psy 369: psycholinguistics language production: theories & models

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PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

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Page 1: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

PSY 369: Psycholinguistics

Language Production:Theories & Models

Page 2: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Announcements Homework 6 (Due April 24) Try to be vigilant for four or five days in noting speech errors

made by yourself and others. Write each slip down (carry a small notebook and pencil with you). Then, when you have accumulated a reasonably size sample (aim for 20 to 30, but don't panic if you don't get that many), try to classify each slip in terms of

the unit(s) involved the type of error

Remember that each error may be interpreted in different ways. For some of them, see if you can come up with more than one possibility.

Page 3: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

Jane threw the ball to Bill

General Model of Language Production

What do speech errors suggest? Fromkin (1971) Garrett (1975)

(And experiments too)

Page 4: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech General Model of Language Production

Ordered sequence of independent planning units

Four levels of processing are typically proposed

Typically they are ordered this way (but there is debate about the independence of the different levels)

Note the similarity to models of comprehension

Message level

Morphemic level

Syntactic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Page 5: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech Propositions to be communicatedMessage level

Morphemic level

Syntactic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Selection and organization of lexical items

Morphologically complex words are constructed

Sound structure of each word is built

Page 6: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech Propositions to be communicatedMessage level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Not a lot known about this step Typically thought to be shared with

comprehension processes, semantic networks, situational models, etc.

Page 7: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech Grammatical class constraint

Most substitutions, exchanges, and blends involve words of the same grammatical class

Slots and frames A syntactic framework is constructed, and

then lexical items are inserted into the slots

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Page 8: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

It was such a happy moment when Ross

kissed Rachel…

Ross

Em

ily

Rachel

Page 9: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

… Oops! I mean “kissed Emily.”

Ross

Em

ily

Rachel

Page 10: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

LEXICON

•ROSS

•KISS

•EMILY

•RACHEL

SYNTACTIC FRAME

NP

S

VP

V(past) NN

Spreading activation

Page 11: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

LEXICON

•ROSS

•KISS

•EMILY

•RACHEL

SYNTACTIC FRAME

NP

S

VP

V(past) NN

Grammatical class constraint:

If the word isn’t the right grammatical class, it won’t “fit” into the slot.

Page 12: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech Grammatical class constraint

Most substitutions, exchanges, and blends involve words of the same grammatical class

Slots and frames A syntactic framework is constructed, and

then lexical items are inserted into the slots Other evidence

Syntactic priming

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Page 13: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Hear and repeat a sentence

Describe the picture

Bock (1986): syntactic persistance tested by picture naming

Syntactic priming

Page 14: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

a: The ghost sold the werewolf a flowerb: The ghost sold a flower to the werewolf

Bock (1986): syntactic persistance tested by picture naming

Syntactic priming

b: The girl gave the flowers to the teacher

a: The girl gave the teacher the flowers

Page 15: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Syntactic priming In real life, syntactic priming seems to

occur as well Branigan, Pickering, & Cleland (2000):

Speakers tend to reuse syntactic constructions of other speakers

Potter & Lombardi (1998): Speakers tend to reuse syntactic constructions of

just read materials

Page 16: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

The inflection stayed in the same location, the stems moved

Inflections tend to stay in their proper place

Do not typically see errors like

The beeing are buzzesThe bees are buzzing

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Stranding errors

I liked he would hope you

I hoped he would like you

Page 17: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

Closed class items very rare in exchanges or substitutions

Two possibilities Part of syntactic frame High frequency, so lots of practice,

easily selected, etc.

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Stranding errors

Page 18: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Consonant vowel regularity Consonants slip with other

consonants, vowels with vowels, but rarely do consonants slip with vowels

The implication is that vowels and consonants represent different kinds of units in phonological planning

Page 19: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Consonant vowel regularity Frame and slots in syllables

Similar to the slots and frames we discussed with syntax

Page 20: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

LEXICON

•/d/, C

•/g/, C

• , VOnset

Word

Rhyme

V CC

PHONOLOGICAL FRAME

Syllable

Page 21: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

From thought to speech

Message level

Syntactic level

Morphemic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Consonant vowel regularity Frame and slots in syllables Evidence for the separation of meaning

and sound

Tip of the tongue Picture-word interference

Page 22: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

An instrument used by navigators for measuring the angular distance of

the sun, a star, etc. from the horizon

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 23: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Uhh…It is a.. You know.. A.. Arggg.I can almost see it, it has two

Syllables, I think it starts with A …..

