Child Development Laura E. Berk 8th editionChapter 1History, Theory, and Applied Directions

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Child development - interdisciplinary field of developmental science, a combined efforts of researchers from many disciplines

Research in child development has both scientific and applied (practical) importance.

Domains of Development

Ackerman et al. (2007) Subjects: N =105 school-age children (grades 3 & 5)MeasurementsTeachers completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)Statewide reading achievement test scores & scores on a standardized vocabulary subtest.Childrens a self-report about emotional experiences (e.g., they were asked, How often do you feel angry, disgusted, shy, sad, or guilty?) direct observations to assess inattention by trained coders.demographic information, including a family disruption index, completed by parents.

Ackerman et al. (2007)Findings (Results):Reading problems in 3rd & 5th and fifth grades strongly predicted internalizing behavior and negative emotionThe relationship between reading problems, internalizing behavior, and negative emotion remained even after controlling for family disruption.

Conclusion: These findings highlight the negative consequences of reading problems on the psychological well-being in school-age children.

Periods of DevelopmentCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

PrenatalConception to birthInfancy and ToddlerhoodBirth to 2 yearsEarly Childhood2 to 6 yearsMiddle Childhood6 to 11 yearsAdolescence11 to 18 yearsEmerging Adulthood18 to 25 years

TheoryAn orderly, integrated, evidence-based set of statements thatDescribesExplainsPredicts behaviorWhy do we need theories:They guide and give meaning to what we see.Organize existing informationIdentify new issues that are deserving of studyIf verified by research, they often provide a sound basis for practical action. Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Basic Issues in Development TheoriesMany theories of child development take a stand on three basic issues:1. Is the course of development continuous or discontinuous? Does one course of development (universal) characterize all children regardless places & time, or are there many possible courses? Nature or nurture: Are genetic or environmental factors more important in influencing development? Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Continuous or Discontinuous DevelopmentCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

One course of development or many?Stage theorists on same sequence of developmentOthers; children grow up in distinct contexts with unique combinations of:GeneticsEnvironmentCan result in different paths of developmentfostering different cognitive capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self and others.Family Life Royalty Free CDCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Nature and NurtureNatureInborn, biological givensBased on genetic inheritanceNurturePhysical and social worldInfluence biological and psychological developmentCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

All agree some role to both nature and nurture, but how much varies.The question of stability versus changeChildren who are high or low in a characteristic (e.g., verbal ability) will remain so at later ages, so that there is little value in providing experiences aimed at promoting change.Others believe that early experiences establish a lifelong pattern of behavior = important to intervene as early as possible for optimal development can be changed even later in the life?

Balanced viewBoth continuous & discontinuous changesUniversal & unique to individual/contextsInterwoven effect of heredity & environment

Resilient ChildrenResilience: the capacity of an individual to cope with adversity bouncing back to normalcyWhat factors offer protection from the damaging effect of stressful lives? High intelligence and socially endowed talents (e.g., temperament)A warm parental relationship Social support outside the immediate familyCommunity resources and opportunities Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Historical Views of ChildhoodCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Medieval Era and EarlierChildhood (to age 7 or 8) regarded as separate phase with special needs16th CenturyPuritan original sin views in need of restrictive parenting17th CenturyJohn Lockes tabula rasa or blank slate view passive: nurture18th CenturyJean Jacques Rousseaus noble savages view with a sense of right & wrong; nature

Medieval times:Childhood was regarded as a separate period of life as early as medieval Europe (6th through 15th centuries). Medieval paintings and written texts indicate that children were not seen as fully mature.In the 16th century, the Puritan belief in original sin leads to belief that children were born evil and had to be civilized through harsh, restrictive child-rearing practices the first to create reading materials for children on in religious and moral ideals .

