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Properties of recycledasphalt
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• A Master's Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements forthe award of Master of Philosophy of Loughborough University.
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Publisher: c© Prosper F.H.B. Tesha
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LOUGHBOROUGH UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
LIBRARY AUTHOR/FILING TITlE I ,
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-ACCESSION/COPY NO_
VOL. NO. a .3bOot>'2-~~ --------- - ------- ---- --- ---- -- - ----- ---- -- -- -- - - --
CLASS MARK
1992
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.. I"""'.. PHOTOCOPYING and . " I ~ ,PLANCOPYING
SECTION
PROPERTIES OF RECYCLED ASPHALT
by
PROSPER F H B TESHA
A Master's Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of Master of Philosophy
of the Loughborough University of Technology
November 1991
© Prosper F H B Tesha
Loughborough UnIVersity at Technolnr.v Library
Date ;S~.~'L Cla:s~
Ace o ?6oc'O 2-"f-{ No.
DEDICATION
To my wife Feddy, my daughters Irene and Gloria and my son Mkindi.
SYNOPSIS
The cost of flexible pavement construction, rehabilitation and maintenance is largely
determined by the cost of the aggregate and binder (bitumen or asphalt cement)
components. The soaring cost of petroleum products since the early nineteen sixties has
made the bitumen contribution to the cost disproportionately large. Tanzania being one
of the countries which do not produce petroleum, spends about 81 per cent of its foregn
exchange (1989/90 budget) on purchase of petroleum products. The cost of production
of aggregates in Tanzania is also very high. Under these circumstances recycling of
bituminous materials on existing road and airport pavements, most of which need major
rehabilitation, will save the country a lot of foreign exchange. The aim of the research
therefore is to investigate the possibility of recycling bituminous materials, based on
assessment of three major mechanical properties: the elastic stiffness, resistance to
permanent deformation (creep) and fatigue.
The thesis includes a review of existing knowledge relevant to the study, as obtained
from available literature, in the form of a state-of-the-art report. Tests carried out as
part of the research programme included elastic stiffness and creep tests. The elastic
stiffness tests involved application of both unconfined uniaxial sinusoidal loading to
cylindrical speCimens of virgin and recycled bituminous mixes, the specimens being
approximately 102 mm in diameter and 208 mm in length, and 60 to 70 mm thick. The
creep characteristics were assessed by two methods: by applying a dead load to
specimens for a given time at 250 C and by applying a given static machine load, after a
small conditioning load, at 400c. In the latter case a relaxation period is provided after
the loading period and the characteristic re-assessed. SpeCimens of 100 per cent
recycled and 0 per cent recycled (100% virgin) materials have been tested for the
purpose of comparing the two extreme cases. Planings from two different sources were
used, the materials being ten years old in both cases.
The results of the tests indicate no significant differences in the measured mechanical
properties between the specimens made from recycled and from all-virgin materials.
An increase in elastic stiffness with increase in loading frequency is observed for both
recycled and virgin materials. There is also a general slight increase in elastic stiffness
with increase in load, and temperature changes have significant influence on the
mechanical properties of both recycled and virgin materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the following
My supervisor Dr. Chris Rogers for his unlimited assistance, guidance and encouragement throughout this research.
LC.A.O. for sponsoring my studies and Civil Aviation Authority, London for the excellent handling of all the administrative and financial matters on behalf of LC.A.O. , and specifically Madeline, Katie and Deborah.
The staff of the Civil Engineering Department for their friendliness and willingness to help.
The staff of the Drawing Office in the Mechanical Engineering Department.
Dr. David Hughes of Queen's University and staff of the Bitumen Laboratory at Queen's for their assistance and guidance.
My wife Feddy for her continuous encouragement and brave handling of all my family responsibilities.
My Father and Mother for their prayers.
All my friends, fellow research students and research assistants in the Civil Engineering Department for their help and ideas.
It
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the following:
My supervisor Dr. Chris Rogers for his unlimited assistance, guidance and encouragement throughout this i,:s:::orch.
The staff of the Civil Engineering Department for their friendliness and willingness to help.
The staff of the Drawing Office In the Mechanical Engineering Department.
Dr. David Hughes of Queen's University and staff of the Bitumen Laboratory at Queen's for their assistance and guidance.
My wife Feddy for her continuous enr,';:'umgement and bxave handling o' all my family l"esponsibii.1tie:s.
My Father and Mother for their prayers.
All my friends, feHow research students and research assistants in the Civil Engineering Department for their help and ideas.
1.
2.
CONTENTS
Synopsis
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Figures List of Tables List of Charts List of Plates
G~ThITRODUCTION
1 .1 Road and Airport Pavements
1.2 Important parameters in Pavements
1 .3 Introduction to the Report
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Design considerations for Ro'ads and
Airport Pavements 2.2.1 Loading on Road Pavements
2.2.2 Loads on Airport Pavements
2.2.3 Environmental conditions
2.2.4 The Pavement structure
2.2.5 Materials and their Placement
2.2.5.1 General
2.2.5.2
2.2.5.3
2.2.5.4
2.2.5.5
2.2.5.6
Surfacing materials
Road base materials
Sub-base materials
Capping materials
Sub grade materials
2.3 Bituminous Binders
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Influence of Temperature
2.3.3 Influence of Loading time
2.3.4 Influence of Age
2.3.5 Bitumen Consistency Tests
iii
Page No.
I
11
III
Vll
X
x xi
1
1
2
2
4
4
4 4
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10 10
10 10 10 I I
I I
13 14
3.
2.4 Properties of Bituminous Mixes 14 2.4.1 Composition of Bituminous Mixes and
Mix Design 1 4
2.4.2 Stress-strain Behaviour and Elasticity 1 6 2.4.3 Virco-Elastic Behaviour 16 2.4.4 Elastic Stiffness and its Measurement 1 7 2.4.5 Permanent deformation 1 8 2.4.6 Fatigue cracking 1 8
2.5 Pavement Foundations 2.6 Road and Airport Pavement Design
2.6.1 Introduction
19 20 20
2.6.2 Design and Flexible Road Pavement 21 2.6.3 Airport Pavement Design and
Evaluation 22 2.6.3.1 I.C.A.O. Practice 22 2.6.3.2 Canadian Practice 22 2.6.3.3 French Practice 23 2.6.3.4 United Kingdom Practice 24 2.6.3.5 United States of America
Practice 24 2.6.4 The importance of adequate drainage
in a pavement 2 5 2.7 Recycling of bituminous bound materials 25
2.7.1 Introduction 25 2.7.2 Methods of Recycling 26 2.7.3 Reasons and benefits of Recycling 28 2.7.4 Properties of Recycled materials 2 8
2.8 Aims and Objectives of the Research 43
MATERIALS AND SPECIMENS PREPARATIONS 79 3 . 1 Description of the materials used 7 9 3.2 Specimens preparation 80
3.2.1 Procedure 80 3.2.l.1 Determination of Relative
density of paraffin wax 8 0 3.2.1.2 Preparation of specimen 80
iv
4.
5.
6.
EQUIPMENT AND TEST PROCEDURES 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Repeated loading DARTEC machine
(Fatigue Testing equipment) 4.2.1 Equipment
95 95
95 95
4.2.2 Procedure 95 4.2.2.1 Elastic stiffness test 95 4.2.2.2 Fatigue test 97
4.3 Creep Test Facility 97 4.3.1 Equipment 97 4.3.2 Procedure 97
4.4 Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NAT) 98 4.4.1 Equipment 98 4.4.2 Procedure 98
4.4.2.1 Elastic stiffness test 98 4.4.2.2 Creep test 99
TEST RESULTS 106 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 Elastic stiffness results 1 06
5.2.1 Repeated Load DARTEC test results 106 5.2.2 NAT test results
5.3 Creep Test Results 106 107
5.3.1 Creep test facility (dead load) results 107 5.3.2 NAT test results 107
5.4 Fatigue Test Results 107
DISCUSSION 118 6.1 Effect of Bitumen Content of Mechanical
Properties 118 6.2 Effect of Recycling on Mechanical Properties 119 6.3 Effect of Source of Reclaimed Material on
Mechanical Properties 1 20 6.4 Effect of Loading speed (Frequency) on
Mechanical Properties 1 2 1 6.5 Effect of duration and Magnitude of loading
on Mechanical Properties 122
v
7
8
6.6 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical
Properties 6.7 Effect of Method of Testing
CONUUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
References Appendix 1 -Determination of aggregate
contents, Pa (calculations)
-Determination of relative
density of aggregates (calculations)
2 DARTEC elastic stiffness data
3 -DARTEC elastic stiffness summary of results
-DARTEC elastic stiffness graph summaries
4 NAT elastic stiffness results 5 Example of NAT elastic
stiffness results output
6 Dead load creep results
7 NAT creep results 8 Photograph of some tools and
equipment used in preparing
specimens
9 Photograph showing hammer,
mould and specimen
vi
123 124
129
132
134
List of Figures Page
Figure 2.1 Categories of Road Pavement Layers. 52
Figure 2.2 Individual Layers of Road Pavement - S3
Figure 2.3 Variation of Bitumen Stiffness with Loading Time and Temperature.- - - 54
Figure 2.4 Aging of Porous Mix. - 5 5
Figure 2.5 Ageing of Dense Mixes. 56
Figure 2.6 Relationship between Binder Content and Mix Density. 57
Figure 2.7 Stress-Strain Relationships of Bituminous Mixes. -58
Figure 2.8 (a) & (b) Visco--elastic Response of Bituminous Material. 59
Figure 2.9 Stiffness Prediction for a Typical Rolled Asphalt Base. 60
Figure 2.10 Factors Influencing Stiffness of Bituminous Mixes. 61
Figure 2.11 Complete Relationship between Mix Stiffness and Bitumen Stiffness. - - - 62
Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of RepavelRemix machine in Remix mode. 6 3
Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of the asphalt plant modified for central plant recycling. -- - - - -6 3
Figure 2.14 Relationship between creep stiffness and varying amounts of reclaimed material. _ _ - 6 4
Figure 2.15 Relationship between Dynatnic stiffness and varying amounts of reclaimed material. - - - - - - - - 6 5
Figure 2.16 Relationship between penetration and softening point for reclaimed bitumen. - - - 6 6
Figure 2.17 Blending chart based on penetration.- - --- - _ --6 7
Figure 2.18
Figure 2_19
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Penetration as a function of the quantity of softening agent - - - - ---68
Softening point as a function of the quantity of softening agent, - - - - 69
Relationship between penetration and softening point for blends of reclaimed bi tumen and softening agent. - --
Static stiffness of regenerated asphalt mixes sP Slat versus stiffness of corresponding reference asphalt mixes SRStat.
Permanent Deformation (in percentage of height of sample) of regenerated asphalt mixes EPw versus permanent deformation of corresponding reference mixes, ERw
.. VII
70
71
-72
Figure 2.23
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26
Figure 2.27
Figure 2.28
Figure 4.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Dynamic stiffness (30 HZ) of regenerated asphalt mixes sP dyn versus dynamic stiffness of corresponding reference asphalt
Page
mixes, SRdyn• - - - - - -- - - - - - 73
Logarithm of fatigue life of regenerated asphalt mixes, Log NP f versus Logarithm of fatigue life of corresponding reference asphalt mixes, LogRf . 74
Typical Relationship Between Pennanent Strain and Number of Load Repetition for zero percent reclaimed. 7 5
Typical Relationship Between Pennanent Strain and Number of Repetition for 100 percent reclaimed. - 76
Rut development at Newmarket in conventional and recycled wearing courses. -77
Fatigue relationships for recycled and virgin road bases at 25 Hz and 250 C. - - - - - 78
Schematic Diagram of Nottingham Asphalt Tester.
a) Indirect Tensile Test b) Repeated Load Axial Test
Average elastic stiffness curves for 100% Recycled material 'B' specimen. -- -- .- - - - -.-
Average stiffness curves for 0% recycled material specimens; - -
Comparison of elastic stiffness for 100% Recycled and 0% Recycled for material 'B' using both the DARTEC and NA T Tests. - - - - - - - - - - - -
Elastic stiffness versus peak to peak load for different bitumen contents using the DARTEC elastic stiffness test;
(a) Schematic representations of Elastic stiffness measurement using the NA T Test.- - -
b) Elastic stiffness versus bitumen content for NA T test data. - -
Axial strain versus time (Dead Load) - - - - - -- _.
100 100
108
- --109
110
, 11
112
___ '113
114
(a) Creep Test data from the NA T Tests on material 'A'. - - - - 11 5
(b) Creep Test data from the NAT Test on material'B'. - - - 116
Axial strain versus bitumen content for material' A'. - - - 11 7
Relationship between Pennanent strain and number of load repetitions (After Hadipour and Anderson). - - -- - 126
Graph of Elastic Stiffness against frequency for 100% Recycled Material 'B' specimens. - 12 7
VIII
Figure 6.3 Graph of Elastic stiffness against frequency for 0% Recycled Material 'B' specimens.
IX
128
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table 2.6
Table 2.7
Table 2.8
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 3.7
Chan 3.1
Chan 3.2
List of Tables
Role of a Pavement Foundation (after Dawson 1990) . - -- - - - -
Elastic modulus of virgin and recycled asphalt at 200c and 5 Hz. - -
Page
44
45
Creep stiffness of virgin and recycled asphalt at 300C after 1 ()4 secs. - - - - 46
Density of compacted material from pilot-scale trial. - - -
Density of compacted material from A20 full-scale trial. -
Elastic modulus of recycled and virgin materials at 200C and 5 Hz.
Fatigue test results at 250 C and 5 Hz.
Deformation resistance of virgin and recycled materials measured in a uniaxial creep test at 300c. . - - -
Sieve Analysis of Planings Type 'A'.
Sieve Analysis of Planings Type 'B'.
A typical Tanzania Highway specification for Wearing Course Type "01
• - - - - - -, - - - - - - -- -
Mix Gradations for Recycling. -- - - - -
Specimen Gradation - Type 'A', - - -
Specimen Gradation - Type 'B'.-
(a)
(b)
Relative Density of Paraffin wax.
Specimens data. -- - - - - -
List of Charts
47
48
49
50
51
83
84
- -85
- - 86
- - - 87
88
89
- - 90
Rolled Asphalt wearing course Design Type F - Designation 40/20 Limits. - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - -
Typical Gradings of Hot rolled asphalt and asphalt concrete. -
---93
________ 94
x
Plate No. I
Plate No 2
Plate No.3
Plate No.4
Plate No. 5.
List of Plates
The DARTEC machine set up.
The creep facility (Dead Load Apparatus).
The creep facility testing set-up. - - -
The NAT Apparatus set-up for Elastic stiffness (Indirect tensile) test-- .
The NAT Apparatus set-up for Uniaxial creep loading test.
XI
Page
101
102
103
104
105
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Road and Airport Pavements
Watson (1989) defines a pavement as any surface intended to carry traffic, and
where the native soil has been protected from the hannful effects of that traffic by
providing an overlay of imponed or treated material. This overlay enables traffic to
move more easily and therefore more cheaply or quickly along the pavemenL The
pavement engineer is then faced with a task of providing the safe, stable and
durable surface over which the traffic may move.
In the past this has been achieved in many ways. The Romans built their roads in
several separate layers and incorporated specific features to ensure drainage: the
surface was cambered, it rose above ground level and had deep side ditches to
lower the water table. They generally used local materials and constructional details
were varied to suit local conditions. Where stones were plentiful, for example, they
surfaced their roads with fitted stone slabs. The base course aggregates were often
mixed with lime mortar as a binder, sometimes with pozzolana, forming what was
virtually a concrete bed. Today the principles in road design have remained largely
unaltered except for new ideas of traffic engineering, new materials and the
combination of technical skill with economy.
Nowadays major road and airpon pavements are usually constructed of upper
layer(s) of bound materials and lower layer(s) of unbound materials. The bound
materials can be bound either by a bitumen· based material, which constitutes a
flexible pavement or by cement, in which case the pavement is classified as rigid.
A flexible pavement is defined by Watson (1989) as one which is capable of
retaining its structural integrity even when small vertical movements (deformation)
take place at the surface. A rigid pavement is one in which there is no allowance for
small deformations at the surface. In this case the applied load is transmitted to the
subgrade by beam and slab action, whereas in a flexible pavement the pressure is
usually assumed to be transmitted to the subgrade through the lateral distribution of
the applied load with depth. O'Flaheny (1988) defines a flexible pavement as any
pavement other than a concrete one.
1
1.2 Important Parameters in Pavements
It is extremely important for the pavement engineer to have a sound knowledge of a
number of factors that will influence pavement design, construction and later
maintenance. He must be concerned with the properties of the materials to be used.
All pavements have to be founded on the soil, and efficient use of locally available
materials is important if economically constructed facilities are to be obtained. This
requires not only a thorough understanding of the soil and aggregate properties,
which affect the pavement stability and durability, but also of the properties of the
binding materials which may be added to improve these pavement features.
The most important pavement materials are soil, rock, slag aggregate, bituminous
binders, lime and cement (O'Flaherty, 1988). Only bituminous bound aggregates
are considered in this research.
A full understanding of the construction methods, available construction equipment,
and the prevalent or governing loading and climatic conditions is equally important
to the pavement engineer, since these factors will all have an effect on the material,
either during their formation or when in use.
1. 3 Introduction to the Report
The author of this thesis intends to look into recycling of flexible pavement
materials as a means of cutting down construction and/or reconstruction costs of
roads and airport pavements, particularly in developing countries and specifically in
Tanzania. In Tanzania there are many flexible pavements for airports and roads
which have gone almost beyond their serviceable life, but their maintenance or
rehabilitation has become difficult due to the costs involved. If the bitumen and
aggregate could be recycled then the cost of rehabilitation of failing pavements
would be greatly reduced and the transportation infrastructure of Tanzania could be
realistically maintained.
The repon includes a literature review in which background information on
bituminous pavements material properties and influence of loading, environmental
conditions and ageing on the properties, pavement design, etc, from available
literature has been given. Methods of recycling and the properties of recycled
bituminous materials have been covered in the literature review. Three important
properties, the elastic stiffness, creep and fatigue characteristics are discussed
2
These parameterS have been used to assess the condition of recycled asphalt in the
laboratory experiments herein. The test results, discussions and some
recommendations are given in the later chapters.
3
2 . LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The literature review introduces pavement design and construction. Specific papers
highlight the imponance of material properties and how they might be best
achieved. The fundamental properties for bituminous materials studied herein, are:
1. Elastic stiffness (Resilient stiffness)
2. Resistance to pennanent defonnation (creep)
3. Resistance to fatigue cracking.
Other than being the parameters used in the analytical design of flexible pavements
the above properties have been used as the major means of studying the effects of
recycling on the material properties as reviewed from a number of papers and this
particular research.
Typical methods of recycling are discussed, both cold recycling and hot recycling.
The study focuses, however, on hot recycled materials. In practice hot recycling
can be done either in-situ or in central plant (off-site recycling).
2.2 Design Considerations for Roads and Airport Pavements
2.2.1 Loading on Road Pavements
Load transmission in flexible pavements is explained in Section 1.1 as a mechanism
of lateral distribution of stresses with depth such that progressively less competent
layers do not become overstressed. The ability to distribute loads will vary with the
magnitude of wheel loads and the prevailing environmental conditions, the latter
being covered in more detail in section 2.2.3.
Except for vehicles with multiple wheels, the wheel spacing is generally sufficiently
great for the areas of pavement affected by each wheel not to overlap and therefore
design should be based on single wheel loads rather than on the total weight of the
vehicle. The exception is in the design of wearing courses where often twin ruts
are found due to the action of dual wheels.
L.
With multiple wheels, the combined effect of dual wheels varies according to the
wheel spacing in relation to the pavement thickness and other factors, but can never
exceed that for a single wheel carrying the same total load. Whilst the tyre inflation
pressure influences the quality of the materials used in the upper layers of a
pavement, it is the total applied wheel load which determines the depth of pavement
required to ensure that the subgrade is not over-stressed. The wheel configuration
in a vehicle or aircraft determines the distribution of the axle load and therefore
influences the stress distribution and deflections within and below the highway or
airport pavement The most definitive investigation into the effect of various wheel
configurations have been carried out on airport pavements, where they are of
considerable importance due to the greater wheel loads. (O'Flaheny, 1988).
While in the past the wheel loads on road1were not very large, today much heavier
commercial vehicles are being used and therefore regulations must be introduced to
limit the maximum load permined for each axle~ and consequently for each wheel.
Extensive pavement tests carried out have shown the relationship between the
pavement damage and the axle load for a flexible pavement to be
Pavement damage IX (Axle Load)n
This relates the wheel load (i.e. half the axle load) to riding quality, rut depth and
percentage of the area of the pavement that becomes cracked under traffic. It was
derived by comparing the number of repetitions of a standard 80kN axle load
required to cause the same amount of structural damage as was caused by various
other axle loads. The value of 'n' was found to be in the range of 3.2 to 5.6. In
practice a value of n of 4 is used and the relationship is known as the "fourth power
law" (O'Flaheny, 1988).
The implications (damage inflicted) on a pavement of a small difference in the axle
load is greatly amplified by the fourth power. It is clear then that the heaviest axle
in a stream of commercial vehicles causes a disproportionately large amount of
structural damage to a pavement, especially if the vehicle is badly loaded (off
centre). Although in Tanzania the allowable axle load is limited to 80kN the
government has not been able to enforce it, and it is such overloading that causes
most of the pavement distress problems in the road network. The importance of
regulating axle loads in Tanzania cannot be emphasised enough as the cost of
maintenance is intolerable on small maintenance budgets.
5
2.2.2 Loads on Airport Pavements
It has been recognised (Propeny Services Agency, 1989) that the severity of Load·
induced stresses in a pavement and subgrade depends on the gross weights of the
aircraft using the pavement and the configuration, spacing and tyre pressure of their
undercarriage wheels. The response of the pavement in resisting these stresses
depends on its thickness, composition, the properties of the materials used in its
construction, the method of construction and the strength of the sub-grade on which
the pavement is built
The International Civil Aviation Organisation (lCAO) has developed a single system
for determining the weight limitation of aircraft operating on airport pavements by a
procedure of comparing an airport's Pavement Classification Number (PCN) with
an Aeroplane's Classification Number (ACN). An aircraft having an ACN equal to
or less than the PCN can operate on the pavement subject to any limitation on the
tyre pressure or aircraft all-up mass for specified aircraft type(s). Numerically the
ACN is two times the derived single wheel load expressed in thousands of
kilograms, where the derived single wheelload is defined as the load of a single
tyre inflated to 1.25 MPa that would have the same pavement requirements as the
aircraft. The method is explained further in section 2.6.3.
For further information on the ACN-PCN determinations, reporting procedure,
etc., the reader is directed to the following literature:
1. International Standards and Recommended Practices: AERODROMES
ANNEX 14 by ICAO (1990a).
2. Aerodromes Design Manual (Doe 9157) Pan 3 by ICAO (1990b).
3. Aircraft loading on Airport Pavements ACN-PCN by the US Aviation
Industry Working Group (1983).
A recent pavement evaluation carried on several airports in Tanzania reports PCN's
ranging from 15 for some regional airports to 70 for the Dar cs Salaam International
Airport.
6
2.2.3 Environmental Conditions
For bituminous materials an increase in temperature results in a decrease in
stiffness, which in practice means that the ambient temperature influences the
magnitude of the maximum stress transmitted to subsequent pavement layers and
the sub-grade. In general the performance of bituminous pavements deteriorates
with rising temperature (O'F1aherty, 1988). The temperature effects upon
pavement behaviour emphasize the need to take considerable care when deciding
whether or not to utilize a given climatic area's empirical design methodl, which
have been developed for different climatic conditions. In climatic areas of very low
ambient temperatures frost action may result in serious heave and thaw damages in
pavements. Rainfall conditions also significantly influence the behaviour of
pavements and this makes surface and sub-surface drainage of pavements a very
crucial requirement These aspects are discussed further in section 2.6.4.
2.2.4 The Pavement Structure
A modem pavement consists of a number of elements, or layers, having various
functions contributing to the ability of the pavement to remain safe, stable and
durable for a period of time under the action of weather and traffic. A pavement
thus consists of several layers of materials which can generally be grouped into
three categories as shown in Figure 2.1 . The pavement can further be grouped into
individual functional layers as in Figure 2.2.
The wearing course provides the durability and flexibility properties, distributes the
high traffic stresses at the surface and waterproofs the pavement. It also resists the
abrasive action of tyres and provides adequate skid resistance and riding quality.
The main function of the base course is to act as a regulating course for any
irregularities in the underlying road base, to allow maximum possible uniformity in
wearing course thickness, while it also distributes loads carried by the pavement.
Bituminous surfacings are generally expected:
1. to contribute to the structural strength of the pavement,
2. to provide a high resistance to plastic deformation and resistance to cracking
under traffic,
3. to maintain such desirable surface characteristics as good skid-resistance,
good drainage, and low tyre noise,
7
4. to provide a waterproof membrane to prevent the ingress of water.