TOT Meaning access No (little) phonological

access What about syntax?

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 24: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

“The rhythm of the lost word may be there without the sound to clothe it; or the evanescent sense of something which is the initial vowel or consonant may mock us fitfully, without growing more distinct.” (James, 1890, p. 251)

Tip-of-the-tongue

Videos 1 | 2

Page 25: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Low-frequency words (e.g., apse, nepotism, sampan), prompted by brief definitions.

On 8.5% of trials, tip-of-the-tongue state ensued:

Had to guess: word's first or last letters the number of syllables it contained which syllable was stressed

Brown & McNeill (1966)

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 26: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Total of 360 TOT states: 233 ="positive TOTs" (subject was thinking of target

word, and produced scorable data 127 = "negative TOTs" (subject was thinking of other

word, but could not recall it) 224 similar-sound TOTs (e.g., Saipan for sampan)

48% had the same number of syllables as the target 95 similar-meaning TOTs (e.g., houseboat for

sampan). 20% had same number of syllables as target. 

Tip-of-the-tongue Brown & McNeill (1966)

Page 27: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Similar words come to mind about half the time but how much is just guessing?

First letter: correct 50-71% of time (vs. 10% by chance) First sound: 36% of time (vs. 6% by chance)

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 28: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Results suggest a basic split between semantics/syntax and phonology: People can access meaning and grammar

but not pronunciation

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 29: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Semantics Syntax

grammatical category (“part of speech”) e.g. noun, verb, adjective

Gender e.g. le chien, la vache; le camion, la voiture

Number e.g. dog vs. dogs; trousers vs. shirt

Count/mass status e.g. oats vs. flour

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 30: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Vigliocco et al. (1997) Subjects (Italian speakers) presented with word definitions

Gender was always arbitrary If unable to retrieve word, they answered

How well do you think you know the word? Guess the gender Guess the number of syllables Guess as many letters and positions as possible Report any word that comes to mind

Then presented with target word Do you know this word? Is this the word you were thinking of?

Tip-of-the-tongue

Page 31: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Vigliocco et al (1997)

Scoring + TOT

Both reported some correct information in questionnaire

And said yes to recognition question - TOT

Otherwise

Vigliocco et al. (1997)

Page 32: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Vigliocco et al (1997)

Results + TOT: 84% correct gender guess - TOT: 53% correct gender guess

chance level Conclusion

Subjects often know grammatical gender information even when they have no phonological information

Supports split between syntax and phonology in production

Vigliocco et al. (1997)

Page 33: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Nitty-gritty details of the model

Message level

Morphemic level

Syntactic level

Phonemic level

Articulation

Central questions: How many levels are there? Are the stages discrete or cascading?

Discrete: must complete before moving on Cascade: can get started as soon as some

information is available Is there feedback?

Top-down only (serial processing) Garrett, Levelt

Bottom up too (interactive processing) Dell, Stemberger, McKay

Page 34: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Doing it in time Strongest constraint may be fluency:

Have to get form right under time pressure.

Incrementality: ‘Work with what you’ve got’ Flexibility: allows speaker to say something quickly, also

respond to changing environment.

Modularity: ‘Work only with what you’ve got’ Regulate flow of information.

Page 35: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Two different models

TACTIC FRAMES LEXICAL NETWORK

Dell (1986)Levelt (1989)

Page 36: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Levelt’s model Four broad stages:

Conceptualization Deciding on the message (= meaning

to express) Formulation

Turning the message into linguistic representations

Grammatical encoding (finding words and putting them together)

Phonological encoding (finding sounds and putting them together)

Articulation Speaking (or writing or signing)

Monitoring (via the comprehension system)

Page 37: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Formalization on the Syntax side of the model

Works in parallel with the lexicon side

Levelt’s model

Functional processing: Assignment of roles

Direct object

Grammatical subject

Page 38: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Formalization on the Syntax side of the model

Works in parallel with the lexicon side

Levelt’s model

Positional processing: Build syntactic tree

NP VP

S

V NP

Page 39: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Tip of tongue state when lemma is retrieved without word-form being retrieved

Levelt’s model

Involves lexical retrieval: Semantic/syntactic content

(lemmas) Phonological content

(lexemes or word-forms)

Formalization on the Lexicon side of the model

Page 40: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

has stripes is dangerous

TIGER (X)

Fem.

