psyc 1000 finals notes

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK

COURSE OUTLINE: Semester I 2013

TITLE: Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal

COURSE CODE: PSYC 1000 (PS 10 A)

LEVEL: Undergraduate

LENGTH: One Semester

CREDITS: 3

ELIGIBILITY: Students enrolled in the Undergraduate Psychology Programme

LECTURER: Dr. Caryl James

OFFICE: Rm 209 Block G

EMAIL: [email protected]

Course description:

This course provides an introduction to psychology. Psychology is a discipline concerned with

human thought, emotion, and behaviour. Psychological science and practice are based on

knowledge developed from both human and animal research. This is an introductory level or

foundational survey course. This means that the course will introduce you to many key topics, and

specifically those in the sub-fields of developmental, abnormal, and social psychology. After a brief

introduction to the history of the discipline and the research methods that provide the foundation for

psychological investigation and knowledge building, we will focus on the sub-areas of

developmental, personality, and social psychology. Students will be able to appreciate the

similarities and differences among these three sub-areas after completing PSYC 1000 (PS 10 A).

Course Objectives At the end of the course students will be able to:

1. Be aware of the ways that psychologists think about and approach questions of mind and behavior.

2. Distinguish between the science of psychology and common sense explanations of behaviour.

3. Be familiar with the body of knowledge, research findings, and underlying principles that currently exist in the field.

4. Demonstrate an introductory level of understanding of theories and concepts in the areas of developmental, abnormal and social psychology.

5. Feel stimulated to think about how the material we cover in class applies to their daily life. 6. Apply psychological principles to their own lives and to issues facing Caribbean people.

2

Assessment: Mid-semester Examination 50% The midsemester examination is scheduled for the week beginning Monday 14 October, pending approval from Examinations office. This will be a multiplechoice exam; it will cover all the materials in including and up to Theories of Personality (see Course Content section).

Final Examination 50% The final examination will take place on a date to be determined by the Registrars Office. As with

the midsemester examination, the final examination will also be a multiplechoice exam. The final exam is not cumulative, in other words, the content of the examination will focus only on the topics

not reviewed in the midsemester examination, specifically, from Psychological Disorders onwards.

Course Content and Schedule WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Definition History of psychology Psychology: Science or Common sense

WEEK 2: RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY Research methods Ethical issues in research Psychology: Who and What Contemporary perspectives in Psychology

WEEK 3: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT I Prenatal period Neonate period Infancy Early childhood

WEEK 4: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT II Motor development Perceptual development Brain development Sensory development Cognitive development WEEK 5: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT III Moral development Emotional and temperament development Adolescence Adulthood Death and dying

WEEK 6: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY:

3

Psychodynamic perspective Sigmund Freud/Psychoanalytic approach Neo- Freudians WEEK 7: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY: Behavioural-Learning Perspective Ivan Pavlov & John B. Watson/Classical conditioning B.F. Skinner/Operant conditioning Albert Bandura/Observational learning Humanistic-Existential perspective Carl Rogers/Person Centered approach Abraham Maslow/Hierarchy of needs

WEEK 8: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Cognitive perspective Trait and Biological perspective Measuring Personality Historical and current view of mental disorders

WEEK 9: PSYCHOTHERAPY AND TREATMENT Assessment and diagnosis DSM-IV Mental disorders (nature and causes) What is psychotherapy? Approaches to psychotherapy

WEEK 10: NATURE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY What is Social Psychology? definitions and faces of social psychology Social psychological subject matter Differences between social psychology, sociology and psychology

WEEK 11: RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Self and Identity Attraction Social cognition and social perception

WEEK 12: RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Attitudes Social Influence Group influences TEXT BOOKS Required: Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Namy, L. L., & Woolf, N. J. (2011). Psychology: From Inquiry to

understanding. Second Edition. Upper New Saddle, NJ: Pearson Education.

Recommended: Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2010). Psychology. Tenth Edition. Upper New Saddle, NJ: Pearson

Education.

Note: This outline is subject to adjustments based on the faculty members discretion.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychology:

From Inquiry to Understanding 2/e

Scott O. LilienfeldSteven Jay LynnLaura Namy Nancy J. Woolf

Prepared by Caleb W. Lack

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.