The road base is normally the thickest element of the flexible pavement on which
the surfacing rests. Its main function is to disuibute loads applied at the surface so
that excessive stresses are not transmitted through the pavement foundation to the
sub-grade. It is the main structural layer and it also provides a sufficiently stable
base to support the surfacin g.
The sub-base is primarily a load spreading layer, but it also acts as a regulating
layer for irregularities in the soil formation or sub-grade, and provides a working
platform for road base construction and protection of the sub-grade during
construction. This is also a layer that gives the required thickness of cover to
prevent frost expansion of the sub-soil and should have an open grading to ensure
high permeability, although should be sufficiently stable to resist deformation.
The capping layer is normally an additional layer provided as partial replacement of
the more expensive sub-base where a thicker sub-base would be required for sub
grade protection. Under the capping lies the sub-grade or formation which is the
naturally occurring sub-soil or common fill material.
2.2.5 Materials and their Placement
2.2.5.1 General
There exists three general types of materials with which the engineer is concemed:
1. Naturally occurring soils which have widely varying properties. Different
types of sub-grade materials will lead to different pavement design,
particulatly in the lower layers. Different construction techniques and
equipment may also be necessary, and the scope and cost of the
construction project can thus be significantly affected.
2. Unbound materials, which may vary from naturally occurring sands and
gravel to crushed rock and graded synthetic aggregates such as clinker and
slag.
8
3. Materials stabilized to a greater or lesser extent by addition of a binder or
other agent in order to modify their properties. Such materials include
stabilized soils, portland cement concrete and bituminous mixes.
The pavement is therefore composed of various layers constructed of varying types
of materials depending on different circumstances and requirements. These
circumstances and the chosen materials will also determine the construction
techniques and construction plant to be used, which altogether will determine the
cost and duration of the construction project. The knowledge of these factors to the
engineer is hence basic and crucial, and this forms the basic motive force behind
this research. The specification for materials and their placement in the UK is given
in a comprehensive specification for highway works, DTp (1986). In Tanzania
also a comprehensive specification has been prepared by the Ministry of Works.
2.2.5.2 Surfacing Materials
The surfacing commonly consists of bituminous bound materials and is divided into
the wearing course and the base course, although it may consist of a single
homogeneous layer in lower-quality roads. The surfacing is generally constructed
from hot rolled asphalt, or asphaltic concrete. The base course is normally
composed of a more pervious material than the wearing course. Both layers are
typically 40 to 60mm thick and are mixed, laid and compacted at high temperatures.
2.2.5.3 Road Base Materials
The road base can be constructed from a number of different materials including
cement or bituminous - bound materials, stabilised soils, crushed stone, gravel or
slag or carefully graded granular materials depending on circumstances and the
choice of the engineer. In Europe the roadbase is typically constructed of two or
more layers of bituminous bound stone that is either gap-graded (hot rolled asphalt)
or well-graded (dense bitumen macadam). The material is again mixed, laid and
compacted while hot.
Crusher-run or Pre-mixed water bound macadam (wet-mix) as it is known in
Britain, is becoming very common in Tanzanian airport runways and road
construction. It is a high density designed grading of crushed rock with a high
content of sand/crusher dust and filler. It is laid and compacted at optimum
9
moisture content to achieve a specified high density, usually within a range of 2 to 5
per cent by mass.
2.2.5.4 Sub-base Materials
The sub-base can be constructed from well-graded granular materials or
lime/cement bound materials as well as waste materials including clinker, quarry
waste, burnt colliery shale, spent oil shale, hardcore and other similar waste
materials. The material has to meet a strict specification of grading limits and
aggregate durability and is then laid and compacted in layers to achieve a unifonnly
high density.
2.2.5.5 Capping Materials
For capping the material should be of adequate grading to allow compaction and
should itself be unlikely to fail in service as a result of internal vertical deformation.
It is normally a granular material with a looser specification than the sub-base, but
with a minimum CBR of 15 percent
2.2.5.6 Sub-Grade Materials
The sub-grade is the natural in-siru, or sometimes imported, soil, as necessary. It
can as well be treated. Different types of clay constirute most of the sub-grade in
UK, while in Tanzania the sub-grade is mostly sand or clayey sand depending on
which part of the country the road is located in.
2.3 Bituminous Binders
2.3.1 Introduction
Biruminous binders include tars (obtained from coal), narural asphalt and birumens
obtained from fractional distillation of crude oil. Air ratification (blowing) can be
used to produce harder penetration grade birumens, which can then be blended to
produce intermediate grades. Since tars suitable for paving applications are not
widely available and the production of natural asphalts is small compared to
birumens, birumens are most widely used as a construction material. The birumens
are grouped into penetration grade birumens and liquid birumens (i.e. cut-backs and
emulsions). Bitumens are generally characterised by three consistency tests,
1 0
viscosity tests being used in the high temperature range (above 600C), whereas
penetration and softening point tests are used in the low temperature range (below
6QoC).
The bitumen properties of interest to highway and airpon pavement engineers, and
10 this research in particular, are the ability to resist defonnation, the response to
changes in temperature, and their solubility in other hydrocarbons.
The penetration grade bitumens (a British tenn) are also termed Asphalt cements by
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
2.3.2 Influence of Temperature
The consistency of all bitumens vary with temperature at different rates, depending
upon the type and grade of bitumen. This property is called temperature
susceptibility. Wallace (1967) considers, for example, two semi-solid asphalts,
one of which is a blown asphalt, the other a regular penetration grade bitumen, both
of which have the same penetration at 250 C. If each of these is heated to 490C and
tested for penetration, it will be found that their consistency is no longer the same,
but that the normal regular paving penetration grade is much softer. As they are
heated beyond this point the difference in consistency becomes more pronounced,
the paving-grade asphalt becoming liquid while the other is still in semi-plastic
state. At about 12()oC the paving grade will have become a thin liquid, whereas the
blown asphalt will not attain the same viscosity until it has neared 1800c or higher.
On both cooling down to QOC the paving-grade asphalt will be much harder than
the other, showing that its consistency is affected more by temperature changes than
is the blown asphalt. Penetration Index (PD is used as a measure of temperature
susceptibility. For further information reference is made to Bell (1990)_ \l8n d~ Po t l.
2.3.3 Influence of Loading Time
When stress is applied to any solid body, deformation of that body will occur,
(Warson, 1989). In the case of most solids the defonnations will either be elastic or
plastic, i.e. permanent. When stress is applied to a fluid, that fluid will flow to a
greater or lesser extent depending upon the applied stress and the fluid's viscosity
(defined as the resistance of a fluid to flow). The behaviour of bitumen in response
to applied stress is complex and depends not only on the size of the applied stress,
but also upon the duration of its application and the temperature of the bitumen, as
1 1
mentioned earlier. It is therefore unreasonable to expect to be able to predict
bitumen response to loading from a simple assumption of elastic behaviour
whereby Young's modulus (the ratio of stress to strain) for a particular material is
constant.
This difficulty was addressed by Van der Poel (Bell, 1990), who proposed the term
'stiffness' to represent the ratio of stress to strain for bitumen at a particular
combination of temperature and time of loading. He thus defined:
. Uniaxial Stress Stiffness (Sb) Uniaxial Strain
The stiffness of bituminous mixes is discussed further in Sections 2.4.3 and 2.4.4.
An indication of the loading time in some practical cases, for bituminous· bound
layers of between 100 and 35Omm, can be obtained from the following empirical
relationship (O'Aaherty, 1988).
Loading time (sec) = Traffic sp~ed (km!hr)
The following loading times are representative of typical situations:
Fast road traffic 0.01 0.10 seconds
Braking and accelerating traffic 0.10 1.00 seconds
Parked vehicles LOO"",,,·· 10 hours
The variation of stiffness with loading time and temperature for a typical bitumen is
illustrated in Figure 2.3. At low temperatures and when loads are briefly applied,
elastic behaviour may be expected. However when the temperature rises or load is
applied for a long time the stiffness of the bitumen faIls and permanent deformation
may be expected. The loading time may be related to the effective loading
frequency also in the form
Loadin . 1 g nme Cl Frequency
12
The explained behaviour of bitumen is very imponant to the pavement Engineer.
The relationships which explain the characteristic will be used by the author in
studying, for example the behaviour of the recycled mixes when compared to that
of the virgin mixes.
2.3.4. Influence of Age
Ageing of bitumen is caused by entry of air into a mix. Penetration grade bitumens
are relatively inert but slow surface hardening occurs on exposure to air and the
effect is accelerated at elevated temperatures. Hardening is due to two mechanisms;
physical and chemical (Edwards, 1990).
Cooling bitumen from mixing temperature to ambient temperature causes molecular
reorientation and thus an increase in viscosity, over a period of several months.
According to Wallace (1967) the molecular rearrangement forms a gel-like structure
in the asphalt and the hardening continues indefinitely. The hardening action takes
place rapidly during the first few hours and then gradually decreases. After about a
year the rate of hardening is almost negligible. Both Edwards and Wallace agree
that the action is reversible on heating or according to Wallace by severe mechanical
working such as pounding. Another cause of physical hardening (Edwards, 1990)
is evaporation of volatile components. This is non-reversible and the rate depends
on nature and quantity of volatile components and the conditions of exposure.
When in contact with atmospheric oxygen, bitumen is slowly oxidised, and this
causes an increase in the Penetration Index. The amount of hardening is very
dependent on exposure conditions and can not readily be predicted.
There is a correlation between bitumen hardening and void content of a mix. When
comparing the durability of different types of mix, such as, gap-grade and
continuously graded mixes, the major factor is permeability, since it takes into
account the interconnection of the voids. There are indications that at a given void
content, rolled asphalt mixes are more impermeable than asphaltic concrete. They
are as a consequence, of better durability and are more effective in preventing the
ingress of water. Figures 2.4 and 2.5 illustrates the ageing of porous and dense
mixes.
, 3
Yaw. et al (1989) also see the age hardening of asphalt cement as a result of the
interaction of the material with the environment and that asphalt aging is primarily
due to the oxidation of the material and that the process is an irreversible chemical
reaction. the mechanism of which according to them. is not yet well understood. If
asphalt were a simple chemical substance the principles of reaction kinetics could be
used to follow the exact ailng path. but asphalt is a material of complex chemistry
(yaw. et al). The majority of aging test procedures developed in the laboratory are
for short-term rather than long-term. However. accelerated laboratory tests.
although not capable of duplicating the exact field conditions remain the most • practical way of studying asphalt agjng and durability within a project's limited •
time.
2.3.5 Bitumen Consistency Tests
Since a large number of penetration grade bitumens can be produced, it is necessary
to characterise different grades by conducting consistency tests. Three main
consistency tests are used. namely:
1. Penetration test
2. Viscosity Tests
3. Softening point test
Brown (1990) explains that at low viscosities. when the binder is relatively liquid.
the rate at which it can flow through an orifice at temperamres of 6QOC and above is
related to viscosity and hence a standard tar viscometer can be used to measure
viscosity. Viscosity of penetration grade bitumen can be measured using a variety
of other devices such as the kinematic. sliding plate and rotational viscometers.
Other means of estimating the consistency of bitumen include the Fraass breaking
point test and the Bitumen Test Data Chart. For further information on consistency
tests the reader is referred to Brown (1990).
2.4 Properties of Bituminous Mixes
2.4.1 Composition of Bituminous Mixes and Mix Design
All bituminous mixes consist of three components aggregate. binder and air. The
engineering propenies are strongly dependent on the relative volumetric proponions
of these three components as well as the detailed characteristics of the binder and
1 4
aggregates. In practice, mix proportions are generally expressed in tenns of
percentage by mass.
The state of compaction of a material can be expressed in several ways. The most
common is the air void content, Vy. However, a better parameter to use is Voids in
Mixed Aggregates or Voids in Mineral Aggregates (VMA), where VMA = Vy +VB'
and VB = binder content (%). In either case volumetric proportions have to be
calculated and this involves consideration of density.
For a given aggregate and binder there is a unique relationship between binder
content and density for a voidiess mix. The effect of compaction on density in a
real mix (Le. a mix with some voids) at various binder contents is shown in Figure
2.6. In a real situation increasing the binder content from an initial low value
causes an increase in density accompanied by a decrease in void content until an
optimum value is reached. Mixes richer than this cannot be so well compacted.
Five methods are common for bituminous mix design (hot mix):
1. The Marshall method.
2. The Hveem, or stabilometer, method.
3. The Hubbard-field method.
4. The Smith Trial method.
5. The Recipe method.
According to the Asphalt Institute (1988), the objective of asphalt paving mix
design is largely to select and proportion materials to obtain the desired properties in
the finished construction. The overall objective is thus to determine an economical
blend and gradation of aggregates (within the limits of the project specifications)
and bitumen that yield a mix having:
1. Sufficient asphalt to ensure a durable pavement
2. Sufficient voids in the total compacted mix to allow for a slight atnOunt of
additional compaction under traffic loading without flushing, bleeding and
loss of stability, yet low enough to keep out harmful air and water.
3. Sufficient workability to permit efficient placement of the mix without
segregation.
4. Adequate skid resistance of the fmal mix.
1 5
The common aspect of all the methods of mix design is that they all require that
compacted laboratory specimens be tested for stability (Wallace and Martin, 1967).
The methods of testing differ in the method of preparing and compacting the
specimens. The first two methods (the Marshall and Hveem Methods) are most
widely used for construction design of hot-mix paving and have been found to
produce satisfactory results (Asphalt Institute, 1988).
2.4.2 Stress-Strain Behaviour and Elasticity
Bituminous materials are not purely viscous since their properties change at very
high viscosities to those of an elastic material, thus leading to the use of the tenn
visco-elastic when describing their overall behaviour. Elasticity would imply that
the material deforms instantaneously when loaded and the deformation is
immediately and completely recovered when the load is removed. This behaviour
contrasts that of viscous deformation, in which deformation builds up while the
load is applied and is irrecoverable, unless of course the load is reversed. Viscous
deformation occurs in bituminous materials under certain conditions (e.g high
temperature), whereas solid, relatively non-viscous bituminous materials at
working temperatures are, for practical purposes, linear elastic. Figure 2.7 shows
the stress-strain relationships.
2.4.3 Visco-Elastic Behaviour
In general bituminous materials are viscous at high temperatures, elastic at low
temperatures and exhibit visco-elastic behaviour under intermediate conditions. The
intermediate behaviour is explained in Figure 2.8. In Figure 2.8(b), the response to
a load pulse, such as may be experienced by an element of bituminous material in a
pavement, is shown. Here, it is not possible to distinguish between the two
components of elastic response, but the small permanent strain and relatively large
total elastic strain are illustrated. If the height of the stress pulse (O"r) is divided by
the elastic strain (Er) then, in rather general terms, it is possible to determine a
modulus of elasticity (E) for the material. It is this parameter which controls the
load spreading ability of the bituminous layer. As explained earlier in section
2.3.3, the tenn stiffness is used for bituminous materials due to its non-elastic
behaviour.
1 5
2.4.4 Elastic Stiffness and its Measurement
While the tenn "stiffness" or stiffness Modulus" is usually substituted for modulus
of elasticity in visco-elastic tar or bitumen bound materials, under moving traffic
conditions, the more specific term "resilient stiffness" is used. Resilient stiffness is
thus seen as depending upon temperature and vehicle speed (which defines the
loading time). Whatever the nomenclature used, it should be appreciated that the
modulus can also vary according to the number of load cycles applied before the
modulus is detennined (O'Flaheny, 1988).
Generally for bituminous materials an increase in temperature results in a decrease
in stiffness, which in practice means that the ambient temperature influences the
magnitude of the maximum stresses transmitted to subsequent pavement layers and
the subgrade. According to Brown (1990) there are two categories of stiffness,
namely, elastic stiffness (Sme) under conditions of low temperature or shon time of
loading, and viscous stiffness (Smv) at high temperatures or long times ofloading.
The former, giving higher values of stiffness, is that required as an essential pan of
the design process. The latter, giving low values of stiffness, is used to assess the
perfonnance characteristics concerned with the resistance of a particular mix to
permanent deformation.
Stiffness at a particular temperature and time of loading may be measured by a
variety of methods, in which different types of loading can be used. For elastic
stiffness relevant to moving traffic, sinusoidal or other repeated loading is most
appropriate. The simpler creep test, using static load, is an alternative which is
becoming popular for determining the low stiffnesses (viscous stiffness) relevant to
the assessment of permanent deformation resistance. Both methods are used in this
research projecL If the measurement of stiffness is not feasible, as is usually the
case with designs for new construction or overlays, then the design procedure
should be independent of measured values. In this case, the elastic stiffness of a
mix (Smel at any temperature and time of loading, may be predicted to an accuracy
acceptable for most design purposes (for example see Figure 2.9.). A detailed
method of prediction is explained by Brown (1990).
1 7
2.4.5 Permanent Deformation
The resistance of a bituminous mix to permanent defonnation involves
consideration of the low stiffness response at high temperature or long loading
times, expressed as the viscous stiffness (Srnv), Under these conditions, when Sb
is less than 5 MPa where Sb is the binder stiffness, the behaviour of the mix is
more complex than in the elastic zone. Its stiffness, in addition to depending on Sb
and VMA as before, is also affected by such factors as the grading, shape and
texture of the aggregate, the confining conditions, and the method and state of
compaction. This is illustrated in Figures2.1O and 2.11. As mentioned in the
previous section the simplest test used to study the permanent deformation response
of bituminous mixes is the static uniaxial unconfined creep test. Other types oftest
include the confined creep test and the repeated load uniaxial or triaxial test. These
have the advantage that the stress conditions resemble more closely those which
occur in siru. As in many types of mix, the resistance to permanent defonnation
largely depends on aggregate interlock and inter-particle action so the confining
conditions are important. However, these tests require more expensive and
sophisticated equipment which is only available in a few research establishments.
The repeated load uniaxial test appears to provide the best compromise.
Figure 2.11 illustrates, diagrammatically, the relationship between the complete
range of mix stiffness (Srn) and bitumen stiffness (Sb). At the right hand side, for
(Sb), greater than approximately 5 MPa, behaviour is elastic and is governed by
elastic stiffness (Srne>. The relationship therefore depends only on Sb and VMA,
and can be predicted. On the left hand side, for Sb less than approximately 5 MPa,
behaviour is dominated by viscous stiffness (Srnv). 10 this case the relationship
depends on many complex factors and requires testing to determine for a particular
mix and conditions. It should be noted however that high elastic stiffness does not
necessarily mean good deformation performance.
2.4.6 Fatigue Cracking
O'Flaheny (1988) defines fatigue as the phenomenon of fracture under repeated, or
fluctuating stress having a maximum value generally less than the tensile strength of
the material. Under traffic loading the layers of a flexible pavement structure are
subject to continuous flexing. The magnitude of the strain is dependent on the
overall stiffness and nature of the pavement construction but analysis, confirmed by
measurements, has indicated tensile strains of the order of 30-200 x 10-6 for a
1 8
standard wheel load. Under these conditions the possibility of fatigue cracking
exists, and consequently fatigue is one of the failure criteria considered in pavement
design.
According to Cooper (1990) most laboratory fatigue tests are carried out under
uniaxial stress conditions, either in bending or in direct loading. The method of
performing simple loading fatigue tests is to apply loading to a specimen in the form
of an alternating stress or strain of a certain amplitude and to determine the number
of applications of load to fail the specimen. A small change in stress level can result
in a considerable change in fatigue life. The fatigue life of a bituminous material is
also influenced by temperature, with longer lives at lower temperatures, and
influenced by speed, with longer lives at higher speeds. Tensile strain (crack
initiation) is generally accepted as the fatigue cracking performance criterion for
bituminous materials. Further details of the effect of test and mix variables on
fatigue life, as well as the method of prediction of the fatigue performance for
pavement design purposes are given by Cooper (1990).
2.5 Pavement Foundations
Tomlinson (1980) gives a general definition of the foundation of a structure as
being that part of the structure in direct contact with the ground and which transmits
the load of a structure to the ground. Both Dawson (1990) and Watson (1989)
describe the role of a pavement foundation and state that the foundation of a
pavement structure comprises essentially two layers. The upper layer, termed the
sub-base, is usually formed of good quality granulat material while the lower layer,
called the subgrade, is the natural soil or flll material. An additional layer, capping,
mentioned earlier is sometimes provided between the sub-base and subgrade.
While the role of the foundations can be obtained from the functions of each layer,
as given in section 2.2.4, a summary of the role of foundation is given in Table 2.1
(after Dawson, 1990). Stiffness and permeability are principal requirements of
foundation layers, while drainage also is highly essential in pavements.
Wheel loads applied at the surface of a pavement cause horizontal strain at the
bottom of the bound layers, resulting in . tension cracks (vertical cracks through
the layer), and vertical strain at the top of the subgrade. This vertical strain results
in deformation in the unbound and bound layers, thus contributing to deformation
at the surface (rurting). The subgrade properties, if weak, can be modified to have
1 9
better structural integrity by stabilization of the in-situ soil by mixing with lime,
cement of sometimes bitumen (e.g. cut backs). Some mechanical methods may
also be employed Although the properties of the subgrade may be modified it is
important however that the traffic loads are well distributed in the upper layers,
especially the roadbase, such that the resultant vertical stresses at the surface of the
subgrade do not cause deformation within it, i.e. that the subgrade does not become
over-stressed
2.6 Road and Airport Pavement Design
2.6. 1 Introduction
The design of flexible pavement involves two major aspects: the design of the
paving mix and the determination of the thickness of the different layers of the
pavement. Since the design of the pavement is not a subject of major concern in
this research, only a brief outline is described highlighting some general aspects and
briefly exp1aining the use of the elements discussed in earlier chapters. The mix
design has been covered in section 2.4.1. The concept of analytical design has
been introduced by Brown and Brunton (1990). The philosophy of the analytical
approach to pavement design is that the strucrure should be treated in the same way
as other civil engineering strucrures, the procedure of which may be summarized as
follows:
1. Specify the loading
2. Estimate the size of components
3 . Consider the materials available
4. Carry out a structural analysis using theoretical principles
5. Compare critical stresses, strains or deflections with allowable values
6. Make adjustments to materials or geometry until a satisfactory design is
achieved
7. Consider the economic feasibility of the result.
This contrasts with the traditional method of designing pavements which is based
on experience and the use of a test (the CBR) on the subgrade (e.g. Road Note 29).
Application of such empirical methods is restricted to the conditions under which
the experience was obtained. It is because of the complexities of structural
behaviour and material properties that empirical procedures have endured for so
long in highway engineering (Brown and Brunton, 1990).
20
2.6.2 Design of Flexible Road Pavement
The objective of structural design of pavement is to detennine the required thickness
for a chosen asphalt mix to satisfy the design conditions. The conditions may
include the design life and corresponding terminal conditions, traffic loading,
material properties and other relevant design constraints.
The structural designs are based on the two critical strains discussed in section 2.5.
These are the horimntal tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous layer, which
is the maximum value for this layer, and the vertical strain at the top of the
sub grade. These parameters control fatigue cracking in the asphalt and permanent
deformation of the whole structure respectively. Designs are also based on the
computation of elastic stiffnesses and fatigue strengths drawn from section 2.4.4
and 2.4.6 respectively.
Due to complexities in the different behaviour of different layers of paving
materials, the pavement design is normally based on linear stress-strain
relationships, i.e. assuming that the behaviour of every layer is linear-elastic
(Brown, 1990). Brown states that linear-elastic theory, being the simplest
approach, has been used extensively for pavement investigations, and has been
shown to be valid if proper care is taken to correct! y specify the values of elastic
stiffness used in the analysis. This is particularly important for bituminous layers
in which temperature has a significant effect, although it is also imponant for
subgrade.
It is important to note that since stiffness is dependent on temperature and has a
significant contribution to behaviour of pavements, the annual temperatUre
variations as well as the variations of traffic and pavement temperatures during a
24-hour period at the particular locality must all be taken into consideration during
design.
Many analytical and empirical theories have been developed for the determination of
stresses in the pavement and the required layer thicknesses. These are beyond the
scope of this text and readers are referred to O'Flaherty (1988), Wallace and Martin
(1967), and particularly Powell et al (1989). The latter text represents the latest
thinking on the design of UK roads and has been adopted by the Depanment of
Transport.