Noun

countabletigre

/tigre/

/t/ /I/ /g/

Lexical concepts

Lemmas

Lexemes

Phonemes

Levelt’s model

Page 41: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

has stripes is dangerous

TIGER (X)

Levelt’s model: conceptual level

Conceptual level is not decomposed one lexical concept node for

“tiger” instead, conceptual links from

“tiger” to “stripes”, etc.

Fem.

Noun

tigre

/tigre/

/t/ /I/ /g/

countable

Page 42: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

TIGER (X)

Fem.

Noun

tigre

Levelt’s model: meaning & syntax

First, lemma activation occurs This involves activating a lemma or

lemmas corresponding to the concept thus, concept TIGER activates lemma

“tiger”

has stripes is dangerous

/tigre/

/t/ /I/ /g/

countable

Page 43: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

TIGER (X)

Fem.

Noun

tigre

Levelt’s model: meaning & syntax

First, lemma activation occurs This involves activating a lemma or

lemmas corresponding to the concept thus, concept TIGER activates lemma

“tiger”

But also involves activating other lemmas

TIGER also activates LION (etc.) to some extent

and LION activates lemma “lion”

LION (X)

lion

/tigre/

/t/ /I/ /g/

has stripes is dangerous

Page 44: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

TIGER (X)

Fem.

Noun

tigre

Levelt’s model: meaning & syntax

First, lemma activation occurs Second, lemma selection occurs

LION (X)

lion

Selection is different from activation

Only one lemma is selected Probability of selecting the target

lemma (“tiger”) ratio of that lemma’s activation to

the total activation of all lemmas (“tiger”, “lion”, etc.)

Hence competition between semantically related lemmas

/tigre/

/t/ /I/ /g/

has stripes is dangerous

Page 45: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Morpho-phonological encoding (and beyond)

The lemma is now converted into a phonological representation

called “word-form” (or “lexeme”) If “tiger” lemma plus plural (and

noun) are activated Leads to activation of morphemes

tigre and s Other processes too

Stress, phonological segments, phonetics, and finally articulation/tigre/

/t/ /I/ /g/

has stripes is dangerous

Fem.

Noun countable

tigre

TIGER (X)

Page 46: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Modularity Later processes cannot affect

earlier processes No feedback between the word-form

(lexemes) layer and the grammatical (lemmas) layer

Also, only one lemma activates a word form

If “tiger” and “lion” lemmas are activated, they compete to produce a winner at the lemma stratum

Only the “winner” activates a word form (selection)

The word-forms for the “losers” aren’t accessed

Model’s assumptions

Page 47: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Dell’s interactive account Dell (1986) presented the one of the best-known

interactive accounts other similar accounts exist (e.g., Stemberger, McKay)

Network organization 3 levels of representation

Semantics (decomposed into features) Words and morphemes phonemes (sounds)

These get selected and inserted into frames

Page 48: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Dell (1986)

A moment in the production of:

“Some swimmers sink”

TACTIC FRAMES LEXICAL NETWORK

Dell’s interactive account

Page 49: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

as well as “downwards”

info

rmat

ion

inform

ation

Interactive because information flows “upwards”

Dell (1986)

Cascading because processing at lower levels can start early

TACTIC FRAMES LEXICAL NETWORK

Dell’s interactive account

Page 50: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

these send activation back to the word level, activating words containing these sounds (e.g., “log”, “dot”) to some extent

Dell (1986)

this activation is upwards (phonology to syntax) and wouldn’t occur in Levelt’s account

FURRY BARKS

dog log

/a//g//d/ /l/

MAMMAL e.g., the semantic features mammal, barks, four-legs activate the word “dog”

this activates the sounds /d/, /o/, /g/dot

/t/

Dell’s interactive account

Page 51: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Model comparisons

Levelt’s Dell’s

Similar representations

Frames and slots

Insertion of representations into the frames

Serial

Modular

External monitor(comprehension)

Interactive

Cascaded

Similarities

Differences

Page 52: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Testing Models of language production

