ProjectTopic:Environmental issue

Class:XII-13

Subject:English

Members:Ilvana Dedja

Irini Çeçi

Marina Divjaka

Lorina Boka

Ilvana-Air pollutionAir pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources.The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1] According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:Sulfur oxides (SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.

• Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[6] altered lung function and lung cancer.

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.[7][8]

Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are currently banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. CFC's on being released into the air rises to stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layer.

• Natural sources:

• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation

• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle

• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires

• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds — to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[12] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.[13]

• Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

• Air pollution exposure• Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant and the exposure to that pollutant.

Air pollution exposure can be expressed for an individual, for certain groups (e.g. neighborhoods or children living in a county), or for entire populations. For example, one may want to calculate the exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area, which includes the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings (e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations). The exposure needs to include different age and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women and other sensitive subpopulations. The exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with respect to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup for each specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities (playing, cooking, reading, working, etc.). For example, a small child's inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher respiration rate than the same child in a sedentary activity. The daily exposure, then, needs to reflect the time spent in each micro-environmental setting and the type of activities in these settings. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmentalsetting is summed to indicate the exposure.

Agricultural effectsIn India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and ground level ozone had cut crop yields in the most affected areas by almost half in 2010 when compared to 1980 levels.[65]

Historical disasters[edit]The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.[66] Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates put the figure at nearer 12,000.[67] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have caused at least 64 deaths.[68]The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured

Children[edit]In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.[55] These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog.[56] A recent study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.[57]

Governing urban air pollution[In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a common strategy against whichmember states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment . . . and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory

Irini-Endagered aniamal An Endangered (EN) species is a species which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)Red List as likely to become extinct. "Endangered" is the second most severe conservation status for wild populations in the IUCN's schema after Critically Endangered (CR).In 2012, the IUCN Red List featured 3079 animal and 2655 plant species as endangered (EN) worldwide.[1] The figures for 1998 were, respectively, 1102 and 1197Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species: for example, forbidding hunting, restricting land development or creating preserves. Population numbers, trends and species' conservation status can be found in the lists of organisms by population.

• Criteria for 'Endangered (EN)'

• A) Reduction in population size based on any of the following:

• An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 70% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following:– direct observation

– an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon

– a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat

– actual or potential levels of exploitation

– the effects of introduced taxa, hybridisation, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.

• An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

• A population size reduction of ≥ 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1.

• An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over any 10 year or three generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.

• B) Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both:

• Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5,000 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:

– Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations.

– Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:

• extent of occurrence

• area of occupancy

• area, extent and/or quality of habitat

• number of locations or subpopulations

• number of mature individuals

– Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:

• extent of occurrence

• area of occupancy

• number of locations or subpopulations

• number of mature individuals

• Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km², and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:

– Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations.

– Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:

• extent of occurrence

• area of occupancy

• area, extent and/or quality of habitat

• number of locations or subpopulations

• number of mature individuals

– Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:

• extent of occurrence

• area of occupancy

• number of locations or subpopulations

• number of mature individuals

• C) Population estimated to number fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and either:

• An estimated continuing decline of at least 20% within five years or two generations, whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR

• A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the follow (a-b):– Population structure in the form of one of the following:

• no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals, OR

• at least 95% of mature individuals in one subpopulation

– Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals

• D) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.

• E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years).

Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife preserves, zoos and other conservation facilities. Captive breeding is meant to save species from extinction and so stabilize the population of the species that it will not disappear.[20]

This technique has worked for many species for some time, with probably the oldest known such instances of captive mating being attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, an example being the Père David's deer. However, captive breeding techniques are usually difficult to implement for such highly mobile species as some migratory birds (e.g. cranes) and fishes (e.g.hilsa). Additionally, if the captive breeding population is too small, then inbreeding may occur due to a reduced gene pool and reduceimmunity.In 1981, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) created a Species Survival Plan (SSP) in order to help preserve specific endangered and threatened species through captive breeding.

Private farmingBlack rhinoSouthern bluefin tunaWhereas poaching substantially reduces endangered animal populations, legal, for-profit, private farming does the opposite. It has substantially increased the populations of the southern black rhinoceros and southern white rhinoceros. Dr Richard Emslie, a scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, "Effective law enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into the conservation programmes. There are increasingly strong economic incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching: from Eco-tourism or selling them on for a profit. So many owners are keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our work."[22]

Conservation experts view the effect of

Conservation experts view the effect of China's turtle farming on the wild turtle populations of China and South-Eastern Asia – many of which are endangered – as "poorly understood".[23] Although they commend the gradual replacement of turtles caught wild with farm-raised turtlesinthe marketplace – the percentage of farm-raised individuals in the "visible" trade grew

Around the world hundreds of thousands of species are

lost to extinction, many of them only discovered as

remains, after they are gone. Thus, not only biological

variability, but also genetic diversity, and perhaps sources

of livelihood for future generations are lost. An

endangered species is a species that may become extinct

in the near future. Throughout history millions of species

have disappeared, due to natural processes. In the past

300 years, however, humans have increased the rate of

extinction.[

For some plant and animal species, living seems to be a

daily hazard. And humans seem to pose the biggest threat.