Social Psychology:How Others Affect Us

Chapter Thirteen


Lecture Preview

What is social psychology?

Social influence

Helping and harming others

Attitudes and persuasion

Prejudice and discrimination


Social Psychology

Study of how people influence others behavior, beliefs, and attitudes

We tend to think others are vulnerable to social influencebut not ourselves

Can lead us to doubt social psychology findings initially


Humans as a Social Species

Predisposed to forming intimate interpersonal networks that are only so large

150 people or so

Need-to-belong theory and biologically based need for interpersonal connections

It literally hurts us to be isolated or rejected


Humans as a Social Species

Most social influence processes are adaptive under most circumstances

They can turn maladaptive when they are blind or unquestioning

Social influences should be evaluated critically


Social Comparison Theory

We seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others

Upward (superiors) and downward (inferiors) social comparison

Both can boost our self-concept


Social Contagion

Mass hysteria is a contagious outbreak of irrational behavior that spreads

UFO outbreaks

Windshield pitting

Urban legends are another example of social contagions


Social Facilitation

When the mere presence of others enhances our performance

Bicyclists racing

Cockroaches running mazes

Can also experience social disruption (choking)


Fundamental Attribution Error

Attributions are assigning causes to behavior

Internal vs external influence

When we look at others behavior, we

Overestimate impact of dispositional influences

Underestimate impact of situational influences

Do the opposite for our own behavior


Fundamental Attribution Error

Associated with cultural factors

Japanese and Chinese are less likely to commit this error

May be more prone to seeing others behavior as a combination of both dispositional and situational influences


Conformity

The tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure

Classically demonstrated by Solomon Aschs experiments in the 1950s


Social Influences on Conformity

Unanimity increased conformity

Lower conformity of only one other person differed from the majority

Size of majority up to five or six people


Differences in Conformity

Low self-esteem makes you more likely to conform

Asian cultures more likely to conform

No sex differences


Deindividuation

The tendency of people to engage in atypical behavior when stripped of their usual identity

Become more vulnerable to social influence

Wearing masks and concealing identity leads to deindividuation


Stanford Prison Study

Recruited normal young men for a two week psychological study of prison life

Randomly assigned them to be either a prisoner or a guard

Prisoners were dressed as such, referred to by number and not name


Stanford Prison Study

By second day, guards began to treat prisoners cruelly and dole out punishment

Prisoners started a rebellion, guards became increasingly sadistic

Had to stop study after only 6 days due to nervous breakdowns by prisoners


Chaos in Real World

Events at Abu Ghraib echoed those of the Stanford Prison Study

Still, individual differences are at play in deindividuation

Makes us more likely to conform to whatever norms (good or bad) are present in the situation


Groupthink

An emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking

Bay of Pigs

Challenger explosion

Certain symptoms make it more likely to occur


SYMPTOM EXAMPLE

An illusion of invulnerability We cant possibly fail!

An illusion of unanimity Obviously, we all agree.

Unquestioned belief in moral correctness We know were on the right side.

Conformity pressure Dont rock the boat!

Stereotyping of out-group Theyre all morons.

Self-censorship I suspect this is bad idea, but Id better not say anything.

Mindguards Oh, you think you know better than the rest of us?


Groupthink

Can be treated by encouraging dissent

Appointing a devils advocate

Having an independent expert evaluate decisions

Holding follow-up meetings

Group polarization can cause views to become more extreme


Cults

Groups that exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause

Promote groupthink in four major ways

Have a persuasive leader who fosters loyalty

Disconnect members from the outside world

Discourage questioning of assumptions

Gradually indoctrinate members


Cult Myths

Cult members are emotionally disturbed

Most are normal, but leaders are often seriously mentally ill

Cult members are brainwashed and turned into unthinking zombies

Techniques do not permanently change beliefs


Cults

Can be resisted via inoculation effect

Convincing people to change their minds about something by first introducing reasons why the perspective might be correct and then debunking them