21
2.6.3 Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation
2.6.3.1 lCAO Practice
The International Civil Aviation Organisation (lCAO) has developed a single system
for determining the weight limitation of aircraft operating on airport pavements by a
procedure of comparing an airport's Pavement Oassification Number (PeN) with
an Aircraft Classification Number (ACN). PCN is a number expressing the bearing
strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations, while ACN is a number
expressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standard
subgrade strength. An aircraft having an ACN equal to or less than the PCN can
operate without weight restriction on the pavement. The ACN-PCN method is
meant only for publication of pavement strength data in the Aeronautical
Information Publication (AlP). It is not intended for design or evaluation of
pavements nor does it contemplate the use of a specific method either for the design
or evaluation of pavements. In fact, the ACN-PCN method does permit designers
to use any design or evaluation method of their choice (ICAO Doe 9157 - ANI9OI
Part 3). Therefore the method shifts the emphasis from evaluation of pavements to
evaluation of load rating of aircrafts (ACN) and establishes a standard procedure for
evaluation of the load rating of aircraft. The strength of a pavement is reponed
under the method in terms of the load rating of the aircraft which the pavement can
accept on an unrestricted basis. The Engineer can use any method of his choice to
determine the load rating of his pavement The ICAO's Aerodrome Design Manual
gives examples of some countries' pavement design and evaluation practices.
2.6.3.2 Canadian Practice
CanadillIl design and evaluation is orientated towards a frost penetration type of
environment Aexible pavement design curves for a given group of aircraft are
used to determine the pavement thickness required to support the aircraft loading as
a function of subgrade bearing strength. The design loading (Aircraft Load Rating -
ALR) for the pavement is based on traffic studies and projections. The curves are
based on the equation:
22
where: S
ESWL
t
=
=
=
=
Subgrade bearing strength (kN)
Equivalent single wheel load of the design
aircraft loading (kN)
pavement equivalent granular thickness (cm)
factors depending on contact area of ESWL
The full procedure for the determination of the pavement thickness is given in the
Aerodrome Design Manual- Part 3 (leAD, 1983).
The pavement evaluation for pavement strength reporting is the reverse of the
design process to determine the Pavement Load Rating (pLR). The equivalent
granular thickness (t) is computed through use of granular equiValency factors for
pavement construction materials on their respective thicknesses as obtained from
cored samples. The bearing strength (S) can be measured by a variety of methods
including repetitive and non-repetitive plate load tests, Benkeiman beam, etc.
2.6.3.3 French Practice
French practice is based on design graphs, which are related to the main
undercarriage load. In some cases the loads are weighted according to the function
of the pavement Each type of facility (runways, taxiways, aprons, maintenance
areas, etc.) are designed separately to take into account differing stress conditions.
This is done because, although subjected to the same loads, some pavements may
experience different fatigue conditions due to differences in traffic concentration,
speed and other dynamic effects. Also consideration is given to the loads other than
those produced by airctafts on some areas of the pavement. These include vehicles,
ground handling equipment, aerobridges, etc. The design, like the Canadian
approach, involves collection of both data for traffic and characteristics of the
natural soil, which are used in the calculation of the pavement thickness.
Evaluation of the pavement for the sub-grade CBR and the total equivalent
thickness requirement is by using either the reverse design method or performing
non-destructive plate loading tests on the pavement surface. The final PCN is then
determined and published following the complete evaluation of the pavement.
23
2.6.3.4 United Kingdom Practice
In the United Kingdom airfield pavements are designed for an unlimited operation
of a design aircraft. The suppon strength classification of the pavement is
represented by the design aircraft's pavement classification number identifying its
level of severity. All other aircraft ranked by the U.K standards as less severe may
anticipate unlimited use of the pavement, though the final decision rests on the
aerodrome authority.
A number of computer programmes are available for design, based on plate theory,
multilayer elastic theory and finite element analysis. For aircraft reaction on flexible
pavements a four layer pavement model is adopted and analysed using the United
States Corps of Engineers development of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
This includes Boussinesq deflection factors and takes into account interaction
between adjacent landing gear wheel assemblies up to 20 radii distance.
The U.K follows the ICAD ACN/PCN reporting method for aircraft pavements.
The critical aircraft is identified as the one which imposes a severity of loading
closest to the maximum permitted on a given pavement for unlimited operational
use. Using the critical aircraft's ACN individual authorities decide on the PCN to
be published for the pavement concerned.
2.6.3.5 The United States of America Practice
The United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) method of designing and
reponing airport pavement strength has adopted the CBR method of flexible
pavement design. Design curves based on the CBR method provide the required
total thickness of the pavement (surface, base and sub-base) needed to suppon a
given weight of aircraft (design aircraft) over a panicular subgrade. They also
show the required surface thickness and minimum base course thicknesses. The
total pavement thickness for non-critical areas is obtained by applying a factor to the
critical pavement layer thicknesses.
The pavement evaluation procedures adopted are essentially the reversal of design
procedures.
24
2.6.4 The Importance of Adequate Drainage in a Pavement
The importance of adequate drainage in a pavement cannot be over-emphasised.
"There are three things required for a good pavement - drainage, drainage and more
drainage". (Dawson, 1990). In this respect the drainage of surface water as well
as ground water is important Water lying on the surface is at best a nuisance for
traffic and at worst a serious safety hazard, giving rise to a loss of adhesion
between wheels and road and to such quantities of spray as will prevent adequate
visibility (Watson, 1989). Also pools of standing water will form, and with time
may penetrate the pavement structure and cause premature failure. Damage may
arise from weakening of the subgrade if ground water levels are not controlled,
from washing away of fme material from unbound courses in the pavement, from
corrosive effects of water on elements of the pavement, such as steel reinforcement,
or in extreme weather from action of frost on water in bound layers in the
pavement.
In general drainage is one of the desirable conditions for good performance of
granular sub-bases and subgrades. In both cases good drainage is essential to
prevent build-up of pore pressure and consequent reduction in effective stress. It
has been shown that high subgrade stiffness occurs when the effective stress is
high (Brown and Brunton 1990). This implies high soil suction which arises from
a low water table.
2.7 Recycling of Bituminous Bound Materials
2.7.1 Introduction
Asphalt pavement recycling is the technique of re-using the existing pavement
material. Yeaman and Lee gives a general definition of recycling as the re-use
usually after some processing of a material that has already served its first intended
purpose. The fundamental concept of recycling of asphalt pavement lies in the
upgrading of the deteriorated gravel by the addition of virgin aggregate and
softening the hardened old asphaltic binders by the addition of a rejuvenating
agent or a modifier. The process involves:
1. Removing the old pavement material from the road.
25
2. Mixing it when necessary with virgin aggregate, a virgin binder or a
softening agent, and
3. Relaying the rejuvenated material.
The value of effective recycling of bituminous materials has long been recognised.
This process is used in many countries (Europe and America) and in some it is
adopted as a standard alternative for both construction and maintenance (Cornelius
and Edwards, 1991).
2.7.2 Methods of Recycling
The recycling process can be done either hot or cold. Advantages of the cold
process against the hot process are less fuel consumption, simpler construction
equipment, and thus lower construction cost However, the finished product of the
cold recycling process is not as stable as that produced by hot process. Cold-mix
recycling is used only for low traffic volume roads. There are different ways of
classifying the re-cycling processes. According to Wood et al (1988), recycling is
generally classified by the type of operation used to perform it and the more
commonly agreed classifications are hot-mix recycling (plant), cold-mix recycling
(plant or in-place) and surface recycling (in-place). In general, this classification
scheme considers that hot-mix recycling involves removal and mixing at a central
plant, wh~ cold-mix recycling may be performed in-place or at a central plant.
Mercer and Potter (1990) and O'Raherty (1988) gives a more general categorization
basing on the procedure used.
a) In-place or in-situ surface and base recycling
b) Central plant surface and base recycling
c) Surface recycling
In the in-situ recycling the processing takes place without transporting the reclaimed
material, and can be sub-divided into hot or cold recycling. Cold in-situ recycling
involves pulverizing the pavement to a depth of up to 300-35Omm, mixing with
cement, bitumen emulsion or foamed asphalt/bitumen and compacting. A new
wearing course is then applied. For the central plant recycling the pavement
26
material is excavated and taken to another location for treatment This involves hot
mixing, laying and compacting.
The processes are subdivided into several other processes. It is wonh then to give
general definitions of a number of names or processes that are common in recycling
of asphalt pavements. According to Molenaar (1988) the following are the different
in-place techniques available for surface regeneration. In the reform technique the
asphalt pavement is re-heated and simply hot rolled. In the reshape technique the
asphalt in the pavement is re-heated, scarified, levelled, and then hot rolled. The
regrip technique differs from the reshape techniques in that, prior to hot rolling the
pavement is covered with chippings. The repave technique is similar to the reshape
technique, except that a layer of new asphalt (usually 2Omm), is applied before hot
rolling. The remix technique is similar to the repave technique, except that prior to
hot rolling the old asphalt in the pavement is mixed with new asphalt. Another
method developed since 1975 in Germany is the Sanimat method, which is used
particularly in Germany to treat ruts. Other processes are retread, reclaimex and
rejuvenating of surfaces. The process is called retread process if the scarified
material is added with a bitumen emulsion before reprofiling and recompacting. If a
softener is added to dissolve and enliven the binder before reprofiling and
recompacting, the process is known as Reclaimex process. Sometimes some
modifiers are used to replasticize binders by replacing certain constituents lost
through oxidation and polimerization. Sometimes these modifiers are added to
reformed surfaces immediately after compaction and allowed to soak into the
carriageway for a few days, after which a conventional bituminous overlay is
added; this combined process is the so called rejuvenating of a surfacing.
As mentioned in section 2.1, it is difficult to find anyone classification which is
used as a standard in the literature. However, the classification categorizing into in
situ and central plant recycling seems to be most commonly used. Both can either
be cold or hot, although the central plant recycling is normally a hot-recycling
process. Figures 2.12 and 2.13 show schematic diagrams of examples of in-situ
and central plant recycling consecutively.
It is difficult to suggest the most appropriate technique/method for the Tanzanian
pavements until a study has been carried out on the types of existing constructions,
types of existing plants and the economics of each possible method in regard to
plants, material requirement and long term maintenance and use of the required
plants.
27
2.7.3 Reasons and Benefits of Recycling
Recycling of construction materials, and bituminous bound materials in particular,
is becoming very important in many countties now because of a number of
common factors. Normally the major part of the cost of a flexible pavement
construction or rehabilitation is determined by the aggregate and the binunen
components. The cost of bitumen has been increasing with soaring prices of crude
oil, since the early nineteen seventies. Therefore recycling of bituminous
pavements would aid the national balance of payments of non-oil-producing
countties by reducing the demand for bitumen. Other economic reasons include
possible saving of energy consumption, construction time and saving in cost of
production of aggregates. Dunning et al (1984) says that, normally a recycling
plant will be operated at a cost less by 10 to 30 percent than a comparable
conventional plant. Roads and streets (October 1975) reports savings of up to 50%
over cost of all new materials. Normally there is a reduction in distances travelled
by delivery lomes, hence a saving in related costs. Recycling, especially in-situ,
also minimizes the inconvenience as well as cost to road users. A saving in the
tipping cost can also be substantial in some countties. Environmentally, recycling
requires less aggregate extraction and fewer disposal sites hence preserving the
landscaping. Less air pollution is also expected, especially with cold-recycling.
Van de Zwan (1988) claimed however that the costs of recycled and conventional
asphalt were similar in the Netherlands. According to the department of transport in
Texas (Civil Engineering - ASCE, November 1980) cold recycling yielded a cost
saving over the conventional method of 50 per cent and moreover twice as much
was done in less than one third the time. In recycling, especially in-situ the road
network is only slightly stressed because of the small amount of transport required.
2.7.4 Properties of Recycled Materials
Many studies have been conducted on the behaviour or properties of recycled
bituminous materials and comparisons have been made with mixes of completely
virgin materials of the same specifications or with different percentages of reclaimed
materials but within same specifications (e.g. British Standards Specifications).
While the results of most of the investigations agree on some propenies, a few of
them had different results. Summaries of several investigations as reported in
?R
various papers on studies done in many countties such as U.K., U.S.A, The
Netherlands, Denmark and South Africa are given.
Carpenter (1982) has given a detailed repon on the study in which the propenies of
the recovered asphalt cement, recycling with different percentages of reclaimed
material and the use of re-cycling agents has been investigated. Carpenter suggests
that the recycling agents restores the viscosity of (rejuvenates) the reclaimed asphalt
cement Together with this new lower viscosity, the bonding and resilience of the
aged asphalt cement is restored. He cautions however that if only one parameter is
controlled, e.g. viscosity at 6()OC, the penetration at 250C may vary quite
excessively. Equal rates of deterioration had been assumed (up to then) for all new
and recycled materials. Depending on percentages of reclaimed material, the
assumption may be nearly correct With low reclaimed materia1 content (30%), the
reclaimed pavement is equivalent to all new materia1 pavement assuming the
reclaimed material is sound to begin with. When the percentage of reclaimed
material increases to a range of 50 to 70 percent with corresponding amount of
recycling agent, the recycled mixture may no longer be similar to all new because of
influence of recycling agent
According to Carpenter (1982), at that time the long term performance of the
mixtures had not been investigated. Only deflection characteristics of new recycled
pavements had been analysed and showed comparable characteristics with all new
pavements, but the long term characteristics were not addressed.
Mamlouk and Ayoub (1983) repon on the evaluations done on long-tenn
behaviour of cold Recycled Asphalt mixtures. The propenies of recycled mixtures
are controlled by several factors, including the oxidation hardening of the new
bituminous materials and the softening effect of the softening agents or emulsions.
An evaluation of the long-term behaviour of such mixtures by means of both Creep
and Marshall tests conducted at 750P (23.800 has been presented. The mixture
was artificially aged by curing at 6()OC up to 60 days and tested at different ages.
The creep compliance of both virgin and recycled mixtures decreased rapidly at
early ages due to the oxidation of the asphalt binder and then remained essentially
the same. No large difference was observed in the creep behaviour of the virgin
and recycled mixtures. Neither Creep nor Marshall test results suppon the
hypothesis that the emulsified asphalt used in the study has a long-tenn softening
effect on the old asphalt binder.
Gilbertson (1984) explains the rehabilitation of two Arizona general aviation
airports pavements by a cold recycling method in 1983. Consideration for
recycling of these airpon pavements, which had reached the end of their service
lives, was prompted by lack of quality construction materials and limited local
budget The pavement structural integrity was restored by pulverizing the existing
asphaltic concrete, blending it with the base material, and stabilizing the mixrure
with cement An interlayer of asphalt-rubber was applied to retard the reflection of
shrinkage cracks through to the asphaltic concrete surface course. The method was
found, according to Gilbertson, to be viable and cost-effective.
Newcomb et al (1984) reports on a study of the effects of recycling modifiers on
aged asphalt cement Blends of modifiers and asphalt were tested chemically and
physically in both the unaged condition and after ageing in a rolling thin-film oven.
Chemical characterization included clay-gel compositional analysis, solubility
testing and high pressure gel permeation chromatography. Physical testing
included penetration, viscosity and ductility testing. Among the ftndings were:
1. The influence of the Polar to Satmate ratio (:PIs) on consistency may
diminish with higher level of aromatic fractions in the modifiers. Polar to
saturate ratio is a measure of permitivity usually used to measure level of
aromatic fractions in hard bitumens.
2. As the modifiers pis increase at the low and medium levels of modifier
percent aromatic content, the low-temperarure susceptibility of the blends
increased. However, as the level of aromatic content increase, pIs had less
influence on the low-temperarure susceptibility.
3. As the modifier pIs increase, less shear susceptibility was exhibited by the
modifter blends at 40 C and 25OC.
4. As the modifier pIs increased, so did the blend viscosity at 135OC.
• 5. The penetration of the blends retained after RTFO increased and the agjng • Index of the blends decreased with increasing modifier pIs. The ductility of
the blends after RTFO increased with increasing modifier pIs. RTFO stands
for Rolling Thin Film Over Test which is a standard test used to measure the
loss of volatiles in bitumen when mixed with aggregates at high
temperarure.
30
6. Modifiers do not have a compositionally additive effect to aged asphalt
fractions.
• 7. On RTFO ag,pg of the blends there were increases in the asphaltenes
content and decreased in polar fractions. The saturate and aromatic fractions
did not change markedly.
8. The most sensitive physical parameters with regard to the effects of
modifiers on the aged asphalt cement were the aging index and ductility at
250 C after RTFO conditioning.
A paper written by Stock (March, 1985) on investigation into the structural
properties of asphalt mixes containing reclaimed material gave the following
conclusions basing on assessment by dynamic (resilient) stiffness and creep tests.
I For all practical purposes the following parameters have no effect on the
performance of a hot rolled mix containing reclaimed material.
a) Reclaimed material content
b) Source of reclaimed material
c) The removal process (cold milling or hot planing)
d) The type of softening agent used
2 A hot rolled asphalt containing reclaimed material has stiffness and
deformation characteristics which are for all practical purposes
indistinguishable from conventional hot rolled asphalt.
3 Recipe procedures form a satisfactory basis for the design of mixes
containing reclaimed material.
Figures 2.14 and 2.15 show the creep stiffness and dynamic stiffness relationships
with varying amounts of reclaimed material respectively.
31
Another study of bitumen reclaimed from highways by both hot and cold processes
and investigation of how to treat it for use as a binder for paving material has been
given by Stock (May 1985). The work was carried out against the background of
current British practice and so included the determination of penetration and
softening point In addition, other parameters relevant to performance such as
penetration Index and stiffness were measured. It was found that all recovered
bitumens meet the penetration and softening point requirements of BS3690. In
addition all blends of recovered bitumen with new bitumen or flux oil meet
BS3690. The tentative conclusion which was drawn was that the bitumen in
reclaimed asphalt, softened to a grade suitable for particular mix, will be a
satisfactory binder for use in a highway pavement. Figures 2.16,2.17,2.18,2.19
and 2.20 indicate the results mentioned above.
Wijeratne and Sargious (1987) verified that recycled asphalt mixtures show similar
characteristics as virgin mixtures with repeated loading and that rutting predictions
can be done on recycled asphalt mixtures for pavements as in virgin mixtures by
using modified triaxial tests.
Ferreira et al (1987) who were mainly concerned with long term performance of hot
mix recycled mix stated that although hot mix recycling of hot mix asphalt concrete
has been accepted as a possible cheaper rehabilitation option due to its potential for
savings, results from the conservation of energy and natural resources, the
uncertainty regarding its life cycle has been a main factor preventing a more general
adoption of recycling. In an assessment of the long term economic consequences
of recycling, not only the initial cost must be taken into account, but also the
expected life cycle maintenance costs and the salvage value at the end of the life
cycle. Although recycled mixes can be produced in compliance with all
conventional specifications, it is feared that the reprocessed binder may be inferior
to new binder, due to the following factors:
1. binder mixing efficiency
2. possible adverse effects resulting from the weathered nature of the reclaimed
binder,and
3. long-term effects of recycling additives when these are used.
32
All these factorS can influence the life cycle of the recycled mix by affecting the
fatigue and permanent defonnation characteristics and the long term durability.
According to Ferreira et al (1987), the National Institute of Transport and Road
Research (NITRR), Pretoria, South Africa initiated an "on-going" research programme.
since 1982 to address the above and other unresolved issues in hot mix recycling,
by way of the following:
I. long tenn monitoring of applications
2. analysis of laboratory test results and mechanistic modelling, and
3 . accelerated field testing
The behaviour of pavement layers containing various proportions of reclaimed
material was undergoing careful long term monitoring throughout the country and
by then their performance had not been found inferior to those of conventional
layers. On the basis of the investigations carried out above, it was concluded that
the proportions of reclaimed material has no effect on the initial engineering
properties of asphaltic concrete mixes. It was also concluded from the
investigations that the recycled and conventional asphaltic materials were in terms of
permanent deformation relatively insensitive to heavy traffic loading at high
temperatures (4OOC to 45OC). Also through the investigation using Heavy Vehicle
Simulator (HVS) testmn a tria1 section, the test results of the first HVS test support
one of the main findings of the laboratory-based investigation, i.e. that the
proportion of reclaimed material in a mix has no effect on the fatigue life of that
mix. However, the long term test results of HVS were not yet available to
substantiate the long term effect, although an indication of the expected behaviour
of the tria1 sections containing 0, 30 and 50 percent reclaimed material was obtained 1l':)rlal"rl·'c.
by means of I. Cone Penetrometer (DCP), and deflection surveys. Although
the investigations show that the proportion of reclaimed materials does not affect the
engineering properties of recycled mixes, in the long term, however, the Validity of
these findings depend on the durability of the mixes. The NITRR was also ~.
engaged in a research program, to investigate the ageing characteristics of recycled
binders and hence the durability of recycled mixes, defining durability in their
investigation in terms of changes in viscosity and oxidation levels over time, under
both normal and accelerated ageing conditions. Preliminary findings suggested that
33
the proportions of reclaimed material does not appear to have an adverse effect on
durability of the resultant mix.
An investigation on the use of recycled materials conducted in Las Vegas, USA has
been reponed by Dunning et al (1984) in which it was found that the asphalt in
recycled pavements have propenies essentially the same as virgin asphalt.
Specifically the following deductions were made:
1. No difference in tendency to ravel if aggregate gradation problems are
corrected during recycle operation.
2. As recycled pavements seem to be less tender than pavements made with
virgin asphalt less rutting was expected in recycled pavements.
3. Final answer to question of non-load associated cracking would await
failures in recycled pavements. However it had been demonstrated that
catalytic activity of the aggregate decreases with time of contact with the
asphalt. Catalytic activity would then be expected to be much less in
recycled pavements. Some data from California also indicated that there is
reduced rate of oxidation with time in a pavement
4. Load associated cracking or fatigue cracking is a pavement design problem,
not an asphalt problem, thus the fact that a pavement is recycled should not
affect fatigue cracking.
Van de Zwan has reponed on an investigation conducted in Netherlands on hot mix
recycling of asphalt concrete. A thorough investigation of conventional and
mechanical propenies show that the quality of recycled asphalt concrete can be
equal to that of conventional material. Up to 30% recycling of asphalt in bases,
binder or wearing courses is fully accepted in Netherlands. With 50% recycling the
bitumen cannot always be upgraded without using softer bitumen (pen 160/210) or
rejuvenating oils. In the Netherlands the use of rejuvenating oils is not stimulated
and the use of softer bitumen is omitted for operational reasons. However
suggestion for funher studies towards the use of rejuvenating oils or of softer
bitumens is given.
34
Molenaar (1988) also has written on experiments conducted in the Netherlands in
which 25% reclaimed asphalt was used. Large differences (both and equally
positive and negative) between the static stiffness of regenerated and reference
mixes were found in several experiments conducted. This was also true for
dynamic stiffness at different temperatures. The same conclusion seemed to hold
for the logarithm of fatigue life although an indication of slightly longer fatigue lives
for regenerated mixes than for reference mixes was observed. The permanent
deformation in the rutting tests of the generated mixes was systematically smaller
than those of the reference mixes. The difference increases with increasing
deformation." This means that the regenerated mixes generally act better in the
rutting test than the reference mixes. The results of the experiments illustrated that
in general the mechanical properties of regenerated asphalt mixes are equivalent to
or better than those of conventional asphalt mixes. Figures 2.21 to 2.24 show
these results.
Hadipour and Anderson (1988) carried out a study to evaluate the permanent
deformation characteristics of the recycled asphalt concrete materials and to compare
these properties with those of conventional materials. The percent permanent strain
was determined at each load application (by triaxial equipment) for mixes having
various recycling ratios at different test temperatures. The principal findings of this
study were as follows:
1. The permanent strain increases as the number of load repetitions increases.
This rate of increase is rather high up to approximately 1O,()()() load
repetitions when it then deccelerates and the relationship between the
permanent strain and the number of load repetitions become relatively linear.
This phenomenon is more obvious for recycled mixtures than conventional
materials.
2. The permanent strain of the asphalt concrete pavement is very sensitive to
temperature. Permanent strain increases as the temperature rises.
3. The recycled mix~ exhibit lower permanent deformation than
conventional mixtures. An increase in the percentage of the reclaimed
material in the mix results in a lower value of permanent defonnation. It
was found that a small quantity of the reclaimed material in the mix can
improve the resistance of the pavement to permanent deformation
remarkably. See Figure 2.25 and Figure 2.26.
35
The performance and cost of in-situ and off-site wearing course replacement by the
Re-pave and Re-mix recycling processes have been investigated on trial sections by
the Transport . and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) and the findings have
been reported in their repon RR225 by Edwards and Mayhew (1989). The
treatments were evaluated by monitoring their deterioration under traffic. by
measuring rutting surface profile characteristics. surface texture. skidding resistance
(SCRIM) and visual condition. and it was found that deterioration under traffic was
similar for conventional and recycled wearing courses. The traffic level at which
deterioration staned and its rate were found to be more dependent on the site than
on whether virgin or recycled material had been used. The texture and skidding
resistance showed no systematic difference between treatments. A cost saving of
up to 1 £1m2 was also made using Repave and Remix instead of conventional
wearing course. Small energy savings were made.
