psy 402nalvarado/psy402 ppts/pdfs/chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the...

36
PSY 402 Theories of Learning Chapter 1 – What is Learning?

Upload: others

Post on 25-May-2020

1 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

PSY 402Theories of LearningChapter 1 – What is Learning?

Page 2: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

What is Learning?Learning is:

An experiential processResulting in a relatively permanent changeNot explained by temporary states, maturation, or innate response tendencies.

Page 3: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Three Limits on the DefinitionThe change that occurs during learning is a potential for behavior that depends on other conditions.Learning is not always a permanent change.

What can be learned can be unlearned.Changes also occur for other reasons –maturation, motivation.

Page 4: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Three Kinds of LearningAdaptation to the environment

Habituation & sensitizationClassical conditioning

Also known as Pavlovian conditioning, respondent conditioning, S-S learning.

Instrumental or operant conditioningAlso known as S-R learning.

Page 5: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Roots of Learning TheoryThe discovery of reflexesFunctionalismBritish Associationists

Page 6: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.3 (A) René Descartes; (B) René Descartes came up with the concept of reflex action

Page 7: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Man, the MachineDescartes proposed that the body operates mechanically via reflex actions, similar to machinery.Reflexes are activated by stimuli in the environment.A reflex connects a stimulus (S) with a response (R).

This concept is used throughout learning theory.

Page 8: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

The Role of “Mind”Descartes proposed that the mind could overrule the action of bodily reflexes.Hobbes disagreed, arguing that the mind too operated reflexively.

Hedonism –all human thought is governed by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.

De la Mettrie observed that humans and animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa.

Page 9: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.4 Two famous British Empiricists

John Locke David Hume

Page 10: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

British Empiricists (Associationists)Locke, Hume, BerkeleyThe mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth.Knowledge is built up from sense impressions combined to form complex ideas.

Associations bind these impressions together.Complexity is built from simple partsExample of the apple – sweetness, redness, roundness, associated with taste, smell to form the idea (concept) of an “apple.”

Page 11: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.5 Immanuel Kant

Page 12: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Nature vs. nurtureNativists (nature) vs. empiricists (nurture).Rationalism – Kant argued that the mind is prepared to respond to its environment at birth.

A priori assumptions or ideas organize experience.We are born knowing about causality, substance, and a variety of other concepts.This idea is called preparedness.

The extreme version of this philosophy is called structuralism.

Page 13: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.6 (A) Charles Darwin; (B) Drawing from one of Darwin’s notebooks

Page 14: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Evolution & Natural SelectionDarwin – there is a continuity between humans and animals and both struggle for survival.Perhaps the mind itself has evolved.Functionalism – because behavior promotes survival, we can study behavior to understand its adaptive function.

Page 15: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

FunctionalistsDewey – lower animals have reflexes, humans have a flexible mindJames – people have instincts, not reflexes

The difference is whether the behavior can be changed or interrupted

Brucke – internal biochemical forces motivate behavior in all species.

Page 16: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Criticisms of FunctionalismThe variety of behavior across cultures is inconsistent with universal human instincts.Infants seem to have few innate instincts.Labeling everything an instinct doesn’t aid understanding much.

Bernard cataloged 2000+ instincts

Page 17: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Comparative PsychologyRomanes collected stories of animal behavior.Morgan – observed that dogs were not as clever as humans in performing certain tasks.

Complex animal behaviors may be built from laboriously learned simple processes.We cannot judge from the observed result but from the process of learning.

Morgan’s canon – behavior should not be explained by a complex process if a simpler one works (parsimony of explanation).

Page 18: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.7 (A) C. Lloyd Morgan; (B) Morgan’s dog, Tony

Page 19: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

BehaviorismA search for the laws governing learning.

Emphasis on experience.Avoidance of mentalistic concepts.

Associations are formed based on:Resemblance (similarity)Contiguity in time or placeCause and effect

We can generalize from animals to humans.

Page 20: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Early ExperimentsThorndike – S-R learning with cats in puzzle box.Pavlov – S-S learning with dogs salivating for meat powder.Watson – S-S learning with humans, such as “Little Albert” and the white rabbit.Skinner – S-R learning with rats in “Skinner boxes”(operant chambers). A “radical Behaviorist”.Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing that even rats have minds and think about their actions.

Page 21: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.8 (A) Edward Thorndike; (B) Two puzzle boxes Thorndike used to study the intelligence of cats

Page 22: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Thorndike’s LawsAlso called S-R learning.Law of effect – A chance act becomes a learned behavior when a connection is formed between a stimulus (S) and a response (R) that is rewarded.Law of exercise – the S-R connection is strengthened by use and weakened with disuse.

Page 23: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Thorndike’s Laws (Cont.)Law of readiness – motivation is needed to develop an association or display changed behavior.Associative shifting – a learned behavior (response) can be shifted from one stimulus to another.

Once a behavior is learned, the stimulus is gradually changed.Fish + “stand up”, then “stand up” alone.

Page 24: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.9 (A) Ivan Pavlov; (B) Pavlov’s classical conditioning set-up

Page 25: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Pavlov’s Conditioned ReflexConditioning -- a stimulus that initially produces no response can acquire the ability to produce one.Learning occurs through pairing in time and place of one stimulus with another stimulus that produces a response.This is a kind of associative shifting, but the response is involuntary.

Page 26: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Pavlov’s Studies

Page 27: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.10 John B. Watson

Page 28: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Watson & RaynorHuman fears can be acquired through Pavlovian (classical) conditioning.

Rat paired with loud noiseStimulus generalized to other white objects (white rabbit, white fur coat)

Mary Cover Jones developed counterconditioning -- a technique for eliminating conditioned fears.

Acquisition of fear-inhibiting response

Page 29: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Little Albert

Page 30: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.11 (A) B. F. Skinner; (B) A modern “Skinner box”

Page 31: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Ethics of Learning ResearchAnimals and humans are now protected by oversight and ethical guidelines.Pain or injury to animals must be weighed against and justified by the knowledge to be gained.Electric shock typically is uncomfortable and upsetting but not physically harmful.

Page 32: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

The Operant vs Respondent DistinctionHow voluntary is behavior?Operant vs respondent distinction:

Respondent behavior is controlled by what happens first (antecedents), elicited by stimuli in the environment.Operant behavior is controlled by the consequences of behavior in the past, emitted by the organism based on prior experience.

Page 33: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.12 Edward C. Tolman developed “operational behaviorism”

Page 34: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

Tolman’s Operational BehaviorismTolman proposed that behavior can be described in terms of unobservable mental constructs.Thirst is a construct that relates antecedents to observed behavioral responses.Constructs are widely used in psychology.

Cognitive psychology emerged out of Tolman’searly research demonstrating constructs in rats.

Page 35: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.13 A theoretical construct like “thirst” is not directly observable (Part 1)

Page 36: PSY 402nalvarado/PSY402 PPTs/PDFs/Chap1.pdf · animals are similar, and the body can affect the mind, as well as vice versa. ... Tolman – the “gadfly” of Behaviorism, arguing

1.13 A theoretical construct like “thirst” is not directly observable (Part 2)