psy i: chapt. 1 lecture (wood)

mastering the world ofpsychology

CHAPTER

fifth edition

Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved

Introduction to Psychology

1

Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd

Learning Objectives

1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master psychology?

1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method?

1.3 What are the goals of psychology?1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to

the field?1.5 What are the major schools of thought in

psychology?1.6 What are the seven contemporary

psychological perspectives?


Learning Objectives

1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?1.8 How do psychologists evaluate theories?1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate

research?1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational

and case studies?1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys?1.12 What are the strengths and weaknesses of

the correlational method?1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test

causal hypotheses?


Learning Objectives

1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?

1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness?

1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?


Overview

• Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology

• Psychology Then and Now• Thinking about Theories and Research• Descriptive Research Methods• The Experimental Method• Research Participants

Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved


Studying Psychology:Some Tricks of the Trade

• Maximize learning with the 5 steps of the SQ3R method.1. Survey2. Question3. Read4. Recite5. Review I/Review II

LO 1.1


More Tips for Effective Studying

• Establish a quiet place, free of distractions, where you do nothing but study.

• Schedule your study time.• Set specific goals each week.• Take an active role in the learning process.• Sleeping immediately after you study will

help you retain more of what you have learned.

LO 1.1


Is Psychology a Science?

• Psychology is a science.– The scientific study of behavior and

mental processes– Uses the scientific method to acquire

knowledge– Scientific method: orderly, systematic

procedures researchers follow

LO 1.2


Steps of the Scientific Method

• Observe and theorize.• Formulate a hypothesis.

– Specific prediction that can be tested empirically with data

• Design the study.• Collect data.• Apply results to the hypothesis.

– Replication of the study is important.

LO 1.2


Is Psychology a Science?

• Theory – A general principle or set of principles

proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related.

• Hypothesis– A testable prediction about the

conditions under which a particular behavior or mental process may occur.

LO 1.2


Figure 1.1 The Scientific MethodThese are the steps involved in the scientific method.

LO 1.2


Summarize it: The Goals of Psychology

LO 1.3


The Goals of Psychology

• Description– Identifying and classifying behaviors

and mental processes as accurately as possible

• Explanation– Proposing reasons for behaviors and

mental processes

LO 1.3



• Prediction– Offering predictions (or hypotheses)

about how a given condition or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes

• Influence– Using the results of research to solve

practical problems that involve behavior and mental processes

LO 1.3



• Basic Research – Seeks new knowledge– Advances general scientific

understanding• Applied Research

– Solves practical problems– Improves the quality of life

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Exploring Psychology’s Roots

• Psychology’s roots can be traced to the beginning of recorded history.

• Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s.

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Exploring Psychology’s RootsWilhelm Wundt

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)– Considered the “father” of psychology– Studied cultural and social influences on

human thought– Established the first psychological

laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany, 1879

– Developed introspection Analysis of basic elements of conscious

mental experience

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Exploring Psychology’s RootsTitchener

• Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927)– Studied under Wundt – Established a psychological laboratory

at Cornell University– Named his school of thought

“structuralism”

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Exploring Psychology’s RootsTitchener

• Structuralism– Aimed at analyzing the basic elements,

or structure, of conscious mental experience

– Criticized for its primary method, introspection considered not objective

– Established psychology as a science

LO 1.4


Exploring Psychology’s RootsFunctionalism

• Functionalism– how humans and animals use mental

processes to adapt to their environment• William James (1842–1910)

– main advocate of functionalism– clarified definition of mental processes

fluid have continuity not the rigid, fixed structures suggested

by the Structuralists

LO 1.4



• Broadened the scope of psychology – study of behavior as well as mental

processes• Allowed for the study of children,

animals, and the mentally impaired

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• Focused on more practical uses of psychology– encouraged study of educational

practices, individual differences, and adaptation in the workplace

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The Changing Face of Psychology

• Current Trends– More women than men obtain degrees

in psychology.– Minority representation is growing.

A gap between the proportion of minorities in the US population and the proportion represented in professional psychology persists.

