arereduced by producing in greater quantities, whereas inmarginal costing, unit variable costs are unaffected by thevolume of production (that is, provided that variable costs perunit remain unaltered at the changed level of productionactivity). Profit per unit in any period can be affected by theactual volume of production in absorption costing; this is notthe case in marginal costing.d.In marginal costing, the identification of variable costs andof contribution enables management to use cost informationmore easily for decision-making purposes (such as in budgetdecision making). It is easy to decide by how muchcontribution (and therefore profit) will be affected by changesin sales volume. (Profit would be unaffected by changes inproduction volume).In absorption costing, however, the effect on profit in a periodof changes in both:i.production volume; andii.sales volume;is not easily seen, because behaviour is not analysed and incremental costs are not used in the calculation ofactual profit.Limitations of Absorption CostingThe following are the criticisms against absorption costing:1.You might have observed that in absorption costing, aportion of fixed cost is carried over to the subsequentaccounting period as part of closing stock. This is an unsoundpractice because costs pertaining to a period should not beallowed to be vitiated by the inclusion of costs pertaining to theprevious period and vice versa.2.Further, absorption costing is dependent on the levels ofoutput which may vary from period to period, andconsequently cost per unit changes due to the existence of fixedoverhead. Unless fixed overhead rate is based on normalcapacity, such changed costs are not helpful for the purposes ofcomparison and control.The cost to produce an extra unit is variable production cost. It is realistic to the value ofclosing stock items as this is a directly attributable cost. The size of total contributionvaries directly with sales volume at a constant rate per unit. For the decision-makingpurpose of management, better information about expected profit is obtained from the useof variable costs and contribution approach in the accounting system