Another study was carried out in the U.K. as reponed by Mayhew and Edward
(1989) in which the characteristics ofrepave. remix and conventional wearing
courses were studied on trial sections/sites on different trunk roads. It showed that
ruts developed no more quickly in repave and remix than in the conventional4Omm
wearing course (Figure 2.27). In fact it indicated that rut depths were dependent on
inter-site variations than whether the replacement wearing course was repave. remix
or conventional material. Observation of surface texture and skid resistance for
some time also showed that they all had retained adequate skidding resistance and
the recycled materials were similar to the conventional materials. Visual condition
survey at all the sites showed that after an initial period when the surface remained
unchanged the treatments deteriorated with time. However. both the cumulative
traffic at which deterioration began and the rate of deterioration were dependent on
site rather than on whether or not the wearing course had been recycled.
An off-site recycling trial was also run to examine the performance and cost of off
site recycled bituminous basecourse and roadbase (Mayhew and Edwards. 1989).
This was made in collaboration with Kent County Council and the Depamnent of
Energy (UK) on the A20 trunk road west of Ashford. The virgin and recycled
asphalt base course and roadbase were produced to BS594: Pan 1: (1985). Nine
sections each about lOOID' , containing O. 40 or 60% recycled material in the base
course and the road base were laid on a new sub-base which provided a uniform
foundation. The base course (6Omm) was overlaid with a conventional4Omm
wearing course. The percentage of reclaimed material in the base course and road
36
base, of individual sections, was always the same and all roadbases had a nominal
thickness of 18Omm. Laboratory tests were conducted on specimens (beams and
cores) cut from the sections for determination of elastic modulus (stiffness),
deformation resistance and resistance to fatigue cracking and the following
conclusions could be made:
1. Base course and roadbase asphalt produced to meet the compositional
requirements of BS594: 1985 at 0, 40 and 60% recycling are all equally
acceptable when judged by elastic modulus (elastic stiffness).
2. No difference was found in resistance to fatigue cracking between 0, 40 and
60% recycled roadbase materials. Another study employing a different
measure of fatigue resistance but working on similar materials, concluded
that increasing the percentage of reclaimed material increased fatigue life.
3. The creep stiffness of the recycled mixes was lower than that of the virgin
material. This agreed with fmdings of two other studies. However, the
study by stock (1985), working with similar materials albeit using different
test conditions, found the reverse effect
4. The elastic stiffness of the trial material was determined on core specimens.
These were loaded uniaxiall y in sinusoidal tension and compression; over a
range of temperatures and loading frequencies, from which the average
elastic stiffness for each type of material was evaluated at a reference
temperature of 200 C and frequency of 5 Hz. (See Table 2.2). The
differences in elastic stiffness were not significant at 5% level for either
basecourse or roadbase; typically the coefficient of variation for individual
materials was 10%. The values compare favourably with the 2.0 to 3.7
GPa for dense bitumen macadam roadbase reported by one Nunn et al (and
are stiffer than well compacted hot rolled asphalt roadbase reported by one
Carswell). Also table 2.3 shows that the creep stiffness of recycled mixes
is less than for virgin mixes.
Further performance investigations in the road by deflectograph indicated longer
predicted lives at 5% level of significance for recycled pavements than for the virgin
material pavements. No significant difference in rut depth could be observed after
25 months trafficking equivalent to 1.5 msa. Also equivalent elastic modulus
(stiffness) of the bituminous layers in the trial for each type of material determined
37
by Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) showed no significant difference. A pilot
scale experiment was done at TRRL (Mayhew, 1989) where roadbase and
basecourse with up to 50% recycled material had been produced. Tests made on
specimens taken from the compacted materials had shown that the performance
related properties; elastic stiffness, deformation resistance and fatigue, were not
adversely affected by recycling.
Noureldin and Wood (1989) have given fmdings of a laboratory study in which
resilient modulus and the sonic pulse velocity non-destructive tests were used for
characterization of hot mix recycled asphalt paving mixtures. Some of the main
findings were:
1. Virgin material stiffness and strength values (Marshal stability) were in
general higher than those of recycled mixtures.
2. Pulse velocity test parameters were neither sensitive to binder content nor to
the binder type in the mixture. It is said, it could be attributed to the
similarity between all mixtures in the elastic range caused by the very high
rate of application of pulses.
3. Recycled mixtures, with AE-150 as a rejuvenator, stiffness and strength
values were remarkably low. It might be a poor choice as a rejuvenator for
hot mix recycling.
4. Resilient modulus test results were very sensitive to both binder content and
type.
In a research conducted and reported by Enkegaard - CowiConsult (1989) for the
recycling of Copenhagen International Airport (Denmark) runway and taxiway, the
following conclusions were made:
1. The successive loss of original binder properties due to ageing during the
service life is a fully reversible process.
2. Aged binders can be reconstituted to equal or even better properties than
commercially available virgin binders.
3. The efficiency and durability of recycling agents vary considerably.
38
4. Some of the low viscosity rejuvenators demonstrate significantly better heat
resistance than commercially available bitumens.
5 . The absolute viscosity ratio based on the viscosity at 6QOC before and after
TFOT - a~g, is a powerful tool for characterizing the age-hardening •
sensitivity and durability of rejuvenators as well as of rejuvenated and virgin
binders. TFOT stands for Thin Film Oven Test used for measuring ageing
of bitumen by determining the reduction in penetration after placing a
sample of bimmen (contained in a penetration pot) in an oven at 1630C for
about six hours, removed and cooled to 250 C before measuring again the
penetration. It is a standard test
6. By distinguishing between different types of agents and virgin binders with
regard to their durability, as expressed by a lower sensitivity to hardening,
significant improvement can be gained at marginal additional costs.
7. The selected two-step recycling approach using a rejuvenator to reconstitute
the aged binder to the design grade and virgin binder of similar grade to
adjust the binder volume as designed, offer the best opportunities to control
the mix properties, especially at high recycling percentages.
According to Brown (1990), several studies have demonstrated that, provided the
binder properties are properly corrected and with attention to basic principles,
recycled mixes can be produced with mechanical properties equal to virgin
materials.
Mercer and Potter (1990) report on research done by TRRL on recycled materials.
Elastic stiffness measurements made in the laboratory under uniaxialloading on
specimens of the trial materials cut from cores showed no significant difference
between recycled and virgin materials for either basecourse or roadbase. Resistance
to deformation (creep) measured using unconfmed uniaxial creep test showed no
difference for 0, 40 or 60% recycled basecourse and roadbase. According to
Mercer and Potter, it had been observed in another road project repair by cold road
recycling process that creep stiffness tests on cores gave values 130% higher than
those measured on hot rolled asphalt cores. Several studies done in the U.K. as
reported by Mayhew and Edward (1989) suggested the same for surface recycling.
Comelius and Edwards (1991) have reponed on research on recycling of
bituminous basecourses and roadbases done by TRRL. Earlier researches reponed
earlier in this thesis on recycling of wearing cources were proved 10 be technically
feasible and cost effective, with primary savings being in material costs. The
recycling of basecourses and roadbases other than having the potential also to save
energy would be expected to have a higher potential to save natural resources and to
reduce the cost of major maintenance. The costs can only be realised if a pavement
containing recycled material performs as well as one produced conventionally. The
reponed research had therefore two trials in which up to 60% recycling was done to
assess the in-service performance and mechanical propenies of recycled roadbase
and basecourse materials. The first was a pilot-scale trial in which recycled dense
bitumen macadam (DBM) roadbase and basecourse. produced to comply with
British Standards BS4987 (1973). were compared with ones of conventional
materials. The second was a full-scale trial which made pan of major
reconstruction works on the A20 trunk road near Ashford in England. The
objectives of this trial were to evaluate the properties of recycled hot-rolled asphalt
(HRA) roadbase and basecourse material from performance related tests and to
assess the inservice performance of the test sections. Comparison of energies
required to produce recycled and conventional materials was done.
From laboratory measurements the following findings were made:
I. The recycled materials in pilot trial could be produced 10 meet the standard
specification requirements just like the conventional materials. The
composition of the recycled and virgin materials from the full-scale trial
were very similar and complied equally well with the required standards. the
BS594 (Pan I): 1985. The principal difference was that the recycled
material had 3 to 5% more filler (material passing 75mm sieve) than the
virgin material as a consequence of the reclaiming process.
2. Densities of cores cut from the compacted pilot-scale trials indicated that the
average percent refusal density (PRD) for both recycled and control
materials easily exceeded the minimum value of 93% requirement of
Highway Works. UK (1986). The densities of HRA materials in the full
scale trial showed that the densities of the recycled and control materials
were similar (see Table 2.4 and 2.5).
40
3. Elastic modulus (stiffness) of cored specimens obtained by loading
uniaxially in tension and compression over a frequency range from 0.2 to
30 Hz and at temperatures between -IOOC and 300c gave interesting results.
Values of elastic modulus were compared at a temperature of 200c and a
frequency of 5Hz as shown in Table 2.6.
The coefficient of variation for individual materials was 10% and
differences in elastic stiffness between the recycled and virgin material were
not significant at the 5% level. The values (Table 2.6) were found to be
within range of values measured on other materials meeting the current
specifications (Comelius and Edwards, 1991). When the loads were
applied at the potentially most damaging conditions, i.e. low frequency and
high temperature, the elastic stiffness of the virgin lIRA roadbase material
was consistently greater than the recycled material. On the other hand the
elastic stiffness of recycled DBM roadbase samples was consistently greater
than the virgin material, while for the basecourse, there was no difference
between the recycled and virgin material.
4. Fatigue resistance tests carried out by loading similar specimens uniaxially
in sinusoidal tension and compression under conditions of conttoUed
constant dynamic stress indicated that recycling bituminous roadbase does
not adversely affect the fatigue life. The stresses applied ranged from 0.05
to 0.5 MPa at a frequency of 25Hz and temperature of 25OC. The measured
initial tensile strain and the number of cycles to failure for each specimen
were used to plot the relationships shown in Figure 2.28. The initial tensile
strain to achieve a life of 1()4 cycles is also given in Table 2.7.
5 . Resistance to permanent deformation of the trial material was assessed by
using uniaxial creep test on specimens cut from the trial pavement Their
deformation resistance was expressed in terms of creep stiffness defined as
the ratio of axial stress to strain after I ()4 seconds at a constant temperature
of 300c. Table 2.8 gives the mean and standard deviation (SD) of creep
stiffness for each material. The recycled macadams showed a greater
resistance to permanent deformation than the virgin macadam. For the
recycled asphalt roadbase, the creep stiffness value of 4.6 MPa, although
low, was said to be within the range of values common to both hot-roUed
asphalt and DBM, and to asphaltic concretes, as said to be reported by
Claessan, Edwards, Sommer and U ge (1977) and also by Hills, Brien and
41
Van der Loo (1974). Interestingly also the virgin roadbase in one section of
the full-scale trial, which was mixed in the batch-mixer, perfom\differently
from the other materials, and this result was not used to calculate the mean
stiffness of the virgin material so the comparison of mixes was confmed to
these for one plant only.
A detailed investigation confirmed that the recycled and virgin DBM had similar
resistance to deformation. It also showed that the recycled HRA mixes, although
less resistant to deformation than the virgin HRA at the same bitumen stiffness,
were stable at low bitumen stiffnesses. It was suggested that in the road they
would be expected to perform in a similar manner to virgin material, even at high
temperatures and long times of loading. The virgin HRA roadbase mixed in the
batch-mixer however was less stable when the bitumen stiffness was low and
therefore it might be less resistant to rutting at high temperatures or at low traffic
speeds.
The in-service performance of the A20 trial was assessed by deflectograph surveys
and rut measurement using straight edge at 20m intervals along the road at the same
time as the deflectograph surveys. They were carried out one month after opening
and then annually to determine the relative performance of the virgin and recycled
sections. The lives of the various test sections were predicted on the basis of the 25
percentile deflection using the method described by Kennedy and Lister (1978).
The results showed that the residual life of the test sections containing recycled
materials were at least as long as those with conventional materials. The rut
measurements after four years of service showed that development of wheel truck
rutting is not influenced by the presence of recycled roadbase and basecourse
layers. Measurements on individual sections however tended to vary along their
lengths. The sections of conventional material had the greatest range of rut depth.
The severest rutting was observed in the same section with the virgin roadbase
made in the batch mixer, as would be anticipated from the Laboratory creep test
measurements.
Other general conclusions could be made from the study. In the laboratory tests,
recycled DBM performed similarly to virgin material. Recycled HRA performed
similarly to virgin material except that its initial resistance to deformation was
slightly lower. All the above conclusions however are based on only one road trial.
A cost saving of 30% and up to 40% saving in energy could also be achieved by
recycling up to 60% of the materials.
42
2.8 Aims and Objectives of the Research
This research was carried out in order to be able to evaluate the viability of re-using
aged bituminous material. A method of comparing the behaviour characteristics or
properties of mixes made from all new (virgin) materials and from recycled
materials was found. In order to determine a suitable method specimens made from
100% recycled materials and from completely virgin materials were prepared to the
same British Standard specifications (BS 594: Pan 1: 1985) and their properties
under different loading conditions compared. The specimens were tested using
both standard laboratory techniques. as might be possible in a well-equipped
materials testing laboratory, and a relatively new, purpose designed apparatus. The
major aim was to see if the ageing of the bitumen has any significant effect on the
properties of the mixes. The properties dealt with here are the elastic stiffness,
resistance to permanent deformation (creep) and fatigue (to a little extent).
43
TABLE 2.1 ROLE OF A PAVEMENT FOUNDATION rAFTER DAWSON 1990)
Role Ability Required Which Layer Material Properties Needed
al Construction to carry a few subgrade, capping good stiffness, traffic load large load cycles and sub-base permanent
deformation resistance
bl Compaction to present a firm capping, sub-base good stiffness platform base for construction and base
of higher levels
cl Construction to maintain level capping and permanent control sub-base deformation
resistance
dl Support of to carry canalised subgrade, capping reasonable stiffness working load small load cycles and sub-base and permanent
deformation resistance
el Drainage layer to carry watei'out capping and high permeability, of pavement sub-base good falls
fJ Frost protection to withstand frost capping and high permeability, heave and insulate sub-base thickness
Percentage recycled Elastic modulus (GP a)
(%) Basecourse Roadbase ,-
0 10 4.4 40 14 18 60 2.6 3.8
Table 2.2 ELASTIC MODULUS OF VIRGIN AND RECYCLED ASPHALT AT 20·C
AND 5Hz
45
. Percentage recyded Creep stiffness
(%) (HPa)
Basecourse Roadbase
0 10.6 119 40 8.9 4.6 60 5.0 4.6
Table 2.3 CREEP STIFFNESS OF VIRGIN AND RECYCLED ASPHALT AT 30"C
10 4 secs.
l.6
Material Mean Density PRD !Mg/m 3)
DBM roadbase 0% recycled 232 95.1
30% 233 95.1 38% 2.26 94.5
DBM basecourse
0% recycled 2.42 98.1 30% 2.43 98.8 50% 237 97.7
Table 2.4 DENSITY OF COMPACTED MATERIAL FROM PILOT -SCALE TRIAL
1..7
Material Mean density Standard Pen:entage of Standard (Hg/m3) deviation theoretical deviation
density (%) (%)
HRA roadbase 0% recycled 2376 0.028 96.7 t16
40% 2.348 0.028 94.8 t12 60% 2384 0.047 963 t92
HRA basecourse 0% recycled 2.466 0.024 96.9 0.95
40% 1483 0.029 97.9 t16 60% 1466 0.061 97.7 140
Table 2.5 DENSITY OF COMPACTED MATERIAL FROM A20 FULL-SCALE TRIAL
48
Percentage recycled
o 3D 50
DBH (pilot -scale triaU Elastic modulus
(GPa) Roadbase Basecourse
2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7
2.3
HRA (A20 fuU- scale triaU Percentage Elasti! modulus recycled
Roadbase (GPa)
Basecourse
0 4.4 10 40 18 14 60 18 2.6
Table 2.6 ELASTIC MODULUS OF RECYCLED AND VIRGIN MATERIALS AT 20'C AND 5Hz
49
Haterial
% recycled pftot -scale trial DBH roadbase
% recycled
A20 Full-scale trial HRA roadbase
0%
112
0%
170
Initial tensile strain to achieve a life of 10 4 cycles
(Strain x- 10 -6,
30%
224
40%
Table 2.7 FATIGUE RESULTS AT 25"( AND 25Hz
50
38%
133
60%
170
TABLE 2.8
DEFDRMA TION RESISTANCE OF VIRGIN AND RECYCLED MATERIALS MEASURED IN A UNIAXIAL CREEP TEST AT 30·C
Material Creep Stiffness after 104 esc MPa
Roadbase Basecourse
Mean SO Mean SO
Pilot-scale trial DBM 0% 9.2 2.5 5.5 1.5 30% 14.4 5.2 10.9 3~0
38% 12.0 3.7
50% 10.7· 1.4
Full-scale trial HRA
0% 11.9 3.3 10.6 5.0 0% (Section 4) 4.1 0.8 40% 4.6 1.6 8.9 2.8 60% 4.6 1.3 5.0 0.6
51
e' :;:'~:;:";;>'~;'~':~:;,':1:; !'(.:,!; :~:'~1''; ;:;\~;; ., p 0 O. • GIo _ ... " •• 0 D 0 t:I 00
• .... 0 0 a. •• b. _ 00 • 0 •• ".0 110.° •••• Q- •• o.o_.o._o.
o ..... 000°9°_10 •• 0.00.0 ., J .e· .... . 'IJ_ •• ' .... , ... ., ·.·.4l • .... P -.1'4.._ l't,.N 0. <4 '.0
• '.0. '4"':'" .' • .,,'. ~ • 1,
• : .l!:!' -.' '~A' --vA 'A • '4'n'" -. ..... ~ ,'0 ... '. C ... 0.4 •••• ". ,orc ... ',-
"d' A A.' , A' .... 'f)4" • .,. ,'7 P. • ....... <I tx - 0. dA- ••
7i$J:y~wi$k7N!
SURFACING
ROADBASE
PAVEMENT FOUNDATION
FIG. 2.1 CATEGORIES OF ROAD PAVEMENT LAYERS
52
} BOUND MATERIAL
UNBOUND MATERIAL
~~-++-H~~+~H-++~-{· WEARING COURSE BASE COURSE
ROAD BASE (BASE)
.4 4.4A4~A44
A 4. : A : 4 A 4. .c. .... A." SUB-BASE _....;;;.A~_ ... .....-..;:4=---_= ... ~_'O' __ A_A __ .... FORMATION LEVEL
~:-7~'T7~,=""7"7~~~or"l~. or"l""!l"~ CAPPING LAYER ~
SUB GRADE (UNDERL YING SOIL)
FIG. 2.2 INDIVIDUAL LAYERS OF ROAD PAVEMENT
53
· 104
BINDER STIFFNESS (MPa)
1
ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
TRANSITION REGION
VISCOUS BEHAVIOUR
1~~ __________ ~~ __ ~ __ -L~ __ ~
10-' 1 10' LOADING TIME (seconds)
FIG. 2.3 VARIATION OF BITUMEN STIFFNESS WITH LOADING TIME AND TEMPERA TURE
54
voids, v v
10
5 100
10 100 age, months
FIG. 2.4 AGEING OF POROUS MIX
55
---_ Asphaltic concrete --- Hot rolled asphalt
voids, v v pen(25°c )
5 -----7---_ --Vv
100
o _ pen 25 50 --------
1 10 100 age, months
FIG. 2.5 AGEING OF DENSE MIXES
56
-e ....... eft
2600
== 2400
~ ~ l-v; :z LoJ Cl
X
~ 2200
COMP ACTION CURVE FOR A MIX WITH CONSTANT COMPACTlVE EFFORT
Vy =5%
Vy = 10%
2000 L-__ -J ____ ~ ____ ~ __ _LJ_ ____ L_ __ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
BINDER CONTENT MB (%)
FIG. 2.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BINDER CONTENT AND MIX DENSITY
57
V! V! .... Cl: lV!
SPECIAL CASE LINEAR
GENERAL CASE NON LINEAR
STRAIN
FIG. 2.7 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS OF BITUMINOUS MIXES
58
STRESS
, LOAD
ON
STRAIN
ELASTIC
t LOAD
OFF
TIME
ELASTIC
DELAYED ELASTIC
I-....&........L...----------II_-r PERMANENT TIME
(al SIMPLE CREEP TEST
STRESS
TIME
STRAIN
ELASTIC (€ r I
I-__ ..... ____________ ---.-PERMANENT (Epl
TIME
(bl PUlSE FROM MOVING WHEEL LOAD
FIG. 2.8 VISCO-ELASTIC RESPONSE OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.
59
20
,. Q..
10
l:! 5 VI VI .... Z u.. !!:: IVI
x 2 ~
1
~
~ R ~ ..... " .......:
o 5
~ ROLLED ASPHALT
......: .... ......: ...........: 1':'" :""'00...
"- ~ ....... r-..... ~,
...... """" t--.... 1'-.... ...... 0 t..... i'-:: ~ ~
r" ~ "
10 15 20 25 TEMPERATURE ("Cl
FIG. 2.9 STIFFNESS PREDICTION FOR A TYPICAL ROLlED ASPHALT
(f\1u:r I:l"<OWT\) Iq '10)
60
R ~
~
(
r-I"-
V km/hr)
100 70
r-- 40
r-- 20
30
HIGH STIFFNESS
Sme=f [Sb' VMA)
LOW STIFFNESS
Smv=f Sb. VHA and aggregate -type - grading -shape -texture -interlock confining conditions -voids -method
TIME OR TEMPERATURE
FIG. 2.10 FACTORS INFLUENCING STIFFNESS OF BITUMINOUS MIXES
Ll\fu.y Q.:,Y~1\ I \q90)
6'
( S b J VMA I AGGREGATE, ) S mv = f \ COMPACTlON, CONFINING FACTORS
FROM TESTING Sm .~~----~~~~~~--------••
GOOD DEFORMATION / / CHARACTERISTIC ~~
__ L --............ ./'./ 4 PREDICTED OR
~ . MEASURED
~ -::: -" POOR DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTIC
-----5 MPa
FIG. 2.11 COMPLETE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MIX STIFFNESS ISm) ~ND BITUMEN STIFFNESS IS b I • (f\f\.·~'( l';,'1"ow>,\ I ('1ql))
52
Placing and pre
compaction
Heating the profile
surface
Introduction and mixing
of virgin material
Scarifying Heating
FIG. 2.12 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF REPAVElREMIX MACHINE IN REMIX MODE
Virgin material
Sane P,oadstone
Sand belt we_gner
Bitumen l tank
, """f-:-~l --
Gas Oil DryerlMixer C::' :r-_~I h
Bitumen feed
Exhaust StaCK
Aschalt belt
Recycle mix
+ Aschalt hopper
Lorrv
FIG. 2.13 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ASPHALT PLANT MODIFIED FOR CENTRAL PLANT RECYCLI"
53
N E
...... Z L
Vl Vl w Z LL !:!:: >-Vl
~ W w a: u
• CONTROL • CFLX
70 1-+ HFLX 0 C200
60
4t 50
40
30
o
X H200
~ • , . , ( > "
0
"l-T
:
"
20 40 60 80
RECLAIMED MATERIAL (%)
Code system for components of the mixes.
- H or C signifies Hot or Cold scarified material - The second, third and fourth symbols FLX or
200 indicate softening agent used, Fl~x oil or 200 pen bitumen
Fig. 2.14 Relationship between creep stiffness and varing amounts of reclaimed material
64
100
1200
N
E "- 1000 z e III III ... c:. --:;: 800 VI
u ·e tU c: >.
Cl
600
• ( ~. 0
III I I o C200
( ) +HFLX • Control XH200
) I I .CFLX
l l
0 .- . to X
... o 20 40 60 80
Reclaimed material (%)
Code system for components of the mixes;
- H or ( signifies Hot or Cold scarified material - The second, third and fourth symbols FLX or
200 indicate softening agent used, Flux oil or 200 pen bitumen
100
FIG. 2.15 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DYNAMIC STIFFNESS AND PERCENT AGE OF RECLAIMED MATERIAL
65
Penetration
x • 60 I-~-----.,,...a-...c;;.-...,
50
40
30
20
10 45
x
X Before hot scarification • After hot scarification • Cold scarification
50 55 Softening Point "C
B.S. 3690 (1982) Limits
60 65
FIG. 2.16 RELA TlONSHIP BnWEEN PENETRATION AND SOFTENING POINT FOR RECLAIMED BITUMENS.