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• Current Trends– Minority representation is growing.

The APA has established a program encouraging minority enrollment in graduate programs in psychology.

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• Christine Ladd-Franklin – Completed her PhD in the mid-1880s at

Johns Hopkins Did not receive her degree until 1926

– Formulated a theory of color vision

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• Mary Whiton Calkins – Completed the requirements for a

doctorate at Harvard denied degree due to being female

– Established psychology laboratory at Wellesley College

– Developed paired associates test

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• Margaret Floy Washburn – Received PhD from Cornell University– Wrote influential books

The Animal Mind (1908) Movement and Mental Imagery (1916)

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• Francis Cecil Sumner – First African American to earn a PhD in

psychology, 1920– Chaired psychology department at

Howard University

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• Albert Sidney Beckham – established the first psychological

laboratory at a black institution of higher learning, Howard University

– conducted important studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fields

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• Kenneth Clark– received national recognition for

writings on the harmful effects of racial segregation

– His writing impacted the Supreme Court rulings that declared national segregation unconstitutional.

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• Jorge Sanchez– Hispanic-American psychologist– Studied bias in intelligence testing

during the 1930s Cultural and language differences affect

the performance of Hispanic students taking American IQ tests.

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Schools of Thought in Psychology

• Behaviorism• Psychoanalytic Psychology• Humanistic Psychology• Positive Psychology• Cognitive Psychology• Evolutionary Psychology• Biological (Physiological) Psychology• The Sociocultural Approach

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Schools of Thought in Psychology:Behaviorism

• Named by John Watson• Redefined psychology as “the science

of behavior”• Observable, measurable behavior is the

only appropriate subject matter.• Environment is the key determinant of

behavior.• Most influential school of thought until

the 1960s

LO 1.5



• Skinner’s Key Points– Mind, consciousness, and feelings are

neither objective nor measurable. not appropriate subject matter for

psychology

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• Skinner’s Key Points– operant conditioning

emphasizes the importance of reinforcement in learning, shaping, and maintaining behavior

– Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated.

LO 1.5


Schools of Thought in Psychology:Psychoanalysis

• Personality theory developed by Sigmund Freud

• Psychoanalysis– treatment method for psychological

disorders• Psychoanalytic Theory

– individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconscious

LO 1.5


Schools of Thought in Psychology:Psychoanalysis

• Freud’s Followers– Jung, Adler, and Horney– Disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on

sexual and aggressive impulses– referred to as “neoanalysts”

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Schools of Thought in Psychology:Humanistic Psychology

• Humans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.

• Positive View of Human Nature– People are innately good.– Humans possess free will.

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Schools of Thought in Psychology:Humanistic Psychology

• Key Contributors:– Abraham Maslow

Theory of motivation Emphasizes hierarchy of needs

– Carl Rogers Client-centered therapy

– Client directs a discussion on his or her own view of the problem.

– The therapist’s analysis is less the focus of therapy.

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Schools of Thought in Psychology:Positive Psychology

• Martin Seligman– Positive psychology

The scientific study of psychological characteristics that enable individuals and communities to thrive in the face of adversity.

LO 1.5


Schools of Thought in Psychology:Cognitive Psychology

• Grew in response to strict behaviorism• Saw humans as:

– Not passive recipients pushed and pulled by environmental forces

– Active participants who seek out experiences, who alter and shape their experiences

– Using mental processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive development

LO 1.5


Schools of Thought in Psychology:Cognitive Psychology

• Ideas grew from gestalt psychology and information-processing theory.– Gestalt Psychology

The mind interprets events rather than simply reacting to them.