Ecological disasters, hunting/poaching, deforestation and

other consequences of human action causes damage to the

food chain, breeding grounds, and habitat.

List of endangered animals in India

AnthropodsRameshwaram Parachute Spider (Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica)Peacock Tarantula (Poecilotheria metallica)Poecilotheria metallicaBirdsWhite-bellied heron (Ardea insignis)Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)Forest owlet (Athene blewitti)Baer's pochard (Aythya baeri)Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Calidris pygmaea)Siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus)White-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis)Indian vulture (Gyps indicus)Slender-billed vulture (Gyps tenuirostris)

FishKnifetooth sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata)Wayanad Mahseer (Barbodes wynaadensis)Pondicherry shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon)Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus)Glyptothorax kashmirensis (Glyptothorax kashmirensis)Kudremukh Glyptothorax (Glyptothorax kudremukhensis)Nilgiri Mystus (Hemibagrus punctatus)Horalabiosa arunachalami (Horalabiosa arunachalami)Hypselobarbus pulchellus (Hypselobarbus pulchellus)Red Canarese Barb (Hypselobarbus thomassi)Deccan labeo (Labeo potail)Mesonoemacheilus herrei (Mesonoemacheilus herrei)Bovany Barb (Neolissochilus bovanicus)Deolali Minnow (Parapsilorhynchus prateri)

Marina-BiodiversityThe word "biodiversity" is a contracted version of "biological diversity". TheConvention on Biological Diversitydefines biodiversity as:"the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems."

Thus, biodiversity includes genetic variation within species, the variety of species in an area, and the variety of habitattypes within a landscape. Perhaps inevitably, such an all-encompassing definition, together with the strong emotive power of the concept, has led to somewhat cavalier use of the term biodiversity, in extreme cases to refer to life or biology itself.

Biological diversity is of fundamental importance to the functioning of all natural and human-engineered ecosystems, and by extension to the ecosystem services that nature provides free of charge to human society. Living organisms play central roles in the cycles of major elements (carbon, nitrogen, and so on) and water in the environment, and diversity specifically is important in that these cycles require numerous interacting species.

General interest in biodiversity has grown rapidly in recent decades, in

parallel with the growing concern about nature conservation generally,

largely as a consequence of accelerating rates of natural habitat

loss,habitat fragmentation and degradation, and resulting extinctions of

species. The IUCN Red List estimates that 12-52% of species within

well-studied higher taxa such as vertebrates and vascular plants are

threatened with extinction. Based on data on recorded extinctions of

known species over the past century, scientists estimate that current

rates of species extinction are about 100 times higher than long-term

average rates based on fossil data. Other plausuble estimates suggest

that present extinction rates now may have reached 1000 to 10,000

times the average over past geologic time. These estimates are the

basis of the consensus that the Earth is in the midst of the sixth mass

extinction event in its history; the present extinction event is termed the

Holocene Mass Extinction.

• An Australian rain forest Creek.

• Biodiversity is most frequently quantified as the number of species. Estimates of the

number of species currently living on Earth range widely, largely because most living

species are microorganisms and tiny invertebrates, but most estimates fall between 5

million and 30 million species. Roughly 1.75 million species have been formally described

and given official names. Insects comprise over half of the described species, and three

fourths of known faunal species. The number of undescribed species is undoubtedly much

higher, however. Particularly in inaccessible environments, and for inconspicuous groups

of organisms, collecting expeditions routinely discover many undescribed species.

Estimates of the total numbers of species on Earth have been derived variously by

extrapolating from the ratios of described to previously unknown species in quantitative

samples, from the judgment of experts in particulartaxonomic groups, and from patterns in

the description of new species through time. For most groups of organisms other than

vertebrates, such estimates are little more than educated guesses, explaining the wide

range in estimates of global species diversity. Since insects are essentially absent from the

sea, the species diversity of the oceans is generally considerably lower than terrestrial

ones.