Obedience

Adherence to orders from those of higher authority

Essential ingredient in our daily lives

Stop lights, parking signs

Can produce trouble when people stop asking questions about why theyre behaving as others want them to


Stanley Milgram

Student of Aschs who wanted to know how the Holocaust could have occurred

Designed experiment to test the influence of obedience and authority on normal people

Became a landmark study


The Milgram Paradigm

Voluntary subjects were taken to a lab and introduced to a fellow volunteer and the researcher

Teachers (subjects) were supposed to shock the learners (confederates) when they did not successfully repeat words

With each failure, the shock level increased



Learner tells teacher he has a slight heart condition before any shocks

Learner soon misses some answers, researcher tells teacher to continue

By 330 volts, he is yelling Let me out of here!; by 345 he is silent



Two key themes emerged from follow-ups

The greater psychological distance between teacher and experimenter, the less obedience

Greater the psychological distance between teacher and learner, the more the obedience



Predictors of disobedience

More morally advanced

Level of authoritarianism

No sex or cultural differences found


Helping and Harming Others

Prosocial behavior is behavior intended to help others

Antisocial behavior includes aggressive acts

Humans display both, and situational factors can influence which one is displayed


Bystander Nonintervention

When people see someone in need but fail to help them

Kitty Genoveses murder

Two factors help explain this

Pluralistic ignorance

Diffusion of responsibility


Across three classic experiments, the percentage helping when in groups was lower than the percentage helping when alone


Social Loafing

Refers to when people slack off in groups

The whole is less than the sum of its parts

Due partly to diffusion of responsibility and influenced by cultural factors

One antidote is to ensure that each person in the group is identifiable


Prosocial Behavior and Altruism

In some cases we help others primarily because we feel empathic toward them

Situational influences can impact helping

When you cant escape the situation

Characteristics of the victim

Enlightenment effect from exposure to research


Aggression

A number of influences make us more likely to engage in intentionally harmful behavior

Interpersonal provocation

Frustration

Media influences

Aggressive cues


Aggression

Arousal level

Alcohol and other drugs

Temperature


Differences in Aggression

Certain personality traits influence aggression

Negative emotions, impulsivity

Males engage in more physical aggression, females in more relational aggression

Cultural influences and the culture of honor


Attitudes and Behavior

An attitude is a belief that includes an emotional component

Attitudes only moderately correlate with actual behaviors unless

They are highly accessible

Person is a low self-monitor


Origins of Attitudes

Recognition heuristic

Personality traits

Political views

Religiosity


Attitude Change

Cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant state of tension between two opposing thoughts

We are motivated to reduce or eliminate it

Festinger and Carlsmiths Measures of Performance study


Attitude Change

Self-perception theory proposes that we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviors

Impression management theory proposes that that we dont change our attitudes, but report that we have for consistency


Routes to Persuasion

Dual processes model says that there are two pathways to persuading others

The central route focuses on informational content

The peripheral route focuses on more surfaceaspects of the argument


Persuasion Techniques

Foot-in-the-door starts with small request and moves to a larger one

Door-in-the-face starts big then backs off (works equally well as foot-in-the-door)

Low-ball technique starts with a low price, then adds-on all the desirable options


Persuasion Techniques

Who is attempting to persuade you can also have an impact

Attractive or famous persons

Highly credible people

If messenger is similar to receiver


PSEUDOSCIENCE TACTIC EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Creation of a phantom goal Master the complete works of Shakespeare while sleeping!

Extreme claims are usually impossible to achieve

Vivid testimonials Sandra was severely depressed for 5 years until she underwent rebirthing therapy!

Anecdotes are not evidence

Manufacturing source credibility

Dr. Nobel from Princeton endorses this subliminal tape.

Advertisers may present source in deceptive fashion

Scarcity heuristic Call before midnight to get Dr. Genius Improvement program its selling fast!

Scarcity may be false or a result of low production

Consensus heuristic Thousands of psychologists use the Rorschach, so it must be valid.

Common knowledgeis often wrong

Natural commonplace Mrs. Candy Cures new anxietymedication is made from all-natural ingredients!