Children and Youth in America: 1600-1865 (Bremner, 1974)Massachusetts selectmen ordered to enforce the law for training children and servants within the family, 1648

as the good education of children is of Singular behoof and benefit to any commonwealth, and whereas many parents and masters are too indulgent and negligent of their duty in that kindenable them perfectly to read the English tongue and knowledge of the capital laws, upon penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect therein

John Locke (16321704)British philosopher, viewed the child as a tabula rasa - blank slate. Parents as rational tutors who could mold the child through instruction, example, and rewards.Lockes philosophy led to a change from harshness toward children to kindness and compassionemphasized nurturethe power of the environment to shape the childs new experiences.as passive blank slates children do little to influence their own destiny

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (17121778) - Nature

children as noble savages, born with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.The role of adults was to attend to the childs needs at each of four stages: infancy, childhood, late childhood, and adolescence.The idea of stage & maturationa genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.

Key Principles of Darwins Theory of Evolution (1859)Species have characteristics that are adaptedor fitto their environments.Individuals best adapted to their environments survive to reproduce.Their genes are passed to later generations.Natural Selection & Survival of the FittestCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Early Scientific Studyof DevelopmentCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Baby BiographiesDarwin (1859) & William PreyerDay-to-day impressions of a childs behaviorNormative ApproachG. Stanley Hall (1920) & Arnold Gesell (1933) Age-related averages Normed: Based on measurements of large numbers of peopleMental Testing MovementSimon & Binet (1911): Early developers of intelligence testsDevelopmental theoristJames Mark Baldwin (1897) Nature and nurture of equal importance

Motor Development22

Anti-Child Labor, 1913http://www.humanities.uci.edu/history/ucihp/hot/Grade8.php

Mid-20th century TheoriesPsychoanalytic FreudEriksons Psychosocial TheoryBehaviorism & social learning theory (social cognitive theory): Watson, Skinner, BanduraPiagets cognitive-developmental theory

Freuds Three Parts of the PersonalityCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Id Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desiresEgo Conscious, rational part of mind Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptablySuperego The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers

Freuds Psychosexual Stages

OralAnalPhallicLatencyGenitalRubberBall Productions Royalty Free CDCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Eriksons Psychosocial StagesCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Basic trust vs. mistrustBirth1 yearIdentity vs. identity confusionAdolescenceAutonomy vs. shame and doubt13 yearsIntimacy vs. isolationEmerging AdulthoodInitiative vs. guilt36 yearsGenerativity vs. stagnationAdulthoodIndustry vs. inferiority611 yearsIntegrity vs. despairOld Age

Eriksons Psychosocial Stages28

PeriodCore IssuesOutcomeBirth 1 yrTrust vs. MistrustHope- world is good1 3 yrsAutonomy vs. Shame/DoubtWill power3 - 6 yrsInitiative vs. GuiltPurpose 6 - 12 yrs (latency)Industry vs. InferiorityCompetence12 - 19 yrs (adolescence)Identity vs. FidelityRole Confusion Fidelity19 - 25 yrs (early adulthood)Intimacy vs. IsolationLove25 - 50 yrs (adulthood)Generativity vs. StagnationCare50 yrs and olderEgo Integrity vs. DespairWisdom

Behaviorism and Social LearningCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

WatsonClassical ConditioningStimulus ResponseSkinnerOperant ConditioningReinforcers & PunishmentsBanduraSocial LearningModeling

Skinner Operant Conditioning

Social learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) In addition to conditioning, learning occurs from the exposure to observational learning. social cognition affects learningSocial cognition: how children think about themselves and others (self-appraisal, potentially distorted beliefs, attribution styles, cognitive dissonance)

Jean Piagets Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon. http://psych.wisc.edu/henriques/resources/

SensorimotorBirth2 yearsPreoperational27 yearsConcrete Operational711 yearsFormal Operational11 years and older

Piagets Cognitive Development Stageshttp://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Image:Piaget_1.jpg#file

Piagets periods in review: Playing MonopolySensorimotor period: Children put houses, hotels, and dice in mouthPreoperational period: Children play 'at' Monopoly but intuitively make up their own rules. They can't understand the instructions because they have difficulty with playing in turns, conserving amounts, and generally comprehending the goals of the game.Concrete operational period: Children understand the basic instructions and are able to follow the rules, but they can't deal with hypothetical transactions concerning mortgages, loans and complex bargains with other players.Formal operational period: Children are no longer tied to concrete and tangible rules and are able to engage in the complex hypothetical transactions unique to each game