66
Hard Component
500 r-
200
100 I-
70 t-
50 I"
35 I-
10 o
Softening Agent
/ /
/
/ 500
LINE DEFINING THE PENETRATION OF A BLEND OF 50 AND 500 PEN COMPONENTS e.g. TO OBTAIN 200 PEN BITUMEN A BLEND OF 60% SOFTENING AGENT WITH 40% HARD COMPONENT IS REaUIRED
J I I 20 40 60 80
% SOFTENING AGENT
100
FIG. 2.17 BLENDING CHART BASED ON PENETRATION
57
., ,
Penetration ~ • 200 200
• FLUX OIL
X 200 PEN
.100 PEN
I , 100
I 100
I I
50 f 40 I
I 30
20
10 20 40 60 60 100
% SOFTEN!NG AGWT
FIG. 2.18 PENETRATION AS A FUNCTION OF THE QUANTITY OF SOFTENING AGENT
68
SOFTENING POINT ('0
70
• FLUX OIL
X 200 PEN
• 100 PEN
60~~~ ___ • • 50 "-
"~ ------145 40
38
30
20
10L-----~2-0----~4LO------L60------~8-0----~100
% SOFTENING AGENT
FIG. 2.19 SOFTENING POINT AS A FUNCTION OF THE QUANTITY OF SOFTENING AGENT
69
PENETRA TION
130
110
90
70
50
30
•• • • • • -. ' .
• •
B.S. 3690 (1982) LIMITS
. ~. "-.... -,
•• I!- I --•
10 L-__ ~ ________ ~ ______ -L~ ______ ~_
40 50 60 70
SOFTENING POINT (°0
FIG. 2.20 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PENETRATION AND SOFTENING POINT FOR BLENDS OF RECLAIMED BITUMEN AND SOFTENING AGENT
70
;;; c... e ~
IU ~ c...",
VI
25 0= D.A.L
C = G.A.L • • = D.A.L
• 20
• C • 8 • C
15
C c 0 c 0 • 0 C C
10 0 0 C C
C
• 5 o
O~ ______ ~ ________ -L ________ ~ ______ ~ ________ ~ __ ~
o 5 10 15 20 25
S~tat (MPa)
FIG. 2.21 STATIC STIFFNESS OF REGENERATED ASPHALT MIXES S~tat VERSUS STATIC STIFFNESS OF CORRESPONDING REFERENCE ASPHAL T MIXES S ~tat
D.A.L - DENSE ASPHAL TIC CONCRETE G.A.L - GRAVEL ASPHALT CONCRETE O.A.C - OPEN ASPHALT CONCRETE
71
~ 0
a.3 W
20 0= D.A.C. 0= G.A.C. • = O.A.C.
15
0 0
10 0
• 0 0
• 0 0 5 cS>
O~ ____ ~L-____ ~~ ____ ~ ______ -L ______ ~~
o 5 10 15 20 25 c..~ (%)
FIG. 2.22 PERMANENT DEFORMA TION (IN PERCENT AGE OF HEIGHT OF SAMPLE) OF REGENERATED ASPHALT MIXES Z:.-e. VERSUS PERMANENT OEFORMA TION OF CORRESPONDING REFERENCE ASPHALT MIXES Z:.-~
D.A.C. - DENSE ASPHALT CONCRETE G.A.C. - GRAVEL ASPHALT CONCRETE O.A.C. - OPEN ASPHALT CONCRETE
72
.; ,"
•
c: >. a..-c
20
15
o
8
•
o
o o
VI 10
o
5
5
FIG. 2.23
10
SR dyn (GPa)
15
0= D.A.C 0= G.A.C
• =O.A.C
20
D~NAMIC STIFFNESS (30Hz) OF REGENERA TED ASPHALT MIXES S d VERSUS DYNAMIC STIFFNESS OF CORRESPONDING REFERENCE
yn ASPHALT MIXES S Rd yn
D.A.C. - DENSE ASPHAL TIC CCNCRETE G.A.C - GRAVEL.. .. O.A.C. - OPEN .,
73
iii QJ
u >. u
7.0
6.5
E = 100 Ilm/m
o
o
a.. ..... Z 6.0 • • Cl
.£
• 55 •
• 5.0
5.5
FIG. 2.24
C
8
6.0
log ~ (cycles) f
6.5
0= D.A.L
C = GAL .= O.A.L
7.0
LOGARITHM OF FATIGUE LIFE OF REGENERATED ASPHALT MIXES log N~ VERSUS LOGARITHM OF FATIGUE LIFE OF CORRESPONDING REFERENCE A.SPHAl:- MIXE~'~' MAXIMUM STRAIN AMPLITUDE :. 100 Ilm/m
D.AL - DENSE ASPHAL TIC CONCRETE GAL - GRAVE" " O.A.C. - OPEN Of
74
.!: IV .... ~
20
15
Vl 10 ~
c:
'" c: IV E .... '" a.. 5
100
Sample No. A 12 Temp = 45°C R = 0
o o o o o
Number of load repetitions (Nl
FIG. 2.25 TYPICAL RE LA TlONSHIP BETWEEN STRAIN AND NUMBER OF OF LOAD REPETITIONS R=O.
NOTE. R = PERCENT AGE OF RECLAIMED MATERIAL
75
4
Sample No E4
~ 3 Temp. = 45·C
0 R = 100 :z :;{ 0:: l-V!
I- 2 :z LU :z <C ~ 0:: LU Cl.. 1
o ...... .
Number of load repetitions (N)
FIG. 2.26 TYPICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERMANENT STRAIN AND NUMBER OF LOAD REPETITIONS R=100.
NOTE: R = PERCENT AGE OF RECLAIMED MATERIAL
76
E § .<= ..... CL QJ
"t:I
..... => a::
20
10
2
_.-- .. ----
2
Repave Remix Conventional SOmm WC Conventional 40mm WC
10
Cumulative traffic carried (msa)
20
Fig. 2.27 Rut development at Newmarket in conventional and recycled wearing courses
77
Virgin material} _.- 30%recycled DBM --- 38% recycled ••••••••• Virgin material} __ 60% recycled HRA
10-3 r----------------, c :-:--.. . . ~ .I;£'::~ =-===-~ 4 --- ....... .. en 10- J- .... --!.!' ,~ ___ ........ .. ~----........... ~'~ - --- ----
~--
No. of cycles to failure
Fig. 2.28 Fatigue relationship for recycled and . virgin roadbases (25Hz 25'0
78
-
3. MATERIALS AND SPECIMENS PREPARATION
3. 1 Descri ption of the Materials Used
The materials for testing were taken from two samples of planings from two
different sites. Both materials (A and B) were hot rolled asphalt planings from
wearing courses laid in 1981 on different road sites in Derbyshire, UK. Material
'A' was planed from the Ml near Chesterfield and Material 'B' was planed from the
A6 near Shardlow. Sieve analyses carried out on the samples showed that both
samples approximately fall in the same specifications of Design Type F-Designation
40/20 of BS594: Part 1: 1985 (See Tables 3.1 and 3.2, and Chart 3.1). In
Tanzania the most commonly used mixes are asphalt concrete which is a dense
uniform grading mix (see Table 3.3 and Chart 3.2). These are significantly
different from the gap graded hot rolled asphalt mixes.
The initial idea in the research was to make and test asphaltic concrete specimens of
the Tanzanian specification, using the available hot rolled asphalt reclaimed
planings. For two main reasons this idea was dropped. It was found
mathematically that it would be possible to adjust the hot rolled asphalt to meet the
asphalt concrete specification only to a maximum recycling percentage of about
40%. A mathematical method of combining two aggregates of given gradations to
achieve a defined grading was used. This is shown with Table 3.4. The negative
percentage of the 300~ size for 45% of reclaimed material indicates the
impossibility. The second reason is that it would be difficult to predict the
behaviour of 100% recycled material because such samples would not be available
for test Hence throughout the tests the British Standard BS594: Part 1: 1985 for
wearing course Type F-designation 40/20 was used. However, the sieve
designation which was used in the Tanzanian specification was adopted by reading
the appropriate percentages for those sieve sizes on chart 3.1 of the hot rolled
asphalt sample gradings. For material 'A' specimens, the sample 'A' grading curve
was adopted and likewise for material 'B' respectively (see Tables 3.5 and 3.6).
79
3.2 Specimens Preparation
3.2.1 Procedure
3.2.1.1 Determination of relative density of paraffin wax
The relative density of paraffin wax was determined by using a glass picnometer.
The picnometer was calibrated by weighing it empty and also filled with water.
Then it was thoroughly dried, some paraffin melted and poured into it to a point just
below the glass bottle neck. The paraffin was allowed to cool to room temperature
and weighed. The picnometer was filled with water, excess water wiped off and
weighed again. The specific gravity (relative density) was calculated by using
equation
Wl = wt of picnometer (empty) in air
W2 = Wl of picnometer filled with water
W3 = wl of picnometer with paraffin
W4 = Wl of picnometer with paraffm and water
The results are given in Table 3.7(a).
3.2.1.2 Preparation of specimens
The approximate weight of material to be mixed and compacted in the moulds was
obtained by assuming a compacted density of 2500kg/m3 and. using the volume of
the moulds, was found to be 5kg. For the 100% recycled specimens 5kg of
planings was weighed. poured into the mixer, and heated while mixing and
measuring the temperature. For the 0% reclaimed (completely virgin) samples the
weights of material retained on each sieve size were added up cumulatively in a pan
on a weighing scale (see calculations on Tables 3.5 and 3.6). Then they were
mixed up and heated in the mixer. At the same time the bitumen (pen. 45) was
heated in an electric melting pot to 15QOC. When the temperature of the aggregate
mix reached 16QOC the weight of the mixing pot plus the contents was measured on
80
a balance. Still on the balance bitumen was cumulatively added into the mix to the
desired percentage. The calculated weights of bitumen are given in Tables 3.5 and
3.6. The mix was then thoroughly mixed in the mixer while being heated.
Meanwhile the hammer-head (compacting head) and the moulds were heated in an
oven to about 1200c. When the temperature of the mix reached between 1500c
and 1600c, the mix was compacted in the moulds, which were greased inside by
silicone grease. Compaction took place in three layers of approximately 75mm
each. Compaction was effected by a 7.5kg Kango vibrating hammer at a frequency
of 2400 blows/min for 2 minutes for each layer. The refusal density compaction
method was adopted to attain the same compactive effort. For later specimens a
5.8kg Kango hammer with a frequency of 2750 blows/min had to be obtained and
used after malfunctioning of the frrst one. However, this change did not appear to
have any effect on the obtained bulk density of the specimens. After cooling in air
for 24 hours the specimens were removed from the moulds. For the non-split
moulds the specimens had to be warmed up to approx. 600c for one hour before
extruding with a hydraulic extruder.
The specimens were then sawed to provide smooth, flat and parallel ends by using
a diamond tipped saw. The relative bulk density of the specimens were determined
by weighing them in air, dipping them in paraffin wax at 700C, weighing them
again in air and weighing them when completely submerged in water. The density
was calculated by using the equation:
where: MpA = mass of specimen and paraffin coating in air (gm)
Mpw = mass of specimen and paraffin coating in water (gm)
MA = mass of specimen in air (gm)
V = volume of specimen (cm3)
Rp = relative density of paraffin
0 = relative density of specimen
The results are given in Table 3.7(b). The paraffin wax was removed afterputting
the specimens in a water bath at 490C for about 15 minutes, after which it comes
off very easily. The specimens were kept at a controlled temperature of 250C to
await further testing.
81
The voids in the mineral aggregates framework (VMA) was obtained by the
relationship:
% VMA = 100 - :!'!, where
R =
Pa =
Rave =
Relative density on an oven-dried basis of compacted mixture
(specimen)
Aggregate content (% by mass of total mix)
Average relative density on an oven dried basis of coarse, fine
and filler aggregate.
The values of R for every specimen was determined as explained in section
3.2.1.1, while the values ofPa for specimen gradations 'A' and 'B' can be
evaluated as shown in Appendix 1 by using weights shown in Table 3.5 and Table
3.6 respectively. The value of Rave was obtained in the laboratory by following the
procedures laid down in the British Standards (BS812:Pan 2, 1975) the results of
which are also given in Appendix 1.
The VMA % results are shown in Table 3.7(b).
82
TABLE 3.1
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF PLANING TYPE 'A'
Sine "I. PmiIg DesignatiDn s.pte
Annge Pus Rebilled 1 2
20 14 mm 100 100
14 10 o. 913 913
10 63 • 817 80.8
63 5.0 " 65.9 63.3
5.0 335 .. 601 5U
3J5 136 .. 56J 56.5
136 t18 " 5U 54.9
118 600 pm 513 511
600 IIm 300 IIm
300 212 •
212 150 0
150 75 •
75 -
IIitIIUI contents:
49.0 491
35..9 36.4
2t9 2t9
I5.l 151
IOJ 10.9
s.pte 1 = U"Ie] Average 6.7%
s.pte 2 = 6.5%
83
100
913
814
641
5'5
56.4
54.7
52.7
4'.4
361
2t9
I5.l
10.'
TABLE 3.2
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF PLANING TYPE 'B'
Sine % Passing
Designition SpeOien Pass Retiiled 1 2
20 14 mm 100 9U
14 10 " 90.9 80J
10 63 " 66.4 6U
63 5.8" 57J 54J
5.0 335 • 56.5 517
3J5 2J6 " S5.6 511
2J6 t18 " 54.9 525
t18 600 IIm 5U S15
600 300" 49.6 475
300 212 " 273 26J
212 150" 11.4 172
150 75 " 14.7 113
7S - IOJ 9.4
BITUMEN CONTENTS:
SPECIMEN 1 = 6.4% } SPECIMEN 1 = 6.5%
84
Annge
99.4
85.9
6U
56.1
55.1
54.4
517
517
416
27.D
17.1
14.1
10.1
AVERAGE 6.45% SAY 6.5%
TABLE 3.3
A TYPICAL TANZANIA HIGHWAY SPECIFICATION FOR WEARING COURSE - TYPE '0'
Sine ". pmiIg ~t ~
19 mm 10 100
125" 95-100 975
7.9 .. 74 - 92 83
4.75 .. 41 - 70 59
2.l6 .. 33 - 5] 43
tW 'r 22-40 31
600 IIm 15-30 22.5
300. " 10 - 20 15
15 ... 4 - 9 65
85
(J) (TJ
TABLE 3.4 MIX GRADA TIONS FOR RECYCLING
Tillzanl~ as IHot rolle!! Sieve IIx graation Salvaged DeslgMtIon (Asph~t (on(rete! Haterial 'A'
19mm 100 98
12.511. 97.5 90
9.51111 13 79
4.75II1II 59 59
2.36_ 43 55.5
118m. 31 54
600, IIm 22.5 52
300'lIm 15 36.2
75 IIm 6.5 10.9 ~
GENERAL EQUATION a A + bB + (C = T WHERE:
1=0%
100
90
83
59
43
31
22.5
15
6.5
Gradation requirement of virgin .Iterlit to ~tta/n AshpaU (ollUtte vlth 1% reclaimed
x = 100/. x = 20% x = 3W. x = 40% x = 45%
100 100 100 100
98.3 100 100 100
83.4 84 85 86
59 59 59 59
41.5 40 37 34
28 25 21 15.6
19 15 10 2.8
12.6 10 , 0.87 ~2.J
6.0 5.0 U 3.5 3.0
• THE LOWER CASE LETTERS ARE DECIMAL VALUES REPRESENTING PROPORTION OF BLEND TO BE TAKEN FROM EACH AGGREGATE.
• THE CAPITAL LETTERS REPRESENT THE PERCENT AGE EITHER PASSING OR RETAINED ON A PARTICULAR SIEVE • T;; THE REQUIRED PERCENTAGE EITHER PASSING OR REA TINED ON A PARTICULAR SIEVE • OTHER SIHUL T ANEOUS EQUATIONS CAN BE OBTAINED BY FORMING EQUATIONS FROM ANY PARTICULAR SIEVES
AND COMQININGTHEt1 BY ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION. ANOTHER EQUATION CAN BE OBTAINED BY SUHMING THE PROPORTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL AGGREGATES i.l. a + b + C = 1
:. TO OBTAIN THE ASPHAL TIC CONCRETE MIX IT ANZANIANl THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF RECLAIMED HA TERIAL (ROLLED ASPHAL n THA T CAN BE MIXED IN IS ONL Y 40% OF TOTAL MIX BY MASS
TABLE 3.5
SPECIMEN GRADATION - TYPE • A'
S"aeve size (mal
19
125
95
4.75
2J6
t1l
600-
300IIa
1s-
0
% ". Fradian vt fndian PmiIg 1IIt __ Retained ("01 of 5 kg (!)Ill
100 0 » SDO
90 I 11 55D
'" 21 20 ..
59 41 35 175
555 445 15 75
54 46 2.0 110
52 41 '&.I 790
361 6U 2S3 1265
I.' It.l IJ 545
- • TOTAL SDOO
BITUMEN CONTENT
0·/. RECYCLED - 6.7% BITUMEN = 335 gm 0% RECYCLED - 7.0% BITUMEN = 350 gm 0.". RECYCLED - 7.3% BITUMEN = 365 gm 0% RECYCLED - 7.6% BITUMEN = 385 gm
A7
TABLE 3.6
SPECIMENS GRADATION - TYPE 'S'
SilYe 'Y. % Fndian lit fndian size .. PiISSing Retained Retained ''Y0I of 5 la] ''Y0I
28 1110 0 4 200
" " 4 22 1110
12.5 74 26 115 575
95 625 375 8 400
4.75 545 455 o.a 40
2J6 517 46J to 50 t. 517 473 4.1 205
600IIm W 5" 2U 1010
300 IIm 27.1 73.1 16.9 845
75l1m .. 1 au 10.1 505
0 - 1110
TOTAL 5000
BITUMEN CONTENT, 6.5% = 325 gm
AA
N
TABLE 3.7 la) RELATIVE DESlTY OF PARAFRN WAX ,
wt IgI
Weight of empty picnometer in air Wl 540.1 Weight of picnometer filled with water W 2 1398.6 Weight of picnometer with paraffin W3 979.1 Weight of empty picnometer with paraffin + water W 4 1332.5
Relative density,
R = P W3-Wl = 979.1-540.1
IW2- Wl) - fW4- Wj 11398.6 - 540.1 ) - I 1332.5 - 979.1 )
= 1.39
.505.1 = 0.87
TABLE 3.7 (bl SPECIMEN DA T A
~ :.t :z ...
i lS ~
~ei VI i=
.... 0 ...
e:! ~ !-U ! .. Ii~ .... ~-
16 100"/oR-Type A 6.7 205 105
19 100-toR-Type A 6.7 209 105
21 100-toR-Type A 6.7 208 105
24 100"/oR-Type A 6.7 205 102
27 100"/oR-Type A 6.7 211 105
43 100"/oR-Type A 6.7 211 105
44 100"/oR-Type A 6.7 211 105
45 100"/oR-Type A 6.7 212 104
22 O"/oR-Type A 6.7 210 105
28 O"/oR-Type A 6.7 209 104
29 O·/oR-Type A 6.7 209 105
30 O"/oR-Type A 6.7 208 102
17 O%R-Type A 7.0 209 102
"5-"B. -c 2:-c ~
2:
4298.9 4393.0
4355.8 4443.4
4290.1 4373.8
4027.7 4109.5
4413.1 4505.3
4396.0 4473.2
4423.8 4495.9
4335.2 4404.4
4221.9 4317.3
4158.9 4258.1
4213.0 4312.5
3963.9 4055.4
3922.4 4002.2
>-
I~ "5- .... "
~"O ...... =- -c' a.. i!1! 2:
2511.6 2.42
2555.5 2.44
2498.4 2.41
2354.9 2.43
2577.3 2.42
2581.9 2.44
2587.1 2.42
2546.5 2.44
2416.7 2.41
2386.6 2.42
2412.5 2.42
2272.4 2.42
2226.2 2.33
Id leollt -
-c 2: > ~
14
13
14
14
14
13
14
13
14
14
14
14
17
TABLE 3.7 Ib) continued .....
>-~
! i! ;~ ~ :z 0-
~§ "" "I. "!. ~~ ~e5 VI % ~ "I. i 0
~ .... 1 ~1 c :. ;! ~! a~ 1!_ c .... .... ~ ~ ..... ~- z: z: :I:
23 O%R-Type A 7.0 209 105 4144.0 4234.5 2365.2 2.35 17
31 O%R-Type A 7.0 205 102 3905.3 3988.8 2236.1 2.36 16
32 O%R-Type A 7.0 209 104 4206.0 430t9 2404.3 2.35 17
18 O%R-Type A 7.3 204 102 3813.9 39Ot6 2159.3 2.32 18
25 O%R-Type A 7.3 207 105 4241.8 4327.3 2440.6 2.37 16
33 O%R-Type A 7.3 209 104 4180.6 4294.4 2377.2 2.34 17
34 O,,/.R-Type A 7.3 208 105 4229.8 4315.7 2405.9 2.34 17 51 O%R-Type A 7.3 210 105 4175.6 4259.4 2372.4 2.33 18 20 O%R-Type A 7.6 208 105 4200.6 4293.3 2376.9 2.32 18 26 O·/oR-Type A 7.6 209 105 4172.8 4261.4 2371.8 2.38 16 35 O%R-Type A 7.6 209 104 4126.5 4226.7 2344.8 2.34 18 36 O%R-Type A 7.6 210 105 4186.6 4289.2 2371.4 2.33 18 37 100%R-Type B 6.5 208 103 4065.4 4137.7 2374.4 2.42 14
/ d cont-
91
TABLE 3.7 (b) continued .....
>
i ~ I "If ii 11 ~1 11 "!. ... 1. ~1J i .... ' c ~ ia~ c ~ ~ ~
..... z:
38 100%R-Type B 6.5 207 105 4317.2 4398.7 2512.2 2.41 14
39 100%R-Type B 6.5 209 105 4298.7 4374.2 2500.8 2.41 14
40 100%R-Type B 6.5 2011 105 4277.6 4358.4 2481.1 2.40 15
41 100%R-Type B 6.5 2011 105 4259.1 4342.6 2471.5 2.40 15
42 100%R-Type B 6.5 210 104 4260.6 4342.4 2480.3 2.41 14
46 O·/oR-Type B 6.5 210 105 4257.1 4344.1 2453.6 2.38 15
47 O·/oR-Type B 6.5 210 104 4182.1 4258.8 2407.7 2.37 16 48 O%R-Type B 6.5 209 105 4222.3 4296.5 2430.2 2.37 16 49 O%R-Type B 6.5 209 105 4261.2 4333.11 2453.8 2.37 16 50 O%R-Type B 6.5 211 105 4264.3 4339.8 2458.3 2.38 15
92
100
90
80
70
60 .~ '" g: SO
a... GJ C7I .!! 40 c: GJ u '-cf 30
20
10
o
Microns Millimetres r-------------~,~~--------
LJ1 LJ1 ~ 0 f'T1 ~f'T1 o...:t 0 co"-': o,.,.,Ln •• - Lf1...o. ___ N N."'.LI'1_ttDr-B.S. TEST SIEVES
r 1 (11 ON0Ll'10
Lf1..-0 N O -t" 'I~ ~, ..... "'I
~/ 0
10 1/. J
~ 20
PIa hni he ~, . .- I<' I 30 ....... ~ V IJ .
. V ~ 1/ J: .... B.S T~~ ~
I limi s.
./ ~ ./ ~
/ / I I ., J
/ /. .l i
40 -c GJ c: 'n; .....
SO ~ GJ C7I ro
60 -:= GJ u '-GJ
70 a...
/ " ) j PIa hn no No. t . V V v 80
~ V V : i 90
i""
100 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 0.001
U.UU.l U.UUb· 0.02 U.UO u.< U.O < U 4U --CLAY Fine I Medium I Coarse Fine I Mlldium I Coarse Fine I Medium I Coarse
BOULDRES FRACTION SIL T FRACTION SAND FRACTION GRA VEL FRACTION
..
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
CHART 3.1 ROLLED ASPHALT WEARING COURSE DESIGN TYPE F. DESIGNATION 40120
100
90
80
70
60
Cl c 50 'iii III III c.. QJ 40 Cl III .... C QJ ... 30 .. QJ c..
20
10
o
BS TEST SIEVES
Microns Millimetres ( 0 c:: 0, L.n 0' (co Lr1 .-. Ln
fT'1 LI"l __ 0 N 0 ...-: ~ '""1 ~I"'I"'! o,...:t 0 CD r....: 0,." U"1 ...0 ...- N rn ...:t 'oD ...- N rn LI1...o .-.- N N,.., Ln...or--
I , I I , I I
7 ~
1 -11
B.S. Hot rolled Asphalt Reclaimed \..
1\ .,
~ r..l
' .. .... IIrr.. --11
V j " I1 1/ f'. V
J V I' Tanzanian - f-
I . .. Asphalt concrete .- r-V L,..o
, wearing course - t-V V
.. Type '0'
~ t.,...- I-""
.....
100 10 1.0 0.06 0.1 0.006 0.01 20 60 0.001 2 6 0.2 0.6 0.02 0.002 _.- - _._- .. .. - v.v - V -- -
CLAY Fine T Medium I Coarse Fine I Medium I . Coarse Fine I Medium I Coarse
FRACTION :;rL T FRACTION SAND FRACTION GRAVEL FRACTION BOULDERS
-
CHART 3.2 TYPICAL GRADING OF HOT ROLLED ASPHALT AND ASPHALT CONCRETE
o
10
20
30
40 'Cl QJ c 'iii
50 iii .. QJ Cl
60 2 c QJ ... ..