Experimental investigations of some of these issues

Time course - cascading vs serial Picture word interference

Separation of syntax and semantics Subject verb agreement

Abstract syntax vs surface form Syntactic priming

Page 53: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

tiger

Picture-word interference task Task:

Participants name basic objects as quickly as possible

Distractor words are embedded in the object (or presented aloud)

Participants are instructed to ignore these words

Experimental tests

Page 54: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Semantic interference Meaning related words can

slow down naming the picture

e.g., the word TIGER in a picture of a LION

Experimental tests

tiger

Picture-word interference task

Page 55: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Form-related words can speed up processing

e.g., the word liar in a picture of a LION

liar

Experimental tests Picture-word interference task

Semantic interference

Page 56: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Experiments manipulate timing: picture and word can be presented

simultaneously

liar

time

liar

or one can slightly precede the other We draw inferences about time-course of processing

liar

Experimental tests

Page 57: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

SOA (Stimulus onset asynchrony) manipulation -150 ms (word …150 ms … picture) 0 ms (i.e., synchronous presentation) +150 ms (picture …150ms …word)

Schriefers, Meyer, and Levelt (1990) DOT phonologically related CAT semantically related SHIP unrelated word

Evidence against interactivity

Page 58: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Schriefers, Meyer, and Levelt (1990) DOT phonologically related CAT semantically related SHIP unrelated word

EarlyOnly Semantic effects

LateOnly Phonological effects

Evidence against interactivity

Page 59: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Schriefers, Meyer, and Levelt (1990) Also looked for any evidence of a mediated

priming effect

hat dog

DOG (X) CAT (X)

cat

/cat/ /hat/

/t//a//k/ /h/

Found no evidence for it

Evidence against interactivity

Page 60: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Early semantic inhibition Late phonological facilitation Fits with the assumption that semantic processing

precedes phonological processing No overlap

suggests two discrete stages in production an interactive account might find semantic and phonological

effects at the same time

Interpretation

Page 61: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Mixed errors Both semantic and phonological relationship to target word Target = “cat”

semantic error = “dog” phonological error = “hat” mixed error = “rat”

Occur more often than predicted by modular models if you can go wrong at either stage, it would only be by chance

that an error would be mixed

Evidence for interactivity

Page 62: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Dell’s explanation The process of making an error

The semantic features of dog activate “cat” Some features (e.g., animate, mammalian) activate “rat” as well “cat” then activates the sounds /k/, /ae/, /t/ /ae/ and /t/ activate “rat” by feedback This confluence of activation leads to increased tendency for

“rat” to be uttered Also explains the tendency for phonological errors to be real

words (lexical bias effect) Sounds can only feed back to words (non-words not

represented) so only words can feedback to sound level

Evidence for interactivity

Page 63: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

A number of recent experimental findings appear to support interaction under some circumstances (or at least cascading models) Damian & Martin (1999) Cutting & Ferreira (1999) Peterson & Savoy (1998)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 64: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Damian and Martin (1999) Picture-Word interference The critical difference:

the addition of a “semantic and phonological” condition

Picture of Apple peach (semantically related) apathy (phonologically related) apricot (sem & phono related) couch (unrelated)

peach

Evidence for interactivity

Page 65: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Damian & Martin (1999)

early semantic inhibition

couch (unrelated)

peach (semantically related)

apathy (phonologically related)

apricot (sem & phono related)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 66: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Damian & Martin (1999)

late phonological facilitation (0 and + 150 ms)

early semantic inhibition

couch (unrelated)

peach (semantically related)

apathy (phonologically related)

apricot (sem & phono related)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 67: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Damian & Martin (1999)

late phonological facilitation (0 and + 150 ms)

Shows overlap, unlike Schriefers et al.

early semantic inhibition

couch (unrelated)

peach (semantically related)

apathy (phonologically related)

apricot (sem & phono related)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 68: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Cutting and Ferreira (1999) Picture-Word interference The critical difference:

Used homophone pictures Related distractors could be to

the depicted meaning or alternative meaning

“game”

“dance”

“hammer” (unrelated)

Only tested -150 SOA

dance

Evidence for interactivity

Page 69: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

ball

BALL (X) BALL (X)

ball

/ball/

DANCE (X)

dance

GAME (X)

game

Cascading Prediction: dance ball /ball/

Cutting and Ferreira (1999)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 70: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Early semantic inhibition

Cutting and Ferreira (1999)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 71: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Early Facilitation from a phonologically mediated distractor

Early semantic inhibition

Cutting and Ferreira (1999)

Evidence of cascading information flow (both semantic and phonological information at early SOA)

Evidence for interactivity

Page 72: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Peterson & Savoy (1998) Slightly different task

Prepare to name the picture

If “?” comes up name it?