Natural does not mean healthy

Goddess-within commonplace

The Magical Mind ESP Enhancement program allows you to get in touch with your psychic potential!

Tests fail to support supernatural ability or potential


Prejudice and Discrimination

Drawing negative conclusions prior to evaluating the evidence is prejudice

Stereotypes can help us to process information easily and quickly, but can lead to prejudice

Some may be accurate, but others are due to illusory correlations and the confirmation bias


Prejudice and Discrimination

Stereotypes can result in ultimate attribution error, or attributing negative behavior of some group entirely to their disposition

Also attribute positive behaviors to luck or as rare exceptions


Nature of Prejudice

We all hold some types of prejudices (adaptive conservatism)

In-group bias means that we favor those within our group compared to those without

Out-group homogeneity is the tendency to view people outside of our group as similar


Discrimination

The act of treating members of out-groups differently from members of in-groups

We can be prejudiced against people without discriminating against them

Can have wide impact on groups such as females and minorities


Roots of Prejudice

Scapegoat hypothesis arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes

Just-world hypothesis implies that we have a need to see the world as fair, even if not

Conformity going along with others opinions


Underground Prejudice

While explicit prejudice are feelings were aware of, were unaware of implicit prejudice

The Implicit Association Test and unconscious racism, sexism, and other prejudices

True finding or unfalsifiable?


Combating Prejudice

Robbers Cave study and encouraging people to work towards common goals

Jigsaw classrooms and cooperation

Chapter 8

Behavior in Social and Cultural Context

2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved.

Which Is Correct?

You get into an elevator, and stand facing the back wall and try to start a conversation with another person. Which of the following have you violated?

A. Norms

B. Social roles

C. Cultural rules


Your Turn

As part of an experiment on learning, you are told to administer an electric shock to another participant every time that participant misremembers a series of words. As the experiment proceeds, the amount of electricity you are administering rises. You started at 15 volts, but the switchboard goes up to 300. How far would you go before you refused to continue?

1. 50 volts2. 100 volts3. 200 volts4. 300 volts


Apply What You Know

Grades result from a persons intelligence and self-discipline. When these are high, grades are good and vice versa. Which of the following does this describe?

A. Just-world hypothesis

B. Self-serving bias

C. Dispositional attribution

D. Situational attribution 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved.

Apply What You Know

Grades depend on doing the right things. A person earns good grades for following the rules and bad grades for slipping up. Which of the following does this describe?





Apply What You Know

Grades depend on quality teaching and educational materials. A person does well when quality is high and vice versa. Which of the following does this describe?





Apply What You Know

I got a bad grade because the teacher wrote tricky questions that had nothing to do with what we talked about in class. Which of the following does this describe?





Apply What You Know

I got a good grade because I am smart and I tend to do well on exams. Which of the following does this describe?





What Do You Know?

Your favorite celebrity was caught with illegal drugs in her car. Your response is to think that this behavior is not as immoral as you originally thought. Your reaction describes your need to restore cognitive consistency.

A. True

B. False


Which Is Correct?

President Kennedys decision-making process and the resulting Bay of Pigs fiasco is an example of:

A. Conformity

B. Entrapment

C. Groupthink


What Do You Know?

Which of the following explains that people work less in the presence of others, forcing others to work harder.

A. Diffusion of responsibility

B. Deindividuation

C. Social loafing


Which Is Correct?

The belief that your own culture, nation, or religion is superior to all others is the definition of:

A. Ethnic identity

B. Acculturation

C. Ethnocentrism


Which Is Correct?

All stereotypes only focus on the negative traits of a group.

A. True

B. False


Which Is Correct?

Those people are just not smart enough to do this work. What is the basis for this type of prejudice?

A. Psychological

B. Social

C. Economic

D. Cultural 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved.

What Do You Know?

One way to reduce prejudice is for authorities and institutions to endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support for all groups.

A. True

B. False


What Do You Think?

Good people can do terribly disturbing things when their roles encourage or require them to do so, when the situation takes over and they do not stop to think critically.