70 QJ c..
80
90
100
4. EQUIPMENT AND TEST PROCEDURES
4.1 Introduction
As stated earlier the three main properties to be investigated were the elastic
stiffness, resistance to pennanent deformation, or creep, and fatigue. Two
approaches were adopted for the testing. The first series of tests were conducted at
Loughborough University in newly purchased DARTEC repeated load testing
(Fatigue testing) equipment. These tests were conducted to examine the variation in
elastic stiffness of the samples and to investigate the fatigue life of the samples.
The creep behaviour of the samples was detennined under dead load in an apparatus
developed for the project.
The second series of tests were conducted in the Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NAT),
which was available at Queen's University of Belfast. The NAT apparatus, which
is more specialised equipment for asphalt tests, was used for repeated load indirect
tensile tests for elastic stiffness and for uniaxial creep tests.
4.2 Repeated Loading DARTEC Machine (Fatigue Testing
Equipment)
4.2.1 Equipment
The equipment, shown in Plate No.l, can be used for sine wave or square wave
repeated loading in compression and/or tension. A load of up to 50kN can be
applied with variable frequencies of loading. The machine can be controlled by
setting up, monitoring and printing software. The data input, monitoring and data
output can therefore be done through a computer and printer. Also an external
feedback output facility is available for extension readings from a transducer fitted
to the test rig.
4.2.2 Procedure
4.2.2.1 Elastic stiffness test
The test involved sinusoidal axial repeated compressive loading on a specimen at
different levels of peak to peak load and loading frequencies. The required peak to
peak load was obtained by setting two load limits in the machine. The frequency
95
and the number of cycles of load were also set in the machine. The load could also
be read directly from the LED display or from computer printout of data, but due to
some machine faults an oscilloscope was connected to the loading cell in the ram
and the peak to peak load values were obtained as the calibrated difference between
the peaks of the load sine-wave on the oscilloscope. The loading sequence staned
with the least damaging conditions and changed to more damaging conditions in
steps. The lower load limit was 1 kN in compression. The least damaging
condition was therefore of peak to peak load of 1 kN (i.e. 1 kN to 2 kN in
compression) at a frequency of 20 Hz. With the same peak to peak load the test
was conducted at frequencies of 10 Hz, 5 Hz, 3 Hz and 1 Hz. Then the load was
increased to 2 kN (i.e. 1 kN to 3 kN) and the loading procedure repeated. The
same was done for peak to peak loads of 3 kN and 4 kN.
For the deflection, or peak to peak deformation, an external transducer was set to
follow the movement of the actuator plate in contact with the specimen. The
transducer signal was fed to the systetu through the external feedback output port.
The peak to peak deformation was read directly on the machine LED display
window when set to read external and peak to peak values. The values read on the
display were first calibrated with the transducer by using a micrometer screw gauge
or other means. The micrometer screw gauge used in this case was of an accuracy
of 0.OO2rnm.
The elastic stiffness is given by the relationship
S _ (J _ F/A _ F.l
me- -x/l-Ax E
where Sme = (J = E = F = A = 1 = x =
Elastic stiffness (kPa)
Stress (kPa)
Strain
Peak to peak load (kN)
Cross sectional area of specimen (m2)
Length of specimen (m)
Peak to peak deformation (m)
96
4.2.2.2 Fatigue Test
The fatigue test involved applying a repeated tensile and compressive load to a
specimen, with ends glued to the platens with araldite, at a chosen frequency until
the specimen failed. Different types of glue, including different types of araldite,
were tried before the type used was chosen. The failure criterion was chosen to be
the first appearance of a crack. The load cycling was done between 1.0kN in
tension and 1.5kN in compression at a frequency of 10Hz. Due to time limitation
two problems which became evident could not be solved, hence these tests had to
be abandoned after 3 trials. These problems were:
1. Premature failure of the specimens at the compaction interfaces.
2. Failure of the glue between the platens and the specimen.
The fatigue strength would be given as the number of load cycles (given load and
frequency) the specimen could endure before failure.
4.3 Creep Test Facility
4.3.1 Equipment
This apparatus involved frames with loading plates, manufactured in the laboratory,
with two dial gauges mounted to each frame by magnetic bases. These were set up
in a constant temperature cabinet, which was also constructed specifically for the
project, of approximately 1.2m x 2.5m x 2.Om high. The cabinet was made of
angle iron frame and plywood walls, and was insulated all round with 50mm thick
expanded polystyrene sheet. The heat was produced by four lOOW bulbs
connected to a thermostat with a sensor hanging in the cabinet (see Plate 2).
4.3.2 Procedure
Four frames were set in the cabinet and the thermostat was set to control the
temperature in the cabinet at an average of 25OC. A spirit level was used to make
sure the loading plates were level. The thermostat was set by measuring the
temperature in the cabinet (with the door closed), and setting it to trip on at a
minimum temperature and switch off at a maximum temperature which gives an
average of 25oC. The range of temperature difference obtained was 3OC. Using a
97
dummy sample of the same height as the specimens, the levels of the 2 dial gauges,
left and right for each frame were set on top of 8 x 28lb (102 kg) weights placed on
the loading plate on top of the specimen. Silicon grease was applied to the faces of
the specimens in contact with the bottom plate and the loading plate. The specimens
were put in the frame and their positions set with the loading plates on them: the
plates were centred with the centering column upright using a spirit level. Within
the minimum possible time the eight dead weights were placed on top of the loading
plates and the dial gauges were set and adjusted to reasonable initial readings. The
left and right hand dial gauge readings were taken at half hour intervals for the first
five hours then at one hour intervals and thereafter increased intervals appropriate to
the deformations obtained (see Plate No.3 for set-up).
4.4 Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NAT)
4.4.1 Equipment
The NAT is specialised equipment for asphalt specimen testing. It uses different
computer software for three types of tests, namely:
1. Repeated Load Indirect Tensile Test
2. Uniaxial Creep Test
3. Repeated Load Axial Test
The equipment is set up in a cabin in which the testing temperature can be controlled
to an accuracy pf 0.50 C. The schematic of the equipmen.t and the set ups for
Indirect Tensile and Uniaxialloading can be seen in Figure 4.1 and Plates 4 and 5
respectively.
4.4.2 Procedure
4.4.2.1 Elastic Stiffness Test
This is a repeated load tensile test. The specimens, numbers 30, 32, 34, 36, 40,
41,42,44,45,49 and 50, were sawn by a diamond-tipped saw into three smaller
specimens each of lengths between 60 and 70mm, and identified by A, B and C
respectively. The groupstested for elastic stiffness were the 'A' and 'B' groups.
98
The specimens were stored in the cabinet at the testing temperature for a minimum
of 4 hours to attain the correct temperature. The equipment set up was done
according to the Nottingham Asphalt Tester Instruction Manual (1990). A poisso n'5
ratio of 0.35 was used in the calculations. The number of conditioning pulses used
to bed the loading strips was five, in each case. The test was perfonned at 2()OC
following the instructions precisely and the whole procedure was repeated for
another set of values at 250 C for the specimens group 'B'.
4.4.2.2 Creep Test
The creep test was done on the 'C' specimens. The procedure given in the NAT
instruction manual (1990) for Uniaxial Creep Test was followed. The test
conditions employed, which were recommended in the software, were:
I. Axial stress = 100 kPa
2. Duration of test = 1 hour
3. Preliminary 10 minutes conditioning period during which ten percent of
test stress is applied
4. 15 minutes relaxation period after the test stress is removed, to enable
recovery in axial deformation to be measured.
The flat ends of the specimen were coated with a thin layer of silicon grease. The
test temperature was 400C, as recommended in the manual.
99
Figure 4.1
SoIenad r-"""'i vaivl' ,
r=, . Actual ..1t~ ~~1cIcr " l' I
A Jl Resenor
\ r-t "H l
~t-- Looo cell I n .Jl Specllnl'r1'
,,1\ .11l flVOT
. U.\l..li
l4~' I o ;"~'oc.
le:! 1_';
( CompulN \
a) Indirect Tensile Test
Ceformation trmiucer
b) Repeated Load Axial Test
cell
Schematic Diagram of Nottingham Ashalt Tester.
'00
PL ATE 1: THE OA RH C MAC Hl NE SET-U P
1 0 ,
PLATE 2: THE CREEP FACILITY (QEAD LOAD APPAR AT US )
1 02
PLATE 3: THE CREEP FACILITY TESTING SET-UP
103
PLATE 4: THE NAT APPARATUS SET- UP FOR ELASTIC
STIFFNES S ( INDIREC T TENSILE) TEST
10 4
PLATE 5: THE NAT APPARATUS SET-UP FOR UN IAXIAL
CREEP LOADING TEST
105
5 . TEST RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
The test result data are given in Appendices 2-1, while the reduced or analysed form
of results are given in the respective tables or figures, as explained in the sections
below.
5.2 Elastic Stiffness Results
5.2.1 Repeated load DARTEC test results
The test results for elastic stiffness, as obtained from the DARTEC machine, are
given in Appendix 2, and the summaries and respective graphs of elastic stiffness
against load for each loading frequency for every specimen are given in Appendix
3. The elastic stiffness values for five samples of 100% recycled material 'B' at
250C have been plotted on one graph for each loading frequency and average
curves drawn through the scatter. It should be noted that mean values have been
chosen for this purpose and the error bands have been indicated, at a slight offset to
the true load where necessary for clarity. The result is shown in Figure 5.1. For
0% recycled material 'B' the same procedure has been adopted for the two samples
tested, the result being given in Figure 5.2. Figure 5.2 also shows the comparison
of NAT elastic stiffness for same specimen types. It should be noted that the
specimen in the NAT apparatus was orientated differently to that in the DARTEC
machine and that the location of the NA T data points along the abcissa, although
correct in terms of load, can be considered to be arbitrary in terms of direct data
comparison. The average elastic stiffnesses for 100% recycled and 0% recycled
material 'B', as well as the NA T elastic stiffnesses, are compared in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.4 shows the influence of differences in bitumen contents on the
relationship between elastic stiffness and load.
5.2.2 NAT test results
The elastic stiffness test results from the NA T are shown in Appendix 4 while an
example of the test data output is given in Appendix 5. The results are summarised
schematically in Figure 5.5A and in graphical form in Figure 5.5B. The effects of
temperature and percentage of reclaimed material, as well as bitumen content, can
106
be drawn from these figures. Elastic stiffnesses for materials from different
sources i.e. material 'A' and material 'B', can also be compared.
5.3 Creep Test Results
5.3.1 Creep test facility (dead load) results
The test data are shown in Appendix 6. All of the results have been summarised in
a graph in Figure 5.6, giving the relationship between percentage axial strain and
cumulative time of loading for all the specimens. 1\ \..'" 0 5.... 1=; <j - 5 -'i .
5.3.2 NAT test results
The creep test results from the NAT machine are shown in Appendix 7. A
summary of the test results are shown as a relationship between percentage axial
strain and cumulative time of loading in graphical fonn in Figures 5.7 A and B, in
which the various properties for both material 'A' and 'B' can be compared. I\,\..." 0 ~.... \=-', ';)- S -'I. -
5.4 Fatigue Test Results
As explained in section 4.2.2.2, little infonnation could be obtained from this test.
For specimen number 20 a glue failure between the specimen and the loading
plattens occurred after 3701 load cycles. No sign of structural failure was observed
on the specimen. Specimen number 18 endured 6953 load cycles before failing at a
compaction interface. No other structural strain was observed on the specimen. A
premamre glue failure also occurred for specimen 22 after 6320 load cycles. No
other sign of failure was observed on the specimen.
107 ,
d
ii ~
!a. VI VI ... z "-"-i= VI
u i= VI -c ..... ...
6
5
4
3
2
1
TESTING TEMP. APPROX. 25'C
N.B. PEAK TO PEAK LOAD REPRESENTS LOAD ABOVE 1k N IN COf1PRESSlON
20 Hz
L""---""'1- 10 Hz
SPECIMENS 38, 39, 40, 41 & 42
o 20 Hz • 10 Hz o 5 Hz Q 3 Hz • 1Hz
5 Hz
3 Hz
1Hz
OL---____ ~~ ________ L_ ________ ~------~~
o 1 2 3 4 PfAK TO PEAK LOAD (kHl
FIG. 5.1 A VERAGE ELASTIC STIFFNESS CURVES FOR 100~. RECYCLED MATERIAL 'B' SPECltEN
, 08
6
FIG. 5.2 A VERAGE STIFFNESS CURVES FOR 0% RECYCLED MATERIAL 'e,' SPECIMENS
'09
;; c.. Cl
VI VI .... z ~ ~
i= VI
u i= VI <Cl[ ...J ....
6
5
V-4
/
3
2
1
Testing temp. approx. 25'C __ --20Hz
20Hz --..,....---/ 10Hz
o •
~----
Note.
-- 10Hz
5Hz
-5Hz
_3Hz 3Hz 1Hz
1Hz
Peak to peak load represents load above 1kN in compression
- 100% Recycled, DARTEC • -- 0% Recycled, DARTEC
o 100% Recycled HA T • 0·/0 Recycled HAT
OL-______ ~ ______ ~ ________ L_ ______ ~_1_
o 1 . 2 3 4
PEAK TO PEAK LOAD (kN)
FIG. 5.3 COf1PARISON OF ELASTIC STIFFNESS FOR 100% RECYCLfD Alii O-t. RECYCLED FOR MATERIAL 'B' USING BOTH THE DARTEC All) HAT TESTS
, , 0
ii Q.
6
5
!: 4 VI VI ... Z u.. u.. ~ VI
U
~ 3 VI ~
ii::I
2
1
Testing temp. approx. 25"C
• • _~_--O-10Hz
------10Hz
• • __ --iir----:-- 5Hz ____ ~5Hz
• 3Hz • ---3Hz
~~~==~i=~~==~~~==~~;=lHZ ~ -- • 1Hz
-0- SPECIMEN 17 ( 0%1l, - A - 7.0% Bit) - -e-- SPECIMEN 18 ( 0% \I, - A - 7.3% Bit)
Note. Peak to peak load represents load above 1 k N in comparison
OL-______ -L ________ L-______ ~ ________ ~_
o 1 2 3 4
PEAK TO PEAK LOAD (kNl
FIG. 5.4 ELASTIC STIFFNESS VERSUS PEAK TO PEAK LOAD FOR DifFERENT BITUMEN CONTENT USING THE DARTEC ELASTIC STIFFNESS TEST
, "
5
4
III a.. l::J
3 VI VI .... Z u. u. i= VI
u i= VI <01( 2 .... ....
1
o
\l00-toR I \ It. 1.O-t.8lT
I \ I • • ~
percent of Type of percentage reclaimed planning content of material sample Bitumen
·c SP.42 0 - 20 SP.41
tJ - 2.5 ·c
SP.44
SP.45 SP.49
SP.30 SP.50 SP.40
SP.32 SP.40 SP.44
SP.30 SP.36 SP.41 SP.45
SP.34 SP.42 SP.49
SP.32 SP.34 SP.50
SP.36
1IIO%II-A 0'lI0R-A -A 0'lI0R-A -A 0%11-1 WIoII-8 6.1%IIIT 6.1%111T 7.D%8IT 7.3Y.8IT 7.6%8IT 6.5'YIT 6.5'YIT
FIG. 5.5A SCHEMATIC REPRESENT A TION OF ELASTIC STIfFNESS MEASUREMENTS USING THE NAT. TEST
, '2
"' CL
S
VI VI .... z u.. u.. ;= VI
u ;= VI < ....J ....
5
SAMPLE A
o 100"10 RECYCLED 20'( c 100"10 RECYCLED 2S'(
0 • 0". RECYCLED 20'( • 0"10 RECYCLED 2S'C
4
, 0 SAMPLE B
V 100"10 RECYCLED 20'C A 100"10 RECYCLED 25'( , 0"10 RECYCLED 20'C i 0·/0 RECYCLED 2S'C
3
2 b. c !l • !l , ,
O~--~--------~--------~------" 6.0 7.0 8.0
BITUMEN CONTENT "10
FIG. S.SB ELASTIC STIFFNESS VERSUS BITUMEN CONTENT FOR HAT TEST DATA
" 3
~ !... ~ ~ l-V!
..... ~ X ~
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.1
SP.46 (0%R-B-6.s% BITUMEN)
SP .37 (100%R-B-6.5%BITUHEN)
SP.51 (0%R-A-7.3%BITUHEN)
SP.24 (100%R-A-6.7%BITUHEI
-::~ __ --- SP.23 (0%R-A-7.0%BITUHEt\
SP.26 (0%R-A-7.6%BITUHENl
_------------ SF.29 (0%R-A-6.7%BITUHENl
_------------ SP.25 (0%R-A-7.3%BITUMENl
OL-____ ~ ______ ~ ____ ~~ ____ ~ ______ ~~ .. o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
CUHULATIVE TIHE IN SECS (thousands)
FIG. 5.6 AXIAL STRAIN VERSUS TIHE !DEAD LOAD)
, , Lt
0.8
0.7
~ 0.6
~ 0.5 a: >-VI 0.4 .... ~
X 0.3 ~
0.2
0.1
SP.36 (O%R-A-1.6%BITUMEN) SP.44 (100%R-A-6.7%BITUMEN)
~ __ SP.45 nOO%R-A-6.7%BITUHENl
'=:::= SP.34 (o%R-A-7.3%BITUI1£HI
~_-----1 SP.32 (O%R-A-7.0%BITUHENl
--_ SP.30 (0%R-A-6.7%BITUMENl
OL-____ -L ____ ~~ ____ -L ____ ~ ______ ~ __ ..
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
CUMULATIVE TIMES IN SECS
FIG. S.7A CREEP TEST DATA FROM THE NAT TESTS ON MATERIAL 'A'
'1 5
0.8
0.7 ~ 0
~ 0.6 < Cl:: I- 0.5 VI
...... SP.42 10D%R-B-6.S% BITUHEN < 0.4 SP.41 100%R-B-6.S%8IT\JHEN X < SP.49 0%R-B-6.So/. BITUHEN
0.3 SP.40 100·/oR-B-6.So/. BlTUHEt
0.2
0.1
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
CUMULA TIVE TIME IN sec
FIG. 5.7 (B) . CREEP TEST DATA FROM THE NA T TEST ON MA TERJAL (B)
, , 6
• NAT CREEP RESULTS AFTER 1500 SECS (25 minsl
0 DEAD LOAD CREEP RESULTS AFTER 1500,000 SECS. (iilpprox 17 diilysl
0.8
0.7
0.6
~ ~ :z ~
0.5 cc: ~ VI
..... 0.4 001(
X 001(
0.3
0.2 0
0.1
0 I I .-6.0 7.0 B.O
BITUMEN CONTENT %
FIG. 5.B . AXIAL STRAIN VERSUS BITUMEN CONTENT FOR MATERIAL 'A'
I , , 7
6. DISCUSSION
6.1 Effect of Bitumen Content on Mechanical Properties
From the DARTEC elastic stiffness test, as shown in Figure 5.4. it can be judged
that an increase in bitumen content results in a decrease in elastic stiffness. There is
not much difference however indicated by the results shown in this figure. but
Figure 5.5A & B. which shows the trends at 2()oC and 250 C as obtained from the
NA T apparatus. confirms the behaviour. These results show a very good trend in
decrease of elastic stiffness with increase in bitumen content, except for specimen
No.36 at 2()oC or No.34 at 250 C. which are slightly out of trend. This difference
may be accounted for by possible material inconsistency in the different portions of
the specimen from which the test pieces were sliced. a possible change in test
temperature. or more simply by the expected scatter in test data on specimens of this
kind. Figure 5.5B indicates a possibility of having a minimum value of stiffness
for particular temperature. with increasing bitumen content. More data are required
to confirm this.
The effect of bitumen content on resistance to permanent deformation is indicated in
the creep behaviour curves for 0% recycled material shown in Figure 5.7 obtained
from the NAT test. The figure shows a general increase in axial strain with time for
loaded bituminous material. The increase in axial strain of the mixes with increase
in bitumen content is clearly defined in these results. as indicated by the upward
shift of the curves with increasing bitumen content. and is better shown in Figure
5.8 which shows an approximately linear relationship.
The dead load test results obtained by the creep test facility. as shown in Figure
5.6. do not show good trends with varying bitumen content. It is apparent that the
difference in behaviour is likely to be time related. since the NA T creep test is an
accelerated test conducted over one hour at a higher temperature (~. whereas
the dead load test is conducted over several days. It has been shown in Figure 2.11
that the viscous stiffness (Smv) is dependent on many factors including aggregate
type. grading. shape. texture. interlock. confining conditions. compaction. voids
and testing method. whereas elastic stiffness depends only on binder stiffness and
voids in the mineral aggregate of the test specimen. The many possible factors
involved in the viscous stiffness range are thought to give rise to the differences in
results.
11 8
Brown (1990) shows the same trends of lower mix stiffness with increase in
bitumen content He further shows that the leaner mixes show that mix stiffness
tends to level out with time or decreasing binder stiffness, whereas the mix stiffness
of the richer mixes continues to decrease.
6.2 Effect of Recycling on Mechanical Properties
From Figw-e 5.3 it is seen that no definite influence on the elastic stiffness
behaviour can be observed as a result of recycling. The 100 percent recycled
material shows slightly higher stiffness when assessed by the NAT apparatus and
by the DARTEC machine at testing frequencies greater or equal to 5 Hz. At lower
frequencies the DARTEC results show that the stiffness of 100% recycled material
is lower. While this result is perhaps unexpected, the trend from significantly
higher stiffnesses at 20 Hz to significantly lower stiffnesses at 1 Hz is a smooth
progression. This finding is potentially important and is possibly only unexpected
since the test data often quoted relate to the high frequencies of loading experienced
by bituminous bound pavements in use. Nevertheless the results could be suspect
due to the scatter experienced in the test data or equipment related reasons which are
explained in Section 6.7. Other possible reasons could be due to viscous behaviour
at low frequencies whereby the behaviour becomes more complex and depends on
many factors, as explained in Section 2.4.5. This aspect therefore merits further
investigation.
In both recyled and virgin material results there is a slight increase in stiffness with
load, and the rate of increase decreases with increasing load. The decrease in rate is
faster for virgin material. The stiffnesses become constant at high loads. There is
no apparent, published reason for the stiffnesses being lower at lower loads,
although the observation might result from the inability of the sample to develop full
aggregate interlock at lower stress levels. At the lowest stress there might be a
'surface irregularity' effect operating, although this is unlikely. There is also a
possibility that some 'give' in the equipment results in a reduction in stiffness at
low stress, although the equipment manufacturers consider this likewise to be
unlikely.
From Figw-e 5.3 and 5.5B, which refer to NAT test data, it can be judged that the
recycled materials are stiffer than the virgin materials. This behaviour has been
observed for both materials from different sources and at temperatures of 200C and
250 C. This confirms the observations of Hadipour and Anderson (1988), who
" 9
suggested the same elastic stiffness behaviour but they found different results for
permanent deformation. They found that recycled mixes exhibit considerably lower
permanent deformation than conventional mixes (see Figure 6.1). This study, as
explained ahead, did not find very defmite results for permanent deformation
behaviour. Mayhew and Edwards (1989) found no difference in rutting in their
wearing course study, but had similar results to those of material 'A' in this study
in their study of roadbase. They found that creep stiffness of recycled mixes is
lower than that of virgin material.
Creep results obtained using the dead load and NA T methods, shown in Figures
5.6 and 5.7 respectively, show that the recycled material is less resistantto
permanent deformation for Material' A' while there is no sigrtificant difference for
Material 'B'. This is an interesting result in view of the fact that the materials were
similar in their initial specification, the only noticeable difference being a slight! y
lower bitumen content for Material 'B' (6.5%) than Material 'A' (6.7%).
However, no firm conclusion should be drawn for the effect of recycling on creep
from these results due to the limited data. More results would be required for a
more detailed assessment
It would appear from the scatter of the creep results using the dead load on
specimens of Material' A' with different bitumen contents that the method is not
effective in studying and comparing creep characteristics. However comparison of
the 100% and 0% recycled mixes for Material 'A' (Figure 5.6) shows a similar
result to that given by the NAT apparatus, with the fully recycled sample having a
considerably reduced creep stiffness. The axial strain after 23 days at 250 C was
2.1 times greater for the fully recycled mix compared with the virgin mix at the
same bitumen content under dead load. The corresponding ratio in the NA T
apparatus after 1 hour at 4QoC was 2.3. These results compare well and give some
confidence in the dead load data
6.3 Effect of Source of Reclaimed Material on Mechanical
Properties
The sources of reclaimed materials in this case are related to the different sites for
material 'A' and 'B' respectively. From NAT elastic stiffness results shown in
Figures 5.5A & B, the stiffnesses for Material 'A' and Material 'B' for 0% recycled
and 100% recycled mixes at both temperatures of 200C and 250C do not show large
differences. It is clear, however, that the 100% recycled mixes have a greater
120
stiffness with the exception of Material 'A' at 250C which has similar stiffnesses.