– Information-Processing Theory The brain processes information in

sequential steps Similar to a computer’s serial processing

LO 1.5


Schools of Thought in Psychology:Evolutionary Psychology

• Investigates: – Human behaviors necessary for survival– How behaviors adapted in the face of

environmental pressures over the course of evolution

• Draws heavily on Darwin’s theory

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Schools of Thought in Psychology:Biological (Physiological) Psychology• Often confused with evolutionary

psychology– Evolutionary psychology focuses on

universal traits– Biological psychology focuses on

individual differences

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Schools of Thought in Psychology:Biological (Physiological) Psychology• Studies structures of the brain,

neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredity

• Biological psychologists often work in neuroscience– Neuroscience includes biology,

biochemistry, and medicine in understanding functions of the nervous system

LO 1.5


Schools of Thought in Psychology:The Sociocultural Approach

• How background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processes– Important to understand these factors

when interpreting the behavior of others– Often studied within the broader context

of a systems perspective

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Contemporary Psychological Perspectives

• Many psychologists take an eclectic position– Combination of approaches to explain a

particular behavior• Adopting multiple perspectives allows

psychologists to:– Devise more complex theories and

studies– Improve treatment strategies

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• Behavioral perspective– Environmental factors

• Psychoanalytic perspective– Emotions, unconscious motivations,

early childhood experiences• Humanistic perspective

– Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-actualization


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• Cognitive perspective– Mental processes

• Evolutionary perspective– Inherited traits that enhance

adaptability• Biological perspective

– Biological structures, processes, heredity


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• Sociocultural perspective– Social and cultural variables


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Summarize It: Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology


Specialties in Psychology

• Clinical Psychologists – Diagnose and treat mental and

behavioral disorders • School Psychologists

– Diagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learning

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• Forensic Psychologists– Work with issues involving psychology

and law• Counseling Psychologists

– Work with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists

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• Physiological Psychologists– Study the relationship between

physiological processes and behavior• Experimental Psychologists

– Conduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion

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• Developmental Psychologists– Study change throughout the life span

• Educational Psychologists– Specialize in the study of teaching and

learning

LO 1.7



• Social Psychologists– Investigate individual feelings, thoughts,

and behavior in a social setting—in the presence of others

• Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologists– Study the relationships between people

and their work environments

LO 1.7


Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Theories

• Theories help psychologists achieve the goal of prediction.– Generate testable hypotheses

• Theories lead to the development of solutions for real-world problems.

• Theories possesses heuristic value.– Make people think – Spur curiosity and creativity

LO 1.8


Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research

• What Critical Thinking Accomplishes– Objectively evaluates claims,

propositions, and conclusions – Determines whether they follow

logically from the evidence presented

LO 1.9



• Characteristics of Critical Thought– Independent thinking

Not automatically accepting and believing what we read or hear

– Suspension of judgment Gathering relevant and up-to-date

information on all sides of an issue before taking a position

LO 1.9



• Characteristics of Critical Thought– Willingness to modify or abandon prior

judgments Evaluating new evidence, even when it

contradicts preexisting beliefs

LO 1.9


Descriptive Research Methods

• These methods yield descriptions of behavior and include:– Naturalistic and laboratory observation– Case study– Survey research– Correlational method

LO 1.10


Descriptive Research Methods

• Naturalistic Observation– Observation of behavior in its natural

setting– No attempt to influence behavior

• Laboratory Observation– Studies behavior in a laboratory setting– Allows more control and more precise

measurement of responses

LO 1.10


Descriptive Research Methods: Case Study

– Studies a single individual or small number of persons in depth

– Advantages– Appropriate for studying rare

psychological disorders or brain damage• Disadvantages

– Cannot identify the cause of behavior– Potential for bias– Results can lack generalizability

LO 1.10


Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys

• Interviews and/or questionnaires – Gather information about the attitudes,

beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people

– Population The entire group of interest to

researchers to which they wish to generalize their findings; the group from which a sample is selected.

LO 1.11


Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys

• Interviews and/or questionnaires – Sample

A part of a population that is studied to reach conclusions about the entire population.

• Studies a representative sample– A sample that mirrors the population of

interest; it includes important subgroups in the same proportions as they are found in that population.

LO 1.11


Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation

• Measures degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors– Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation).



• Three types:– Negative correlation– Positive correlation– No correlation


Figure 1.2 Positive and Negative CorrelationsHere are two graphs showing positive and negative correlations. (a) When positively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points fall along a line that rises from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent studying and grades on an exam. As study time goes up, exam grades go up as well. (b) When negatively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points follow a line that declines from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent watching television and grades on an exam. As TV time goes up, grades go down.