A. True

B. False



Psychology:






Psychological Disorders:When Adaptation Breaks Down

Chapter Fifteen


Lecture Preview

Conceptions of mental illness

Anxiety disorders

Mood disorders and suicide

Personality and dissociative disorders

Enigma of schizophrenia

Childhood disorders


What is Mental Illness?

Psychopathology (mental illness) is often seen as a failure of adaptation to the environment

Failure analysis approach tries to understand MI by examining breakdowns in functioning

Mental disorder does not have a clear cut definition


What is Mental Illness?

Many different conceptions of MI, each with pros and cons

Statistical rarity

Subjective distress

Impairment

Societal disapproval

Biological dysfunction


Historical Conceptions of MI

During Middle Ages, mental illnesses were often viewed through a demonic model

Odd behaviors were the result of evil spirits inhabiting the body

Exorcisms and witch hunts were common during this time



During Renaissance, the medical model saw MI as a physical disorder needing treatment

Began housing people in asylums but they were often overcrowded and understaffed

Treatments were no better than before (bloodletting and snake pits)



Reformers like Phillippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix pushed for moral treatment

Treated patients with dignity, respect, and kindness

Still no effective treatments, though, so many continued to suffer with no relief


Modern Era

In early 1950s, a drug was developed called chlorpromazine (Thorazine)

Moderately decreased symptoms of schizophrenia and similar problems

With advent of other medications, policy of deinstitutionalization was enacted


Modern Era

Deinstitutionalization had mixed results

Some patients returned to almost normal lives but tens of thousands had no follow-up care and went off medications

Community mental health centers and halfway houses attempt to help this problem


Diagnosis across Cultures

Certain conditions are culture-bound

Koro involves believing your genitals are shrinking and receding into your abdomen

Amok is marked by episodes of intense sadness and brooding followed by uncontrolled behavior and violence


Diagnosis across Cultures

Taijin kyofushu is a fear of offending others by saying something offensive or body odor

Many severe mental disorders (schizophrenia, alcoholism, psychopathy) appear to be universal across cultures


Misconceptions

Psychiatric diagnosis is nothing more than pigeonholing

Psychiatric diagnoses are unreliable

Psychiatric diagnoses are invalid

Psychiatric diagnoses stigmatize people


The DSM-IV

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a system that contains the criteria for mental disorders

Currently on fourth edition, fifth expected in 2013

Has 17 different classes of disorders


The DSM-IV

Provides list of diagnostic criteria and a set of decision rules for each condition

Warns to think organic (rule out physical causes of symptoms first)

Contains information on prevalence and assess patients along five axes


DSM-IV Axes

Axis I Major mental disorders

Axis II Personality disorders and mental retardation

Axis III Associated medical conditions

Axis IV Life stressors

Axis V Overall level of daily functioning


DSM Criticisms

Not all diagnoses meet Robins and Guze criteria for validity (Mathematics Disorder)

Not all criteria and decisions rules are based on scientific data

High level of comorbidity


DSM Criticisms

Reliance on categorical rather than dimensional model of psychopathology

Reluctance on many to change (cognitive misers)

Vulnerable to political and social influences


Mental Illness and the Law

Overwhelming majority of people with schizophrenia are not aggressive or violent

Insanity defense requires people to

Not know what they were doing at time of crime

Not know what they were doing was wrong

Less than 1% of criminal cases use this successfully


Mental Illness and the Law

Involuntary commitment is a procedure for protecting us from certain people with mental disorders and protecting them from themselves

Can only be committed against their will if

Pose a clear and present threat to themselves or others

Are so impaired they cant care for themselves


Anxiety Disorders

Most anxieties are transient and can be adaptive

They can, though, spin out of control and become excessive and inappropriate

One of the most prevalent and earliest onset of all classes of disorders


Anxiety Disorders

Can also see inappropriate anxiety in other disorders and problems

Somatoform disorders are physical symptoms with psychological origins

Hypochondriasis is a preoccupation that you have a serious disease despite no evidence


Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Continual feelings of worry, anxiety, physical tension, and irritability about many areas