Evidence for interactivity

Page 73: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Peterson & Savoy (1998) Slightly different task

Prepare to name the picture

If “?” comes up name it If a word comes up

instead, name the word

liar

Manipulate Word/picture relationship SOA

Evidence for interactivity

Page 74: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Peterson & Savoy (1998) Used pictures with two

synonymous names

Used words that were phonologically related to the non dominant name of the picture

sofa couch

DominantSubordinate

soda

Evidence for interactivity

Page 75: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Peterson & Savoy Found evidence for phonological activation of near

synonyms: Participants slower to say distractor soda than unrelated

distractor when naming couch Soda is related to non-selected sofa

Remember that Levelt et al. assume that only one lemma can be selected and hence activate a phonological form

Levelt et al’s explanation: Could be erroneous selection of two lemmas?

Evidence for interactivity

Page 76: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Can the two-stage account be saved?

Evidence for interaction is hard to reconcile with the Levelt account However, most attempts are likely to revolve

around the monitor Basically, people sometimes notice a problem and

screen it out Levelt argues that evidence for interaction

really involves “special cases”, not directly related to normal processing

Page 77: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Levelt et al.’s theory of word production: Strictly modular lexical access Syntactic processing precedes phonological

processing Dell’s interactive account:

Interaction between syntactic and phonological processing

Experimental evidence is equivocal, but increasing evidence that more than one lemma may activate associated word-form

Overall summary

Page 78: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Conversational interaction ABBOTT: Super Duper computer store. Can I help you? COSTELLO: Thanks. I'm setting up an office in my den, and I'm thinking about buying a

computer. ABBOTT: Mac? COSTELLO: No, the name is Lou. ABBOTT: Your computer? COSTELLO: I don't own a computer. I want to buy one. ABBOTT: Mac? COSTELLO: I told you, my name is Lou. ABBOTT: What about Windows? COSTELLO: Why? Will it get stuffy in here? ABBOTT: Do you want a computer with windows? COSTELLO: I don't know. What will I see when I look in the windows? ABBOTT: Wallpaper. COSTELLO: Never mind the windows. I need a computer and software. ABBOTT: Software for windows? COSTELLO: No. On the computer! I need something I can use to write proposals, track

expenses and run my business. What have you got? ABBOTT: Office.

Page 79: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Conversational interaction COSTELLO: Yeah, for my office. Can you recommend anything? ABBOTT: I just did. COSTELLO: You just did what? ABBOTT: Recommend something. COSTELLO: You recommended something? ABBOTT: Yes. COSTELLO: For my office? ABBOTT: Yes. COSTELLO: OK, what did you recommend for my office? ABBOTT: Office. COSTELLO: Yes, for my office! ABBOTT: I recommend office with windows. COSTELLO: I already have an office and it has windows!OK, lets just say, I'm sitting at

my computer and I want to type a proposal. What do I need? ABBOTT: Word. COSTELLO: What word? ABBOTT: Word in Office. COSTELLO: The only word in office is office. ABBOTT: The Word in Office for Windows.

Page 80: PSY 369: Psycholinguistics Language Production: Theories & Models

Conversational interaction COSTELLO: Which word in office for windows? ABBOTT: The Word you get when you click the blue "W.” COSTELLO: I'm going to click your blue "w" if you don't start with some straight

answers. OK, forget that. Can I watch movies on the Internet? ABBOTT: Yes, you want Real One. COSTELLO: Maybe a real one, maybe a cartoon. What I watch is none of your

business. Just tell me what I need! ABBOTT: Real One. COSTELLO: If it’s a long movie I also want to see reel 2, 3 and 4. Can I watch them? ABBOTT: Of course. COSTELLO: Great, with what? ABBOTT: Real One. COSTELLO; OK, I'm at my computer and I want to watch a movie. What do I do? ABBOTT: You click the blue "1.” COSTELLO: I click the blue one what? ABBOTT: The blue "1.” COSTELLO: Is that different from the blue "W"? ABBOTT: The blue 1 is Real One and the blue W is Word. COSTELLO: What word?