Species can be grouped on the basis of shared characteristics into hierarchical groups, or taxa, reflecting their shared evolutionary history. At the highest level of classification (or deepest branches in the evolutionary tree of life) organisms are divided into three Domains: 1) the Bacteria, which are microorganisms lacking a cellular nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles; 2) the relatively recently discovered Archaea, microorganisms of primarily extreme environments such as hot springs, which are superficially similar to Bacteria but fundamentally different at biochemical and genetic levels; and 3) the Eukarya, which include all other organisms based on nucleated cells. The Eukarya includes the four "kingdoms", the protists, animals, plants, and fungi. Each of the eukaryotic kingdoms in turn is divided into a number of phyla. At this higher taxonomic level, the oceans are far more diverse than those on land, likely reflecting the marine origins of life on Earth. Nearly half the phyla of animals occur only in the sea (e.g., the sea stars and other echinoderms), whereas only one (the obscure Onychophora, or velvet worms) is restricted to land.

• Lorina-Environmental issues Population: Without a doubt the biggest issue facing the environment is over population of humans. All other major environmental issues flow from the very fact that we are over populating the planet.The worlds population has tripled in the last 60 years placing stress on every aspect of the environment. More land is developed every day to accommodate the urban spread.In 1950 the population stood at 2,555,982,611 compared to 2012 which it now stands at over 7,000,000,000. The actual maths is that the worlds population has increased by almost 3 times. That is staggering when you think about it. That figure is increasing even as we speak!

• 2. Climate Change:• The most controversial and political of the top 10

environmental issues. Recently an overwhelming majority of climate scientists, believe that human activities are currently affecting the climate and that the tipping point has already been passed. In other words, it is too late to undo the damage that climate change has done to the environment.

• At this stage the best we can do is regulate the further impact upon the environment by developing more environmentally friendly methods of energy production by reducing the mining and burning of fossil fuels.

• 3. Loss of Biodiversity:• The loss of biodiversity on the planet can be directly related to the behaviours of

human beings. Humans have destroyed and continue to destroy the habitats of species on a daily basis.

• When we exterminate one species, it has a knock on effect in the food chain which in turn upsets the Eco-systems inter dependent on one another.

• The catastrophic impact of loss of biodiversity is likely to affect the planet for millions of years to come. The current loss of biodiversity is also being named “The Sixth Extinction”

• 4. The Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycles• Although the effect of human activities on the carbon cycle is better known, the

lesser known effect on the cycle of Nitrogen actually has a greater impact on the environment.

• The human race’s use and abuse of nitrogen has been one of the most beneficial technologies for our own species for decades. Every year, humans convert an estimated 120 million tons of nitrogen from the atmosphere into reactive forms such as nitrates, mainly in the production of nitrogen-based fertilizer for crops and in the use of food additives.

• The run off from crops into our oceans has a negative effect upon• phytoplankton which is responsible for the production of of most• of the oxygen in our air.

• 5. Water:

• Many experts believe that in the near future water will become a commodity just like Gold and Oil. Some experts say that wars will be fought over who owns the water supply.

• Currently, one third of humans have inadequate access to clean, fresh water. The number is expected to increase by to up to two thirds by 2050. That is that two thirds of the worlds population will not have access to clean water.

• Over population, demand and pollution from industry is to blame.

• 6. Ocean Acidification:

• A direct effect of excessive CO2 production. The oceans absorb as much as 25% of all human carbon dioxide emissions. The gas then combines with other elements to form compounds such as carbolic acid.

• Over the last 250 years, surface acidity of the ocean has increased by an estimated 30%. The acidity is expected to increase by 150% by 2100.

• The effect of over acidification of the oceans on sea creatures such as shellfish and plankton is similar to osteoporosis in humans. The acid effectively is dissolving the skeletons of the creatures.

• The effect of ocean acidification may soon challenge marine life on a scale that the planet has not seen for millions of years.

7. Ozone Layer Depletion:Depletion of our ozone layer has been mainly attributed to the release of chemical pollution containing the chemicals Chlorine and Bromide. Once the chemicals reach the upper atmosphere, they cause ozone molecules to break apart causing a hole to form, the largest of which is over the Antarctic.The atmosphere blocks many of the harmful UV rays from the sun that can damage living tissue. In an effort to reduce this process, CFCs have been banned in many manufacturing processes and products.According to the Environmental Protection Agency, one atom of chlorine can break down more than 100, 000 ozone molecules.

8. Over Fishing:It is estimated that by 2050 that there will be no fish left in the sea. I actually think that this is the single most devastating truth that I have discovered.The extinction of many fish species is due to humans over fishing the oceans to supply an ever increasing populations demand for sea food.The collapse of the Atlantic Cod Fishery is one such example of how humans have exploited the planet’s natural resources to the brink of extinction.

9.Deforestation:Since 1990 half of the worlds rain forests have been destroyed. The clearing of forests continue at an alarming rate.To add to the worry a recent phenomenon has been added to the list.Trees are now dying globally at a rate never before seen.It is very difficult to prioritise the top 10 environmental issues facing our planet today. One thing is for sure and that is over population is at the root of all of the issues.If we do not act soon to start to curb human breeding patterns… We will almost certainly face an environmental meltdown.

FIN !!