About 3% of the population; 1/3 develop it after major stressor or life change

More prevalent in females and Caucasians


Panic Disorder

Repeated, unexpected panic attacks, along with either

Persistent concerns about future attacks

A change in personal behavior in an attempt to avoid them

Can be associated with specific situation or come out of the blue


Phobias

Intense fear of an object or situation thats greatly out of proportion to its actual threat

Most common anxiety disorder (11%)

Comes in different forms

Agoraphobia

Specific or social phobia


Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Marked emotional disturbance after you experience or witness a severely stressful event

Symptoms include

Flashbacks and recurrent dreams

Avoiding reminders of the trauma

Increased physiological arousal


Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Marked by obsessions - persistent ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted and inappropriate and cause marked distress

This distress is relieved by compulsions repetitive behaviors or mental acts

Must spend at least 1 hour per day engaging in obsessions, compulsions, or both


Explanations for Anxiety Disorders

Learning models focus on acquiring fears via classical conditioning, then maintaining them through operant conditioning

Can also learn fears by observing others or by hearing misinformation from others



Anxious people tend to think about the world in different ways from non-anxious people

Catastrophic thinking - predicting terrible events despite low probability

Anxiety sensitivity a fear of anxiety-related symptoms



Many are genetically influenced through level of neuroticism

A malfunction of the caudate nucleus in people with OCD

Genetic relationship between OCD and Tourettes Disorder


Mood Disorders

Over 20% of Americans will experience a mood disorder

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is the most common, at 16%

More prevalent in females, most likely to develop in 30s


Mood Disorders

Depression symptoms can develop gradually or suddenly, but are often recurrent

Average episode lasts 6 months to 1 year, most people experience 5-6 episodes

Can cause extreme functional impairment across all areas


Sample MDD Symptoms

Feeling blue or irritable

Sleep difficulties

Fatigue and loss of energy

Weight changes

Thoughts of death or suicide


Explanations for MDD

Complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social influences

Life events such as loss of something that is dearly valued can set stage for depression

Depression can create interpersonal problems, which cause lack of social support



Behavioral model sees depression resulting from a low rate of positive reinforcement in the environment

Becks cognitive model holds that depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations

Cognitive triad, negative schemas, cognitive distortions



Learned helplessness - tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we cant control

People with depression attribute failure internally and have global, stable attributions

Genes exert a moderate influence on MDD; role of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine


Bipolar Disorder

Have both depressive and manic episodes

Elevated mood, lowered need for sleep, high energy, talkativeness, inflated self-esteem

Also show highly irresponsible behavior

Equally common in men and women


Bipolar Disorder

Produces serious problems in social and occupational realms

Very heavily genetically influenced, but stressful life events can cause episode onset

These can be negative or positive events


Suicide

MDD and bipolar disorder are at higher risk for suicide than most disorders

More than 30,000 people commit suicide in US each year (11th leading cause of death)

Prediction is difficult due to lack of research and low base rates


SUICIDE MYTH REALITY

Talking to persons with depression about suicide makes them more likely to commit the act.

Talking to persons with depression about suicide makes them more likely to obtainhelp.

Suicide is almost always completed with no warning.

Many or most people who commit suicide tell others.

As a severe depression lifts, peoples suicide risk decreases.

The risk actually increases, in part because individuals have more energy to attempt the act.

Most people who threaten suicide are seeking attention.

Most stem from severe depression and helplessness.

People who talk a lot about suicide almost never commit it.

Talking about suicide is associated with a greater risk.


Personality Disorders

Should only be diagnosed when

Personality traits first appear by adolescence

Traits are inflexible, stable, and expressed in a wide variety of situations

Traits lead to distress or impairment

Show substantial comorbidity with Axis I


Borderline Personality Disorder

Mainly women, about 2% of population

Marked by instability in mood, identity, and impulse control, often highly self-destructive

In sociobiological model, individuals with BPD overreact to stress and experience lifelong difficulties with regulating their emotions


Psychopathic Personality

Condition marked by superficial charm, dishonesty, manipulativeness, self-centeredness, and risk taking

Overlaps with antisocial personality disorder

Primarily males, about 25% of the prison population qualifies


Psychopathic Personality

Causes are largely unknown, but may stem in part from a deficit in fear

Alternatively, they may be perpetually underaroused and experiencing stimulus hunger