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Conversational interaction ABBOTT: The Word in Office for Windows. COSTELLO: But there are three words in "office for windows"! ABBOTT: No, just one. But it’s the most popular Word in the world. COSTELLO: It is? ABBOTT: Yes, but to be fair, there aren't many other Words left. It pretty much wiped out

all the other Words. COSTELLO: And that word is real one? ABBOTT: Real One has nothing to do with Word. Real One isn't even Part of Office. COSTELLO: Stop! Don't start that again. What about financial bookkeeping you have

anything I can track my money with? ABBOTT: Money. COSTELLO: That's right. What do you have? ABBOTT: Money. COSTELLO: I need money to track my money? ABBOTT: It comes bundled with your computer. COSTELLO: What's bundled to my computer? ABBOTT: Money.

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Conversational interaction COSTELLO: Money comes with my computer? ABBOTT: Yes. No extra charge. COSTELLO: I get a bundle of money with my computer? How much? ABBOTT: One copy. COSTELLO: Isn't it illegal to copy money? ABBOTT: Microsoft gave us a license to copy money. COSTELLO: They can give you a license to copy money? ABBOTT: Why not? THEY OWN IT!

(LATER) COSTELLO: How do I turn my computer off?? ABBOTT: Click on "START".

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Conversational interaction“the horse raced past

the barn”

Conversation is more than just two side-by-side monologues.

“the kids swam across the river”

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Conversational interaction“The horse raced past

the barn”

Conversation is a specialized form of social interaction, with rules and organization.

“Really? Why would it do that?”

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Conversation Fillmore (1981)

“The language of face-to-face conversation is the basic and primary use of language”

(pg. 152)

So all instances of language usage can (should) be compared to conversation

What is the impact of the presence or absence of different features of face-to-face conversation?

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Conversation Herb Clark (1996)

Face-to-face conversation - the basic setting Features

Co-presence Visibility Audibility

Instantaneity

Evanescence Recordlessness Simultaneity

Extemporaneity Self-determination Self-expression

Immediacy Medium Control

Other settings may lack some of these features e.g., telephone conversations take away co-presence and

visibility, which may change language use

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Conversation Herb Clark (1996)

Joint action Autonomous actions

Things that you do by yourself Participatory actions

Individual acts only done as parts of joint actions People acting in coordination with one another

Doing the tango Driving a car with a pedestrian crossing the street

The participants don’t always do similar things

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Conversation Herb Clark (1996)

Speaking and listening Traditionally treated as autonomous actions

Contributing to the tradition of studying language comprehension and production separately

Clark proposed that they should be treated as participatory actions

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Conversation Herb Clark (1996)

Speaking and listening Component actions in production and

comprehension come in pairs

Speaking Listening A vocalizes sounds for B

A formalizes utterances for B

A means something for B

B attends to A’s vocalizations

B identifies A’s utterances

B understands A’s meaning

The actions of one participant depend on the actions of the other

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Conversation Herb Clark (1996)

Arena’s of language use - places where people do things with language

Meaning and understanding Establishing Common Ground

Identifying participants Layers Conversation is structured

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Meaning and understanding Common ground

Common ground is necessary to coordinate speaker’s meaning with listener’s understanding

Knowledge, beliefs and suppositions that the participants believe that they share

Members of cultural communities Shared experiences What has taken place already in the conversation

Lack of successful communication was due to lack of common ground Starting around 1:20

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EavesdropperAll listeners

Identifying participants Conversation often takes place in situations that involve

various types of participants and non-participants

BystanderSide

participantsAll participants

Speaker Addressee

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EavesdropperAll listeners

Identifying participants

BystanderSide

participantsAll participants

Speaker Addressee

Humor come in part because we (eavesdroppers) share common ground that Lou and Bud didn’t)

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Layers Conversations may have several layers

Layer 1 The primary conversation

Layer 2 A commentary about Layer 1

Each layer needs to be coherent (within the layer) as well as be connected to other layers in a relevant way

Layer 2: “I'm going to click your blue "w" if you don't start with some straight

answers. OK, forget that.”