Recent Theoretical perspectivesInformation ProcessingPerspectives focused on contexts for developmentEthology and evolutionary developmental psychology (Lorenz;Timbergen; Bowlby)Vygotskys sociocultural theoryEcological systems theory

Information-Processing FlowchartCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Information-Processinghttp://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/infoproc.html

Developmental Cognitive NeuroscienceBrings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between the brain and the developing childs cognitive processing and behavior patterns. Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Ethology and Evolutionary PsychologyEthologyCritical PeriodsSensitive PeriodsEvolutionary Developmental PsychologyAdaptive Value of behavior to the speciesCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Evolutionary developmental PsychologyOriginated from Darwins workKonrad Lorenz (1952) & Niko Tinbergen (1973)Imprinting following behavior patterns that promote survival in baby birdsLed to the concept of the critical periodJohn Bowlby (1969) Attachment theory

http://psych.wisc.edu/henriques/resources/

Imprinting anyone?

Ethology - Sensitive PeriodDevelopment is hard to induce later Boundaries less defined than a critical periodAn optimal time for certain capacities to emergeIndividual is especially responsive to environmentFamily Life Royalty Free CDCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Evolutionary Developmental PsychologySeeks to understand adaptive value of human competenciesStudies cognitive, emotional and social competencies and change with ageExpands upon ethologyCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon. delamagente.wordpress.com/

Vygotskys Sociocultural TheorySocial interaction necessary to learn cultureCooperative dialogue with more knowledgeable members of societyTransmission of culture to a new generationBeliefs, customs, skillsRoyalty Free Stock PhotographyCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Ecological Systems TheoryStructure of the EnvironmentCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner)The Microsystem:Consist of activities and bi-directional interaction patterns in the childs immediate surroundings.The Mesosystem:The connections between microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood, and child-care centerThe Exosystem:includes both formal organizations, such as parents workplaces, religious institutions, and health and welfare services.The Macrosystem:Cultural values, social policies, customs, and resources.chronosystem:the temporal dimension of environment (e.g., move to new neighborhood, divorce)

An Ever-Changing System Bidirectional: Children are both products and producers of their environment.Family Life Royalty Free CDCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

The Dynamic Systems View Of Development Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Social PolicyPlanned set of actionsBy a group, institution or governing bodyTo attain a social goal Public PolicyLaws and other government social policy programsRoyalty Free Stock PhotographyCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Indicators of Childrens Health and Well-BeingCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

U.S. RankCanadian RankChildhood Poverty2316Infant Death2616Teen Pregnancy2821Education Spending106Health Spending164

Individualist and Collectivist SocietiesIndividualistPeople think of themselves as separate from others.Concerned with personal goals.CollectivistPeople define themselves as part of a group.Concerned with group goals over individual goals.Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Looking Toward the Future Justification for child oriented policies: Children are the future Humanitarian groundschildren have basic rights as human beingsConvention on the Rights of the Child Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.

Please add photo of Book CoverFigure 1.2 - Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?Arnold Gesell: an American psychologist, used observations to support his theory that development is simply the natural unfolding of abilities with age, called maturation. He found that motor development occurred in a fixed sequence of stages, relatively independent of the environment, in all childrensocial reform journalism: panels for anti-child labor National Child Labor Commission exhibition, 1913Erik Erikson saw personality development as following a series of eight "psychosocial crises," each building on earlier ones. How, and how well, one resolves each crisis adds to the ongoing and lasting edifice of emotional development. Third column is virtue that results from successful completion of each stageFigure 1.3 - Information-processing flowchart showing the steps that a 5-year-old used to solve a bridge-building problem.http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/zentall/default.htmFigure 1.4 - Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory.Figure 1.5 The Dynamic Systems View of Development