• Advantages– Information about one variable can be

used to predict the other.• Disadvantages

– Cannot be used to support the conclusion that one variable causes the other

LO 1.12


Figure 1.3 Correlation Does Not Prove CausationA correlation between two variables does not prove that a cause–effect relationship exists between them. There is a correlation between stress and illness, but that does not mean that stress necessarily causes illness. Both stress and illness may result from another factor, such as poverty or poor general health.


The Experimental Method: Experiments and Hypothesis Testing• Can identify cause-effect relationships• Designed to assess causal hypotheses

– Predictions about a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables

LO 1.13


The Experimental Method: Independent and Dependent Variables• Independent Variable

– A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition

• Dependent Variable– A factor or condition measured to

determine the impact of the experimental manipulation

LO 1.13


Figure 1.5 The Mean Shock intensity Chosen by Provoked and unprovoked ParticipantsIn the Lang experiment, participants who thought they were drinking alcohol chose to give significantly stronger shocks, whether provoked or not, than those who believed they were drinking only tonic. Source: Data from Lang et al. (1995)


The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups• Experimental Group

– Exposed to the independent variable• Control Group

– Exposed to the same experimental environment but not given the independent variable

LO 1.13


The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups• Comparing Experimental and Control

Groups– Researchers judge effects of the

independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally

LO 1.13


The Experimental Method: Limitations

• Confounding Variables– Factors other than the independent

variable that can affect results• Selection Bias

– Assignment to groups such that systematic differences between groups are present at the beginning of an experiment

LO 1.14



• Random Assignment– The process of selecting participants for

experimental and control groups by using a chance procedure to guarantee that each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups; a control for selection bias.

LO 1.14



• Placebo Effect– Response to a treatment caused by a

person’s expectations, not the treatment

• Experimenter Bias– A researcher’s expectations influence

the experiment’s results

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• These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique.– Neither the experimenter nor

participants know who is in the experimental or control groups

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• Quasi-experiments – Comparisons of groups that differ in

exposure to a variable of interest that cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons

• Cross-cultural research – Comparisons of mental processes and

behaviors among humans living in different cultures

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Summarize It: Research Methods In Psychology


Participant-Related Bias in Psychological Research

• APA requires:– Researchers must ensure that

participants are representative of the population that study’s results will be generalized.

– Research must include detailed information about participant characteristics.

LO 1.15


Types of Participant-Related Bias

• Whites Overrepresented – Subjects are often drawn from college

populations more populated with whites.

• Failure to Include Socioeconomic Status– Lacking in much of the research

literature comparing white Americans and African Americans

LO 1.15


Types of Participant-Related Bias

• Gender Bias– Researchers tend to specify the gender

of the sample clearly when subjects are female, but less often when the sample is exclusively male.

• Ageism– Often apparent in the language used in

psychological research with older adults

LO 1.15


Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights

• Legality– Research must conform to applicable

federal, state, and local laws and regulations.

• Institutional Approval– Researchers must obtain approval from

the institution involved in the study.

LO 1.16



• Informed Consent– Participants must be informed of the

purpose of the study and its potential for harming them.

• Deception– Deception is ethical when it is necessary

to acquire data.

LO 1.16



• Debriefing– Participants are informed about any

deception when the study is complete.• Clients, Patients, Students, and

Subordinates– Participants under another’s authority

(i.e., employees) must be assured that participation will not damage the participants.

LO 1.16



• Payment for Participation– Participants can be paid.– Must be informed about what is

expected in return for payment• Publication

– Report findings in an appropriate forum, such as a scientific journal

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• Legality– Animal research must follow all relevant

federal, state, and local laws.• Supervision by Experienced Personnel

– Use of animals must be supervised by people trained in animal care.

LO 1.16



• Minimization of Discomfort– Researchers are ethically bound to

minimize any discomfort to research animals.

LO 1.16