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Conversations are purposive and unplanned Typically you can’t plan exactly what you’re going to say

because it depends on another participant Conversations look planned only in retrospect

Conversations have a fairly stable structure

Structure of a conversation

Opening the conversation Identifying participants Taking turns Negotiating topics Closing conversations

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Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s

engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s

secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message

“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if

Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …

Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would

be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …

Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,

Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye

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Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s

engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s

secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message

“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if

Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …

Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would

be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …

Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,

Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye

Opening the conversation

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Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s

engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s

secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message

“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if

Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …

Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would

be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …

Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,

Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye

Exchanging information

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Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s

engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s

secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message

“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if

Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …

Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would

be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …

Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,

Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: bye

Exchanging a message

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Joe: (places a phone call) Kevin: Miss Pink’s office - hello Joe: hello, is Miss Pink in Kevin: well, she’s in, but she’s

engaged at the moment, who is it? Joe: Oh it’s Professors Worth’s

secretary, from Pan-American college Kevin: m, Joe: Could you give her a message

“for me” Kevin: “certainly” Joe: u’m Professor Worth said that, if

Miss Pink runs into difficulties, .. On Monday afternoon, .. With the standing subcommittee, .. Over the item on Miss Panoff, …

Structure of a conversation Kevin: Miss Panoff? Joe: Yes, that Professor Worth would

be with Mr Miles all afternoon, .. So she only had to go round and collect him if she needed him, …

Kevin: ah, … thank you very much indeed,

Joe: right Kevin: Panoff, right “you” are Joe: right Kevin: I’ll tell her, Joe: thank you Kevin: bye bye Joe: byeClosing the conversation

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Opening conversations Need to pick who starts

Turn taking is typically not decided upon in advance Potentially a lot of ways to open, but we typically restrict

our openings to a few ways Address another Request information Offer information Use a stereotyped expression or topic

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Opening conversations

Has to resolve: The entry time

Is now the time to converse? The participants

Who is talking to whom? Their roles

What is level of participation in the conversation? The official business

What is the conversation about?

Need to pick who starts Turn taking is typically not decided upon in advance Potentially a lot of ways to open

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Taking turns Typically conversations don’t involve two (or more)

people talking at the same time Individual styles of turn-taking vary widely Length of a turn is a fairly stable characteristic

within a given individual’s conversational interactions

Standard signals indicate a change in turn: a head nod, a glance, a questioning tone

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Taking turns Typically conversations don’t involve two (or more)

people talking at the same time

These principles are ordered in terms of priority The first is the most important, and the last is the least

important Just try violating them in an actual conversation (but

debrief later!)

Three implicit rules (Sacks et al, 1974) Rule 1: Current speakers selects next speaker Rule 2: Self-selection: if rule 1 isn’t used, then next speaker can

select themselves Rule 3: current speaker may continue (or not)

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Taking turns Typically conversations don’t involve two (or more)

people talking at the same time

Use of non-verbal cues Drop of pitch Drawl on final syllable Termination of hand signals Drop in loudness Completion of a grammatical clause Use of stereotyped phrase

“you know”

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Negotiating topics Keep the discourse relevant to the topic (remember

Grice’s maxims) Coherence again

Earlier we looked at coherence within a speaker, now we consider it across multiple speakers

Must use statements to signal topic shifts

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Closing conversations Closing statements

Must exit from the last topic, mutually agree to close the conversation, and coordinate the disengagement

Signal the end of conversation (or topic) “Okay”

Justifying why conversation should end “I gotta go”

Reference to potential future conversation “Later dude”

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Dialog is the key Why so little research on dialog?

Most linguistic theories were developed to account for sentences in de-contextualized isolation

Dialog doesn’t fit the competence/performance distinction well

Hard to do experimentally Conversations are interactive and largely unplanned

Pickering and Garrod (2004) Proposed that processing theories of language

comprehension and production may be flawed because of a focus on monologues

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Processing models of dialog Pickering and Garrod (2004)

Interactive alignment model Alignment of situation

models is central to successful dialogue

Alignment at other levels is achieved via priming

Alignment at one level can lead to alignment at another

Model assumes parity of representations for production and comprehension

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Summary “People use language for doing things with

each other, and their use of language is itself a joint action.” Clark (1996, pg387) Conversation is structured

But, that structure depends on more than one individual Models of language use (production and

comprehension) need to be developed within this perspective