The stiffnesses for Material 'B' are 25% and 42% higher than the virgin material at
200c and 250C respectively, and for Material 'A' at 2()oC are 25% higher. The
corresponding stiffnesses for Materials 'A' and 'B' under anyone set of conditions
are similar, thus indicating that soun:e of material has had little influence on the
elastic stiffness results.
The creep results from the NA T apparatus and the dead load tests, as shown in
Figures 5.6 and 5.7, do not show a consistent specific trend between the two types
of mixes. It would appear, however, that Material 'B' does have a lower creep
stiffness than Material 'A' under the dead load tests. This observation has occurred
in spite of the slightly lower bitumen content used in the mix design for Material
'B'. As mentioned earlier in section 3.1, the Materials 'A' and 'B' are essentially
of the same specifications. It could be sensibly concluded therefore that as long as
the materials fall within the same standard specifications the source of material does
not significantly affect the mechanical properties of recycled material. However
other conditions such as segregation or inconsistency due to handling and
sampling, as well as differences in fines content depending on the reclaiming
method could have an influence on the properties.
6.4 Effect of Loading Speed (Frequency) on Mechanical Properties
Figures 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 show very good trends in elastic stiffness with
frequency in the DARTEC tests. They show clearly that elastic stiffness decreases
with low frequencies of loading. This characteristic holds generally for the
bituminous materials whether recycled or completely virgin. This is a very crucial
phenomenon in practice when considering traffic on pavements. In section 2.3.3 it
is shown that loading time is related to traffic speed and frequency by the
relationships
t QC
t QC
1 I
1 v
where t = loading time
f = loading frequency
v = traffic speed
and
'21
This means that frequency is directly proportional to speed. V cry low frequency is
thus related to crawling speeds and zero frequency represents vehicles at a standstill
(parking). Low speed or parked traffic induce more elastic deformations in
pavements therefore, due to their resulting low stiffness. In effect one would be
considering stiffnesses in the viscous range shown earlier in Figure 2.11, in which
case the creep properties are important. The relationship between loading speed
(represented by traffic speed) and mix stiffness shown earlier in Figure 2.9
agreeably show increased stiffness with increase in speed.
The trends for 100% recycled and 0% recycled specimens of Material 'B' are better
shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3 respectively. These graphs have been drawn from
the mean curves plotted in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 respectively. It is apparent that
frequency of loading has the greatest effect on materials SUbjected to the higher
levels of stress and that the trend is very similar at these higher stresses.
Both figures 6.2 and 6.3 show that the changes of elastic stiffness with frequency
are almost the same at peak: to peak: loads of 3 kN and 4 kN, but differ at lower
peak: to peak: loads. The figures show that the behaviour of 100 percent recycled
material differ from that of 0 percent recycled. They seem to have different elastic
stiffness behaviour with load and frequency. It is likely that the behaviour is
governed by the binder properties with ageing. Funher srudy in this respect is
recommended.
6.5 Effect of Duration and Magnitude of Loading on Mechanical
Properties
The effect of duration of loading can be studied from the creep tests. The effects of
loading time for shon duration loads is related to frequency, which has already been
discussed in Section 6.4. The results of both creep tests by dead load and using the
NAT appararus, shown in Figures 5.6 and 5.7, show that the material deforms
faster in the period immediately after application of load and that the deformation
reduces with time. They do not however show sign of attaining constant strain
after any particular time of loading. From the slopes of the graphs of strain against
time it can be observed that after about 2000 secs for NA T test and 1,000,000 secs
for dead load test the rate of change of axial strain percentage with time is almost
constant. On removal of the load an almost instantaneous drop in axial strain of
'22
between 0.10% and 0.15% is observed, which again levels off to leave a permanent
strain on the specimens.
The results of DARTEC elastic stiffness test show an increase in stiffness with load
initially but at peak to peak loads of more than 3 kN indications are that the load
amplitude has no effect on the elastic stiffness of the material and that the material
attains a constant elastic stiffness at a given frequency of loading. This behaviour
can be seen on Figures 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4. This characteristic is the same for
both recycled and virgin materials. Also at low loads the error bands in the elastic
stiffness values are big and they reduce considerably at higher loads showing very
good trends. This is shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 for 5 and 2 sets of data
respectively. The inaccuracy at lower loads can be due to two reasons. At low
loads the behaviour is governed by partial binder and aggregate interlock strength
and that the real behaviour is masked. As greater aggregate interlock is achieved
with higher loads the behaviour is governed by the strength achieved and the elastic
stiffness values remain constant. The second reason involves potential equipment
related problems explained in Section 6.7.
6.6 EffeCt of Temperature on Mechanical Properties
From Figures 5.5A and 5.5B it is observed that the change in temperature from
200c to 250C results in a large decrease in elastic stiffness. For Material 'A', for
example, at a bitumen content of 6.7% the 0% recycled material shows a reduction
in elastic stiffness of 1.42 GPa, which is equivalent to approximately 44% of the
stiffness at 200C. At 7.0% bitumen content the reduction is 40%; for 7.3%
bitumen content it is 44% and at 7.6% bitumen content it is an approximately 46%
reduction. The reduction for 100% recycled Material 'A' is approximately 54%
while for 100% recycled Material 'B' it is about 60%. This tends to suggest that
the 100% recycled materials are more sensitive to temperature than virgin materials.
The amount of available data however is not enough to make a firm conclusion on
the extent of stiffness change with temperature but it swfices to note that a small
change in temperature can influence very much the elastic stiffness of a bituminous " .... mix and that this is equally, if not more" for the recycled material.
)
The mix behaviour is clearly governed by the behaviour of the bitumen in it The
variation of bitumen stiffness with temperature is shown to exhibit the same
observed behaviour in Figure 2.3. In Figure 2.9 (after Brown, 1990), a typical
example of influence of temperature on rolled asphalt shows a decrease of stiffness
'23
with increase in temperature. Assuming a speed of 20 km/hr for example, an
increase of temperature from 200c to 250 C of the rolled asphalt (Figure 2.9) gives
rise to a fall of approximately 37% in elastic stiffness. This is in conformity with
the results in Figures 5.5A and 5.5B.
6.7 Effect of Method of Testing
One of the reasons for using different machines to study the same properties in this
study was to see how different loading mechanisms and testing conditions can give
different results and to be able to know which one gives more consistent and
reliable results. The elastic stiffness results shown in Figure 5.5B obtained from
the NAT apparatus show a good trend with increase in bitumen contenL On the
same figure, and on Figure 5.5A which shows the same information in a different
form, it can be observed that the repeatability of results is also quite reasonable.
Comparison of the error bands for 100% recycled specimens from Material 'B'
tested at 250 C, shown on Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.5A for NAT tests show quite a
small error band on the NAT results and wide error bands on the DARTEC results.
In the case of the DARTEC testing the error bands are greater at lower loads and
close up at higher loads. A number of reasons can explain this observation from
the DARTEC results. One reason may be associated with the material properties
and this is explained in Section 6.5. Other reasons are equipment related. It is
possible that the sensitivity of the equipment at lower loads is not good enough to
pick-up the resulting strains. In addition this may be associated with a threshold
limit, below which instrument reading errors are big or the equipment is less
sensitive.
The elastic stiffness results obtained from the DARTEC machine shown in Figure
5.3 show good, expected trends at high frequencies of loading (~ 5 Hz), indicating
larger values for 100% recycled material. This trend changes at lower frequencies.
It is possible that this change is also equipment related, i.e. that the sensitivity is
impaired at low loading frequencies, although the smooth progression in the change
reported in section 6.2 above and the fact that only one of the two materials would
have to be affected in this way indicates that this was not the case.
The Creep Facility (dead load) results in Figure 5.6 show good trends in creep
behaviour for each test specimen, but the expected trends between specimens with
varying bitumen content is not obtained. This means therefore that the mechanism
is suspect for the purpose of comparison of creep properties of different mixes.
'2 L.
Moreover the Creep Facility does not allow the instant dial gauge readings,
immediately after imposing the load, to be taken, whereas with the NAT creep test,
the initial readings are taken at 2 second intervals and could be recorded
immediately after loading. There were problems also of dial gauges becoming
stuck and unreliable temperature control with the creep facility due to the long
period required for the tests, which could have affected the results.
The comparison of the elastic stiffness results from the DARTEC and the NA T
apparatus (Figure 5.3) show that the NAT elastic stiffnesses are consistently lower
than the DARTEC results. The test frequency of the NAT is approximately 2 Hz
(see Appendix 4). Although the plotted loads for the NA T apparatus results are the
applied vertical forces it should be noted that the loading configurations are different
and thus the position along the abcissa is somewhat arbitrary. The loading
configuration for the NAT elastic test is the indirect tensile method, whereby the
load is applied across the diameter of the specimen or perpendicular to the axis (see
Plates 4 and 5). For the DARTEC tests the load is applied along the axis of the
specimen.
'25
ft. z < a: ~ III
~ z ... z ... 2: ..... a:
N ... D-
en
14
BI- T = 4S"(
12 I- / • R= 0 • R=30
11 I- / 0 R=SO ~ R=70 g R=100
10 I / 0 R=SO 15[-30001
9
B
7
6
S
4
It.~ (jjJ Q Q Q Q Q g g g
o I I I I I o 20000 40000 60000 80000
NUMBER OF LOAD REPETlONS 1Nl
FIG. 6.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERMANENT STRAIN AND NUMBER Of LOAD REPETITIONS IAFTER HADIPOUR AND ANDERSON I
ELASTIC STIFFNESS
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
4 kN
3 kN
2 kN
_-------- 1 kH
OLO------~5------~10~----~1~5------~20.-------------~· FREClUENCY 1Hz)
FIG 6.2 GRAPH OF ~LASTIC STIFFNESS AGAINST FREQUENCY FOR 100% RECYCLED MATERIAL 'B' SPECIMENS
127
ELASTIC STIFFNESS
E 6
IGPaI
5 4 kN 3 kN 2 kN
4 1 kN
3
2
5 10 15 20 FREQUENCY 1Hz)
FIG. 6.3 GRAPH OF ELASTIC STIFFNESS AGAINST FREQUENCY FOR 0% RECYCLED MATERIAL 'B' SPECIMENS.
'28
7. CONCLUSIONS
From the tests carried out some general conclusions can be made on general
mechanical characteristics of bituminous mixes:
1. An increase in the bitumen content of an asphaltic material reduces the
elastic stiffness of that material, manifested by higher percentage axial strain
in the mixes under load. A well defined trend was established for Material
'A'.
2. An increase in bitumen content of an asphaltic material similarly reduces the
creep stiffness of that material, with a well defined, approximate I y linear
relationship between axial strain and bitumen content
3. Lower frequencies of loading result in lower elastic stiffnesses.
TIlis means that low speed or parked commercial vehicles have a more
damaging effect on the pavement than fast moving ones.
4. Temperature has a very substantial effect on the mechanical properties of
bituminous mixes, and in particular the elastic stiffness.
It would be expected to affect also the creep and fatigue characteristics, but
the study does not have enough data to substantiate the claim. It has been
verified that a small increase in temperature can reduce the elastic stiffness
substantially.
5. The results from different equipment show either different values of the
mechanical properties or different extents of repeatability. In the worst case
the methods could be described as suspect as a means of comparing the
mechanical properties of mixes. The choice of the appropriate equipment
for studying the properties is thus important The dead load creep facility
used in this study for example was found to be questionable for the
purpose.
'29
There are also certain specific conclusions that can be drawn, with the caveat that in
certain cases, funher WOIk should be carried out to confinn the findings since they
are based on a limited quantity of data. These conclusions are as follows:
1. 100% recycled samples are shown to have higher elastic stiffnesses than
virgin material, in general, when tested in the NAT apparatus at a frequency
of approximately 2 Hz.
2. 100% recycled samples are shown to have higher elastic stiffnesses than
virgin material when tested in the DARTEC machine at frequencies of 5 Hz
or more, but slightly lower elastic stiffnesses at 3 Hz and significantly lower
stiffnesses at 1 Hz.
3. There is a slight reduction in elastic stiffness for peak to peak loads of less
than 3 kN and a significant reduction at 1 kN. The stiffnesses measured at
peak to peak loads of 3 kN and above were found to be constant.
4. The error bands on elastic stiffness measurements in the DARTEC machine
were considerably greater at lower loads than at higher loads, the width of
the bands reducing to acceptable levels at peak to peak loads of 3 kN and
above.
5. For one material tested, the creep stiffness of the fully recycled mix was
approximately 2.1 to 2.3 times lower than the equivalent virgin mix,
whereas the other material exhibited almost identical creep stiffnesses in the
fully recycled and virgin states. No general conclusion can thus be drawn
and each material should be tested to determine the effect of ageing on creep
stiffness.
6. The mechanical properties of the materials from different sources were
sitnilar in the fully recycled states and the elastic stiffnesses were similar in
the virgin states. Indeed only the creep stiffness of virgin mixes of Material
'A' appeared to differ significantly, this stiffness being greater.
7. Fully recycled material appears to be more sensitive to temperature than
virgin material.
130
8. The NAT appararus appears to produce consistent, repeatable measurements
of elastic stiffness and creep stiffness.
9. The DAR1EC machine produced significant scatter in elastic stiffness
measurements, particularly at low stress levels, and lower stiffnesses than
those recorded by the NAT. On sample measurement of strains might be
necessary to ensure that equipment related effects are removed
10. The Creep Facility produced an apparent considerable scatter in results for
variable bitumen contents of virgin mixes of Material' A', but otherwise
produced results that correlated well with those of the NAT apparatus.
Although the scope for variation in temperature and errors in deformation
recording is greater, the use of more realistic temperatures and time periods
has the capacity to better model viscous effects.
Assessed by elastic stiffness properties the recycled materials have a higher
stiffness than conventional material, while creep properties show that recycled
materials may be less resistant to permanent deformation. This however is subject
to further study.
131
8 . RECOMMENDATIONS
Recycling of asphalt is a subject which has not been exhaustively studied. This
study has been based on the extreme cases of 100 percent and zero percent
recycling with the aim of getting the extreme characteristics. It should be noted also
that no rejuvenation was done to the mixes. It is recommended that more study
should be done on recycling of bituminous materials and more emphasis should be
put on the long term effects of recycling. This work should be carried out both
with and without the use of rejuvenating agents in order to establish the effects of
recycling agents.
It has been learnt that temperature influences very much the mechanical properties
of bituminous mixes. Moreover the extent of influence of temperature, and the
other various factors, on the mechanical properties will depend on the design of the
mix. It should be appreciated that the extent of effects of recycling on types of
mixes normally used in Tanzania, i.e. asphaltic concrete, will differ from those of
hot rolled asphalt studied herein. It is recommended that further studies be
conducted based on the Tanzanian environment and appropriate design conditions.
In particular it is recommended that frequency of loading be studied on both
recycled and virgin mixes over a range of significantly less than 1 Hz to 20 Hz or
greater to further examine the effects indicated by the DARTEC machine.
Recycling of bituminous materials has been found in several European countries
and the USA to be a very viable and cost effective technique. Some countries, like
the UK, have not put much emphasis on it due to other more favourable economic
conditions. It is now important that the developing countries, Tanzania being one
of them, seriously look into the best use of recycling in their maintenance and
rehabilitation of bituminous pavements. For Tanzania specifically, the Ministry of
Works, which is responsible for the development of roads and airports
infrastructure should conduct a study on all the road networks and airport
pavements and assess the possibilities of recycling, find the appropriate methods
and include them as a first altemative in all rehabilitation or maintenance projects.
Also other than emphasising the value of the techniques, the ministry being the
responsible technical ministry should establish a pilot workforce and properly equip
it to spearhead the idea. It may be a bit expensive to start with, due to the
equipment input, but in the long run it will prove to be very effective and cost
132
effective. Some equipment is already available in the country. Only a few
specialised pieces of equipment need to be obtained depending on the recycling
method. However most of the equipment is heavy and durable and can be utilised
throughout the country on its infrastructure for a long time.
133
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APPENDIX 1
Determination of Aggregate Contents, Pa
Determination of Relative Density of Aggregates
Determination of Aggregates Contents. Pi!
Gradation 'A' (gm) Gradation 'B' (gm)
wt. of coarse aggr., me 2050
wt. of fine aggr., mr 2405
wt. of mineral fIller, Illmr 545
Total weight 5000
wts. of binder 6.7% content, mb 335
wts. of binder 7.0% conent, mb 350
wts. of binder 7.3% content, mb 365
wts. of binder 7.6% content, mb 380
wts. of binder 6.5% content, mb
The aggregate content is obtained by using the relationship:
Pa, (%) = (me + mr + mmr) x 100 (5000 + mb)
Pa for mix type 'A' with 6.7% Bitumen
P a for mix type 'A' with 7.0% Bitumen
Pa for mix type 'A' with 7.3% Bitumen
=
=
=
93.7%
93.5%
93.2%
2275
2220
505
5000
325 gm
Pa for mix type 'A' with 7.6% Bitumen
Pa for mix type 'B' with 6.5% Bitumen
=
=
Detennination of Relative Density of Aggregates
The aggregates were divided into 3 groups.
1. Gravel
Sand
(Coarse) 19mm to 2.36mm
(FIne) 2.36mm to 75J.1.1ll
Mineral filler - < 751lm
(i) Aggregate (Gravel), Re
92.9%
93.9%
Mass (g)
Sample I Sample 2
Mass of gas jar and ground glass plate (ml) 757.6 1071.0
Mass of gas jar, plate and aggregate (mV 1139.4 1452.4
Mass of gas jar, plate, aggregate and water (m3) 2235.0 2596.8
Mass of gas jar, plate and water (1D4) 1997.4 2359.6
_ m21-mll 1139.4-757.6 Rei - (1D4I-mll) - (m31-m21) = (1997.4-757.6) _ (2235.0-1139.4) = 2.65
lII22-m12 1452.4-1071.0 Re2 = (1D42-mI2) - (m32-m22) = (2359.6-1071.0) - (2596.8-1452.4) = 2.64
Average; Re 2.642+ 2.64 = 2.65 (Mg/m3)
(ii) Sand, Rf
R - m22-m!2 - 2 64 f2 - (1I142-m12) - (m32-m22) - .
Average; RC = 2.64
(ill) Mineral filler, Rmf
m!
m2
m3
1I14
R _ m21-m ll
mC! - (1I14I-m l1) _ (m31-m2!) = 2.65
R - m22-m!2 mf2 - (1I142-m 12) _ (m32-m22) = 2.62
Average; Rmf 2.65 + 2.62 _ 2 64 2 -.
Mass (g)
Sample 1
1080.9
1277.9
2489.7
2367.3
Sample 2
851.0
1051.7
2246.2
2121.4
Mass (g)
Sample 1
1071.0
1270.1
2483.5
2359.6
Sample 2
757.6
957.5
2121.0
1997.4
Average aggregate relative density,
Rave
= 2.64
Rc + Rc+ RmC 3 =
2.65 + 2.64 + 2.64 3
APPENDIX 2
• DARTEC ELASTIC STIFFNESS DATA
SPECIMEN 17 (0% R-A-7.0% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Av.Load Div Def.(mm) Ave Stiffness
(Div.x 0.026) (MPa)
1 10 0.99 0.6 0.015 0.98 0.99 0.6 0.015 0.013 1947.8 0.99 0.4 0.010
5 0.99 0.6 0.015 0.98 0.99 0.6 0.015 0.015 1688.1 0.99 0.6 0.015
3 1.0 0.6 0.015 1.0 1.00 0.6 0.015 0.015 1705.2 1.0 0.6 0.015
1 0.99 0.6 0.6 0.015 0.99 0.99 0.6 0.015 0.015 1688.1 0.98 0.6 0.015
1.5 10 1.52 0.5 0.013 1.49 1.50 0.5 0.013 0.013 2951.2 1.50 0.5 0.013
5 1.50 0.6 0.015 1.50 1.50 0.6 0.015 0.015 2557.7 1.50 0.6 0.015
3 1.50 0.7 0.018 1.50 1.50 0.6 0.015 0.016 2397.9 1.50 0.6 0.015
1 1.50 0.7 0.018 0.018 2131.4 1.50 0.7 0.018 1.50 0.7 0.018
2 10 2.02 0.6 0.015 2.01 2.02 0.6 0.015 0.015 3444.4 2.02 0.6 0.015
5 2.02 0.7 0.018 2.01 2.01 0.7 0.018 0.018 2856.1 2.01 0.7 0.018
3 1.99 0.8 0.020 2.02 2.01 0.8 0.020 0.020 2570.5 2.01 0.8 0.020
1 2.00 0.9 0.023 2.00 2.00 1.0 0.025 0.024 2131.4 2.01 1.0 0.025
SPECIMEN 17 (continued)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Av. Load Div Def Ave Stiffness
(MPa)
3 10 2.98 0.8 0.020 3.02 3.01 0.8 0.020 0.020 3849.4 3.02 0.8 0.020
5 3.00 1.0 0.025 3.00 3.00 1.0 0.025 0.025 3069.3 3.00 1.0 0.025
3 2.99 1.2 0.030 2.99 2.99 1.2 0.030 0.029 2637.1 2.99 1.1 0.028
1 3.00 1.5 0.038 3.00 3.00 1.4 0.035 0.036 2131.4 3.01 1.4 0.035
4 10 4.00 1.0 0.025 4.01 4.00 1.1 0.028 0.027 3789.2 4.01 1.1 0.028
5 4.00 1.4 0.035 4.00 4.00 1.4 0.035 0.035 2923.1 4.00 1.4 0.035
3 4.00 1.4 0.035 3.99 4.00 1.4 0.035 0.036 2841.9 4.00 1.5 0.035
1 4.00 1.9 0.048 4.01 4.01 1.8 0.045 0.046 2229.7 4.01 1.8 0.045
SPECIMEN 18 (0% R·A·7.3% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Av.Load Div Def Ave Stiffness
(Div.x 0.026) (MPa)
1 10 1.00 0.4 0.010 1.00 1.00 0.4 0.010 0.010 2497 1.00 0.4 0.010
5 1.00 0.4 0.010 1.01 1.00 0.4 0.010 0.011 2270 1.00 0.5 0.013
3 1.00 0.5 0.013 1.00 1.00 0.5 0.013 0.013 1920 1.00 0.5 0.013
1 1.00 0.5 0.013 0.99 1.00 0.5 0.013 0.013 1920 1.00 0.5 0.013
1.5 10 1.50 0.4 0.010 1.49 1,50 0.4 0.010 0.010 3745 1.50 0.4 0.010
5 1.49 0.5 0.013 1.51 1.50 0.5 0.013 0.013 2881 1.50 0.5 0.013
3 1.5 0.6 0.015 1.5 1.50 0.6 0.015 0.015 2497 1.5 0.6 0.015
1 1.5 0.7 0.018 1.5 1.50 0.7 0.018 0.018 2080 1.5 0.7 0.018
2 10 2.00 0.5 0.013 2.00 2.00 0.5 0.013 0.013 3841 2.00 0.5 0.013
5 2.00 0.7 0.018 1.99 2.00 0.7 0.018 0.018 2774 2.00 0.7 0.018
3 1.99 0.8 0.020 2.00 2.00 0.8 0.020 0.020 2497 2.00 0.8 0.020
1 2.00 0.9 0.023 2.00 2.00 1.0 0.025 0.024 2080 2.00 0.9 0.023
SPECIMEN 18 (continued)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Av.Load Div Def Ave Stiffness
(MPa)
3 10 3.00 0.9 0.023 3.00 3.00 0.9 0.023 0.023 3256 3.00 0.9 0.023
5 3.00 1.0 0.025 3.00 3.00 1.0 0.025 0.025 2996 3.00 1.0 0.025
3 3.00 1.2 0.030 3.00 3.00 1.2 0.030 0.030 2497 3.00 1.2 0.030
1 3.00 1.4 0.035 3.00 1.4 0.035 0.035 2140 3.00 1.4 0.035
4 10 4.00 1.2 0.030 4.00 4.00 1.2 0.030 0.030 3329 4.00 1.2 0.030
5 4.00 1.5 0.038 4.00 4.00 1.5 0.038 0.038 2628 3.99 1.5 0.038
3 4.00 1.6 0.040 4.00 4.00 1.6 0.040 0.040 2497 4.00 1.6 0.040
1 4.00 2.0 0.050 4.00 4.00 1.8 0.045 0.048 2080 4.00 1.9 0.048
SPECIMEN 38 (100% R - B-6.5% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) PeaklPeak Div Def(mm) Stiffness
(Div.x 0.014) (MPa)
1 20 1.0 0.4 0.006 3984 10 1.0 0.4 0.006 3984 5 0.9 0.5 0.007 3074 3 0.9 0.6 0.008 2689 1 0.9 0.7 0.010 2151
2 20 1.7 0.6 0.008 5080 10 1.6 0.7 0.010 3825 5 1.6 0.8 0.011 3477 3 1.7 1.0 0.014 2903 1 1.6 1.3 0.018 2125
3 20 2.4 0.9 0.013 4413 10 2.4 1.0 0.014 4098 5 2.4 1.2 0.017 3375 3 2.5 1.4 0.020 2988 1 2.5 1.7 0.024 2490
4 20 3.4 1.0 0.014 5805 10 3.3 1.3 0.018 4383
5 3.3 1.5 0.021 3757 3 3.3 1.8 0.025 3156 1 3.3 2.3 0.032 2465
SPECIMEN 39 (100% R - B-6.5% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) PeaklPeak Div Def(mm) Stiffness
(Div.x 0.0.014) (MPa)
1 20 0.8 0.4 0.0056 3218 10 0.8 0.5 0.0070 2758 5 0.8 0.6 0.0084 2414 3 0.8 0.7 0.0098 1931 1 0.8 0.8 0.0112 1755
2 20 1.6 0.6 0.0084 4827 10 1.6 0.7 0.0098 3862 5 1.6 0.8 0.0112 3511 3 1.6 0.9 0.0126 2971 1 1.6 1.2 0.0168 2272
3 20 2.4 0.8 0.0112 5266 10 2.4 0.9 0.0126 4456 5 2.4 1.2 0.0168 3408 3 2.4 1.4 0.0196 2896 1 2.4 1.8 0.0252 2317
4 20 3.2 1.0 0.0140 5517 10 3.2 1.2 0.0168 4543 5 3.2 1.5 0.0210 3678 3 3.2 1.8 0.0252 3089 1 3.2 2.5 0.0350 2207
SPECIMEN 40 (100% R - 8-6.5% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) PeaklPeak Div Def(nun) Stiffness
(Div.x 0.014) (MPa)
1 20 0.8 0.6 0.0084 2402 10 0.8 0.7 0.0098 1922 5 0.8 0.8 0.0112 1747 3 0.8 0.9 0.0126 1478 1 0.8 0.9 0.0126 1478
2 20 1.6 0.8 0.0112 3494 10 1.6 0.9 0.0126 2956 5 1.6 1.0 0.0140 2745 3 1.6 1.2 0.0168 2261 1 1.6 1.4 0.0196 1922
3 20 2.4 1.0 0.0140 4118 10 2.4 1.1 0.0154 3843 5 2.4 1.3 0.0182 3203 3 2.4 1.5 0.0210 2745 1 2.4 1.8 0.0252 2306
4 20 3.2 1.0 0.0140 5491 10 3.2 1.3 0.0182 4270 5 3.2 1.6 0.0224 3494 3 3.2 1.8 0.0252 3075 1 3.2 2.2 0.0308 2480
SPECIMEN 41 (100% R . B·6.5% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Div Def (nun) Stiffness
(Div.x 0.014) (MPa)
1 20 0.8 0.3 0.0042 4804 10 0.8 0.4 0.0056 3203 5 0.8 0.5 0.0070 2745 3 0.8 0.6 0.0084 2402 1 0.8 0.7 0.0098 1922
2 20 1.6 0.4 0.0056 6406 10 1.6 0.6 0.0084 4804 5 1.6 0.8 0.0112 3494 3 1.6 0.9 0.0126 2956 1 1.6 1.1 0.0154 2562
3 20 2.4 0.7 0.0098 5765 10 2.4 0.8 0.0112 5241 5 2.4 1.2 0.0168 3391 3 2.4 1.4 0.0196 2882 1 2.4 1.7 0.0238 2402
4 20 3.2 1.0 0.0140 5491 10 3.2 1.2 0.0168 4522 5 3.2 1.5 0.0210 3660 3 3.2 1.8 0.0252 3075 1 3.2 2.2 0.0308 2480
SPECIMEN 42 (100% R - B-6.5% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Reading Def.(mrn) Stiffness
(Reading )( 0.1) (MPa)
1 20 1 0.057 0.006 4120 10 1 0.064 0.006 4120 5 1 0.072 0.007 3532 3 1 0.080 0.008 3090 1 1 0.087 0.009 2747
2 20 2 0.091 0.009 5494 10 2 0.114 0.011 4495 5 2 0.125 0.013 3803 3 2 0.141 0.014 3532 1 2 0.141 0.014 3532
3 20 3 0.129 0.013 5704 10 3 0.156 0.016 4635 5 3 0.186 0.019 3903 3 3 0.194 0.019 3903 1 3 0.199 0.020 3708
4 20 4 0.183 0.018 5494 10 4 0.209 0.021 4709
5 4 0.241 0.024 4120 3 4 0.254 0.025 3955 1 4 0.301 0.030 3296
SPECIMEN 44 (100% R - A-6.7% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) . Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) PeaklPeak Reading Def(mm) Stiffness
(Reading x 0.1) (MPa)
1 20 1 0.057 0.006 4061 10 1 0.072 0.007 3481 5 1 0.083 0.008 3046 3 1 0.087 0.009 2708 1 1 0.095 O.OlD 2437
2 20 2 0.099 O.OlD 4874 10 2 0.114 0.011 4430 5 2 0.129 0.013 3748 3 2 0.137 0.014 3481 1 2 0.171 0.017 2867
3 20 3 0.144 0.014 5222 10 3 0.164 0.016 4569 5 3 0.179 0.018 4061 3 3 0.190 0.019 3848 1 3 0.221 0.022 3323
4 20 4 0.183 0.018 5415 10 4 0.209 0.021 4641 5 4 0.240 0.024 4061 3 4 0.255 0.026 3749 1 4 0.308 0.031 3144
SPECIMEN 45 (100% R - A-6.7% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) PeaklPeak Reading Def(mm) Stiffness
(Reading x 0.1) (MPa)
1 20 1 0.068 0.007 3565 10 1 0.076 0.008 3120 5 1 0.083 0.008 3120 3 1 0.087 0.009 2773 1 1 0.091 0.009 2773
2 20 2 0.091 0.009 5546 10 2 0.125 0.013 3839 5 2 0.141 0.014 3565 3 2 0.156 0.016 3120 1 2 0.179 0.018 2773
3 20 3 0.148 0.015 4991 10 3 0.171 0.017 4404 5 3 0.194 0.019 3940 3 3 0.209 0.021 3565 1 3 0.232 0.023 3255
4 20 '4 0.186 0.019 5254 10 4 0.232 0.023 4340
5 4 0.251 0.025 3993 3 4 0.286 0.029 3442
SPECIMEN 49 (0% R - B-6.5% Bitumen)
Load Freq Load Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) Peak/Peak Reading Def(mm) Stiffness
(Reading x 0.1) (MPa)
1 20 1 0.072 0.007 3448 10 1 0.087 0.009 2682 5 1 0.091 0.009 2682 3 1 0.095 0.010 2414 1 1 0.102 0.010 2414
2 20 2 0.110 0.011 4388 10 2 0.137 0.014 3448 5 2 0.156 0.016 3017 3 2 0.160 0.016 3017 1 2 0.194 0.019 2541
3 20 3 0.167 0.017 4259 10 3 0.190 0.019 3811 5 3 0.217 0.022 3291 3 3 0.236 0.024 3017 1 3 0.255 0.026 2785
4 20 4 0.205 0.021 4597 10 4 0.247 0.025 3862 5 4 0.286 0.029 3329 3 4 0.305 0.031 3114 1 4 0.324 0.032 3017
SPECIMEN 50 (0% R • B·6.5% Bitumen)
lAlad Freq lAlad Reading (kN) Deflection Reading Dynamic (kN) (Hz) PeaklPeak Reading Def Stiffness
(MPa)
1 20 1 0.061 0.006 4061 10 1 0.072 0.007 3481 5 1 0.080 0.008 3046 3 1 0.087 0.009 2708 1 1 0.099 0.010 2437
2 20 2 0.099 0.010 4874 10 2 0.125 0.013 3749 5 2 0.137 0.014 3481 3 2 0.148 0.015 3249 1 2 0.148 0.015 3249
3 20 3 0.141 0.014 5222 10 3 0.171 0.017 4300 5 3 0.202 0.020 3655 3 3 0.217 0.022 3323 1 3 0.217 0.022 3323
4 20 4 0.194 0.019 5130 10 4 0.232 0.023 4238 5 4 0.267 0.027 3610 3 4 0.286 0.029 3361 1 4 0.308 0.031 3144
APPENDIX 3
• DARTEC elastic stiffness summary of results
• DARTEC elastic stiffness graph summaries
DARTEC Elastic Stiffness Results Summary
SPECIMEN 17 - (0% R-A-7.0% Bit)
PeaklPeak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
10 5 3 1
I 1948 1688 1705 1688 1.5 2951 2558 2398 2131 2 3444 2856 2570 2131 3 3849 3069 2637 2131 4 3789 2923 2842 2230
SPECIMEN 18 - (0% R-A-7.3% Bit)
PeaklPeak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
10 5 3 1
I 2497 2270 1920 1920 1.5 3745 2881 2497 2080 2 3841 2774 2497 2080 3 3256 2996 2497 2140 4 3329 2628 2497 2080
SPECIMEN 38 - (100% R-B-6.5% Bit)
PeaklPeak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 I
1 3984 3984 3054 2689 2151 2 5080 3825 3477 2903 2125 3 4413 4098 3375 2988 2490 4 5805 4383 3757 3156 2465
SPECIMEN 39 - (100% R-B-6.5% Bit)
PeaklPeak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 3218 2758 2414 1931 1755 2 4827 3862 3511 2971 2272 3 5266 4456 3408 2896 2317 4 5517 4543 3678 3089 2207
SPECIMEN 40 - (100% R-B-6.5% Bit)
PeaklPeak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 2402 1922 1747 1478 1478 2 3494 2956 2745 2261 1922 3 4118 3843 3203 2745 2306 4 5491 4270 3494 3075 2480
SPECIMEN 41 - (100% R-B-6.5% Bit)
PeaklPeak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 4804 3203 2745 2402 1922 2 6406 4804 3494 2956 2562 3 5765 5241 3391 2882 2402 4 5491 4522 3660 3075 2480
SPECIMEN 42 - (100% R-B-6.5% Bit)
Peak/Peak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 4120 4120 3532 3090 2747 2 5494 4495 3803 3532 3532 3 5704 4635 3903 3903 3708 4 5494 4709 4120 3955 3296
SPECIMEN 44 - (100% R-A-6.7% Bit)
Peak/Peak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 4061 3481 3046 2708 2437 2 4874 4430 3748 3481 2867 3 5222 4569 4061 3848 3323 4 5415 4641 4061 3749 3144
SPECIMEN 45 - (100% R-A-6.7% Bit)
Peak/Peak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 3565 3120 3120 2773 2773 2 5546 3839 3565 3120 2773 3 4991 4404 3940 3565 3255 4 5254 4340 3993 3442
SPECIMEN 49 - (0% R-B-6.5% Bit)
Peak/Peak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
1 3448 2682 2682 2414 2414 2 4388 3448 3017 3017 2541 3 4259 3811 3291 3017 2785 4 4597 3862 3329 3114 3017
SPECIMEN 50 - (0% R-B-6.5% Bit)
Peak/Peak Elastic Stiffness in MPa at Load (kN) Frequencies (Hz)
20 10 5 3 1
I 4061 3481 3046 2708 2437 2 4874 3749 3481 3249 3249 3 5222 4300 3655 3323 3323 4 5130 4238 3610 3361 3144
E (GPa)
4
3
2
1
0%R-A-7.0% BITUMEN
• 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz la 1 Hz
O~------~--------~--------~------~----~ o 1 2 3 4
LOAD (kN)
SPECIMEN 17
E (GPa)
4
3
2
1
O%R-A-7.3% BITUMEN
• 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz ~ 1 Hz
• • • • •
OL-______ ~ ________ _L ________ ~ ______ ~~
o 1
SPECIMEN 18
2 LOAD (kN)
3 4
E (GPa)
7
6
5
4
3
2
• 100% R - B - 6.5% BITUMEN
• •
o
n C
~
• 20 Hz • 10 Hz 0 5 Hz la 3 Hz C 1 Hz
O~------~------__ -L ________ L-______ ~
o 1
SPECIMEN . 38.
2 LOAD (kN)
3 4
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
100%R-A-6.5% BITUMEN
1
[] 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 H: la 1 Hz
2
LOAD (kN)
SPECIMEN 39.
3 4
E ( GPa)
6 100%R- B-6.5% BITUMEN
5
4
3
2
1
I 01
o
SPECIMEN 40.
1 2
C 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz ~ 1 Hz
3 4
LOAD (kN)
E IGPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
100%R-B-6.5% BITUMEN
C 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz ~ 1 Hz
c
C
• •
• o
o~--____ ~ ______ ~ ________ ~ ______ ~~ o 2 3 4
LOAD (kN)
SPECIMEN 41
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
100%R-B-6.S% BITUMEN
o 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz 13 1 Hz
c
•
O~------~--______ -L ________ L-______ -L __ ~
o 1 2 3 4 LOAD (kW)
SPECIMEN 42
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
100%R-A-6.7% BITUMEN
C 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz ~ 1 Hz
LOADS AMPLITUDE REPRESENT THE INCREASE IN LOAD ABOVE 1 k N
.OL-___ L-___ ~---::__---~~~ o 1 2 3 4
LOAD (kN)
SPECIMEN 44
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
100%R-A-6.7% BITUMEN
c
o
C 20 Hz • 10 Hz
• 5 Hz 0 3 Hz Si 1 Hz
-O,...L..---_.l--___ ---L ____ ...J.... ___ ---lL-.._---.
° 1 2 3 4 LOAD (kN)
SPECIMEN 45
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
CDO%R-B-6.S0/0 BITUMEN
D 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz 11 1 Hz
D
-A.~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ __ ~ o 1 2 3
LOAD (kN)
SPECIHEN 49
E (GPa)
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
O·I.R-B-6.5% BITUMEN
o 20 Hz • 10 Hz • 5 Hz o 3 Hz 11 1 Hz
1
SP£CII'1EN SO
o
•
11
2 3 4
LOAD (kit
APPENDIX 4
NAT elastic stiffness results
ELASTIC STIFFNESS (NAT. TEST)
Specimen Diameter Length % Recycling - Material Type - % Bitumen Vertical Rise Time Frequency Elastic Stiffness (MPa)
No. (mm) (mm) force (kN) t(m secs) 1/4 x ]O-3t (Hz) a1200c al250C
30A 102 69 O%R - A - 6.7% Bit. 2.17 135 1.9 3254
30B 102 66 O%R - A - 6.7% Bit. 2.15 134 1.9 1837
44A 105 68 lOO%R - A - 6.7% Bit. 2.18 145 J.7 4338
44B 105 67 lOO%R - A - 6.7% Bit. 2.18 122 2.0 1910
45A 104 67 lOO%R - A - 6.7% Bit. 2.15 201 1.2 3741
45B 104 67 lOO%R - A - 6.7% Bit. 2.18 127 2.0 1713
32A 104 61 O%R - A - 7.0% Bit. 2.19 138 1.8 2081
32B 104 71 O%R - A -7.0% Bit. 2.18 154 1.6 1087
34A 105 65 O%R - A - 7.3% Bit. 2.18 154 1.6 1534
34B 105 67 O%R - A - 7.3% Bit. 2.19 122 2.0 1106
36A 103 67 O%R - A - 7.6% Bit. 2.18 126 2.0 1870
36B 103 63 O%R - A - 7.6% Bit. 2.19 155 1.6 809
49A 105 69 O%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.19 144 J.7 3647
49B 105 64 O%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.18 121 2.0 1430
50A 105 67 O%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.18 128 2.0 3271
50B 105 64 O%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.18 122 2.0 ]084
40A 105 68 lOO%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.16 128 2.0 3212
40B 105 65 lOO%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.17 136 1.8 1970
41A 105 66 lOO%R - B - 6.5% Bit. 2.20 128 2.0 4897
41B 105 65 lOO%R B - 6.5% Bit. 2.17 135 1.8 1828
42A 105 65 lOO%R B - 6.5% Bit. 2.16 133 1.9 4922
42B 104 66 lOO%R B - 6.5% Bit. 2.17 137 l.8 1574
APPENDIX 5
• EXAMPLE OF NAT ELASTIC STIFFNESS RESULTS OUTPUT
-mrur. ~\tl 'IRT twlllrfttDIII.m. ,,,,t_ 11\ 'ftb loa '11\
n,tt il 1111111 n . T",lfm" .. B ClJAlH s.c.- 'ha •• \15 WI'\ PiI_ , .. 10 • O.l~ tIo. __ ·~ ....... , ,utt .. 5 Ri .. t'" Kill· ZD
~1II<4- '"ID.'ft1 *''' Uii u • 64 ... ,_, L~~ 6. t!O IM. "In 2 l'IIIT ,- ~.l&'_.
~ _.I L'IDT , .. "IU~.
, .. ~ l~1T ,- I'I'S"" lal \.'fill la t. .......
lVDT I- I.UQ_. Lvl1 211 1.511 .-l' LVJT 10 8.611 .... Ult 1,- I.no .... ulT lw •• ,., ....
¥-- . 4Wj'
~====~.~=-=-== .. ~-=.======~======~-.-._--------~CT~i c.a.l. FM'~C.
(till
'Tt"., lA. sbous l .... T ..... e* 't' -.s' (" .. , ( .... us) (\.Iv... )
------------~------~--------~~ , '2.18 z. 2.18
. "'_--'---'-" ___ 1 ______ -=2 • 18
.. 2..18
lut .taU,tI.. . .......... _."11IlS .. .. ,'----,--_Ill • ;.Iri:' • IS dftiati •• ....
2. • l' 2. • 18
206.8'+ 206.lf-3
206.69 206.92 207."'7 2.06.87
121.6 I~Vi
115.5 I "!> 'l. 0 .. _----_ .. ._-_.- ..
121.6 1'3':'
121 .6 1:',,1-121. 6 1 '3 "4 -----. 120. If- I"!>~I .
d'=~IWt".It1 milk lEST
(c&lilro\l ... IICtIn rm ... OIl. uth r. 91)
hlo is 10 1 .. 9t T_nurl - 25 Cal., ... s.u .. cha, .. 105 a· Ibi .... ~ uti"· e.l:i I/o. cord. p ..... - , • Pr_& It&II • 5 RI .. tl • .wl - lD
~1 ... i'~1l pcre"T' t~ih~ \' i.r:.... LYIT t {.aU D'. PuSu Z l.YJT· 7. IIU. lm • .91 Dol. hilt i LYD1' ,. T. ID. LvtT' .1 .... "hI' \,YlI11' 6.m.... \'YIT 2- 1.m ... . ""'lLS Lt'" t- 6.111-. L.1t 2- "US .. .
'fw'Uc.-..l ~.t'c. ,..",,1 le. sb Isa a.;14 T; ..... .~ PIA I •• M ••
l'N) ( ..... ) ( ........ ) ~1'I1o)
• 2 .18 206.21 121. 6 14q4 1 :2.17 ZOS.OO \11. 6 I sot I 2.18 206.7'3 \11.6 1+'A1 --.. 2. .17 205.82 121.6 \ 4tH s 2. . 18 206. L2 ai.S I StO
...... 2.18 206. U 1U .6 f4qq
Tut lhtlltl" .... at _ .. tI"",. , .. u_· :~
... ,--r_---~. inltti •• 1IItdi ....
APPENDIX 6
• DEAD LOAD CREEP RESULTS
2"06/9,
23!C6ii: ;9/C6!~,
ul/C7i91
:J2I07n:
,~~/{j7 /~l
J6/01 m
~..;ij: :~:
:3/CT/8!
jP!CI~EN )0. 23 8u~posit 0:: D~R ~ A - 7.0: Bitumen ~::ngtn: C9!!! :'iaEleter: 1!15 :5
,DAD : 02 kg jTRKSS : ~:5 k:a
~!~!. ::~ULATIE D~~AE05 (:rsJ \secs.~
;5.3u u.OO 0 :5.ufl ~.5u IS00 :UO :. or, ;600 :?~G .,,, S4uo : T. 45
: j . 1: ZC .15
22.lS 23.15 0.30
; 0 .15 12.15 14 .15 ~6. E · ~ ; = · \,,' .. ,,) :'I~ ': ;. ~ . !.'
: ~. SU 13.30 15.30 l1.3G 20.00 22.U0 23.45 9.00
:3.15 : 7. 15 ~ 0 1;'
-"""'"
22.DO 13.00 18.l5 11. 25 20.45 15.00 22.45 10. no j 1.45 US
,6.00 23.00 17 . 00 :C,3C 20.15 10.45 -) I {,(1 __ .1;1.'
......... :0. uD · _~ I': ........ 13.00 ,9.00 :.3C
; r.:.
:. : 5
I 7': 't.'" ; 7: "','" US 7.75 9.00
15.25 19.25 21.25 23.25
~7. 25 j .~~
44.50 46.50 43.50 50.50 53.00 suo :6.75 66.00 :D.25 iUS i€.25 ~ 0 r,~
v .....
,jO .25 JUS
: 03.00 ;:UO 243.25 260.50 269.75 288.00 295.75 307.0C .114.15 330.25 33UC HUO ,:·52. OD ~79.5n 339.25 m.15 ;38.00 4i9j5 2H.~~
511.25 57UO 60UO 618.50
':! Dv mo
:3500 :7100 moo 24300 moo 32400 5&500 moo 16500 83700 90900 moo
: ~53C0 ~12SUO
~i9700 :53000 160200 167400 114600 181800 190800 :98000 204300 231600 252900 257300 ~14500 ~317~O
:88900 2H70D 310800 424800 015700 ~37800 971100
1036800 1064700 llomo ;:33100 1188900 1213200 :238400 : 303:00 :366200 ~101300 ~l53500
1516800 : '25300 ~615300 :21!5G0 910100 066400 tlHOO 226600
Leit 22.00 2l.S~ 21. 9i ~l. 95
:: . 90 21. 8S 21.86 21.85 2!.84 21.82 21.75 21.73 21.72 21.70 21.70 21.68 2 i. Si
21.56 21. 65 21. 65 21.65 21.65 21.65 21.65 21.65 21.65 21.65 21.65 ~l. 65 21.65 2l.65 21.65 21.16 21.46 21.46 2U& 21.28 21.2B 21.28 21.28 21.28 21.28 21.28 21.28 21.28 Z 1.18 21.17 21.16 21.16 21. 16 2: . j 5 2~ . 16 j i ~ .. ~ .... 0
21. 16 21.16 21.16 21.16
Bight 20.00 !9.~~ :l;; _ .. , .. ",
:U5 !5.93 19.92
~g.8~
19.82 19.5D 19,73 19.75 19.63 19.5i 19.55 19.52 19.49 19.41 :~.E :9.4~ 19. !i
19.31 19.30 19.28 19.26 19.25 19.23 19.22 19.18 19.17 19.IS : 9.14 ~9.12 19.D 19.09 ,9.08 19.06 18.i7 18.85 ! 8.84 18.83 18.82 18.81 18.80 18.79 18.19 18.78 lB.77 18.76 18.15 18.74 18.72 18.70 la.a? :us 18.65 18.62 18.62 18.60
~. ~o
L~!
".\1.1
- ;'7
:-, '\': ~.:;'.J
fI i', IJ, ~.:.
'I I ~ l.,i.'t
,}. :: &,16 G. :a fl 'i' v.l. ..
0,27 U8 UO 0.30 ~.j2 .\ ~:
~.""'
~.35
u.3!o ~.j5
0,35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 u.35 D.j5 .} . 35
.• ~: • •• .J,J
j.54 f:.; 4
0. i2 0.72
0.72 0.72 0.7;: 0.72 n.72 Q .72 J.i2
J,33 UI U4 0.81 HI
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·DOCUMENTS OF POOR
ORIGINAL HARD COpy
Date: 12/02/08 Authorised by: Simon Cockbill Issue 2 Page 1 of 1
Hin hard c09Y, this page is UNCONTROLLED and only valid on ~ate of issue 16-May-08
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height 66 mm STRESS = 100 kF TEMF'. = 40 C Diame~e~: l~~ mm
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1000. ,J~;O 1100.000 1200.000 1300.000 1400.000 1.50ll.000 1600. :)Of) :IOU. \JOO ~:jCO. :·.:~::0
1800. ·JOG :::OOIJ.J80 :::100.::;00 :2200.000 :2300.800 2400.:)00 2500.000 2600.000 2700.000 2800.000 :2900.000 3000.000 3100.000 3200.000 3300.C!00 o34UO.000 3500.000 3600.uOO 3602. ,']00 .1604. ,jOO :-:606. ·.-~\;O :)600,. :jao 3610.000 3620.000 3640.000
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APPENDIX 8
PHOTOGRAPH OF SOME TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN PREPARING SPECIMENS
APPENDIX 9
PHOTOGRAPH SHOWl NG HAMMER . MOULD
AND SAWN SPEClME NS