Dissociative Disorders

Involve disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception

Depersonalization disorder and frequently feeling detached from yourself

Controversy around dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue


Dissociative Identity Disorder

Characterized by presence of two or more distinct identities (alters)

Intriguing differences between alters shown, but could be easily explained in other ways

Primary controversy surrounds issue of posttraumatic vs sociocognitive models


Dissociative Identity Disorder

Little evidence to support the posttraumatic model

Support for sociocognitive model includes

Most DID patients dont show alters prior to therapy

Treatment reinforces idea person has alters

Treatment tends to increase number of alters seen


Schizophrenia

Severe disorder of thought and emotion associated with a loss of contact with reality

Symptoms include disturbances in attention, thinking, language, emotion, and relationships

Less than 1% of population, but over half of people in mental institutions


Schizophrenia

A hallmark symptom are delusions strongly held, fixed beliefs with no basis in reality

This and other psychotic symptoms reflect serious distortions in reality

Hallucinations are sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli


Schizophrenia

Disorganized speech (word salad) and behavior (echolalia, catatonia) are also common symptoms

Psychosocial factors play a role in schizophrenia, but only trigger it in persons with genetic vulnerabilities


Schizophrenia

Family members can influence whether patients relapse (expressed emotion)

Number of brain abnormalities seen

Enlarged ventricles

Increased sulci size

Hypofrontalitiy


Schizophrenia

Neurotransmitter differences also found, such as abnormalities in dopamine receptors

Dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, and serotonin are all disturbed

Highly genetically influenced disorder as well


Vulnerability to Schizophrenia

Diathesis-stress models propose that MI is a joint product of a genetic vulnerability (diathesis)and stressors that trigger it

Early warning signs of schizophrenia vulnerability

Social withdrawal

Thought and movement problems

Lack of emotions, decreased eye contact


Autistic Disorder

Marked by severe deficits in language, social bonding, and imagination

Often accompanied by mental retardation

Dramatic increase in autism diagnoses from early 1990s to today, but why?


Autistic Disorder

Many have blamed MMR vaccines, starting with a 1998 UK study

Study was later retracted by the journal that published it as flawed in several ways

Subsequent research showed no link between vaccines and autism


Autistic Disorder

Parents fell prey to an illusory correlation

They noticed symptoms after administering vaccines, so the vaccines must have caused the symptoms!

Increase is most likely due to changes in diagnostic practices and ADA and IDEA laws


Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Primary problems include inattentive, impulsive, and hyperactivity symptoms

Diagnosable in 3-7% of school children, more males than females (3:1)

Related to numerous functional problems in both children and adults


Highly genetically influenced, can be successfully treated with stimulant meds

Rates of early-onset bipolar disorder have skyrocketed over last 20 years

0.42% to 6.67% from 1990 to 2003

Likely that most diagnosed actually have severe ADHD symptoms and not bipolar disorder

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Chapter 15

Psychological Disorders


What Do You Think?

Any behavior or emotional state that causes a person to suffer, is self-destructive; seriously impairs the persons ability to work or get along with others; or endangers others or the community. This is the definition of:

A. Insanity

B. Mental disorders

C. Both of the above


Your Turn

Psychopaths are often happy, functional people, but they manipulate and harm others without conscience. On what basis are psychopaths said to have a mental disorder?

A mental disorder is any behavior or mental state that

A. Causes a person to suffer, is self-destructive;

B. Seriously impairs the persons ability to work or get along with others;

C. Endangers others or the community.


What Do You Think?

It is critical that a clinical psychologist be aware of a clients culture when making a diagnosis.

A. True

B. False


What Do You Know?

When Charlie takes a test, his heart begins pounding, his palms begin to sweat, and he has a difficult time breathing. Charlie worries that he is about to have a heart attack. Which type of disorder does Charlie have?

A. Generalized anxiety disorder

B. Panic disorder

C. PTSD


Your Turn

If you have the persistent thought that gremlins are sabotaging any airplane you are on or will be on, then you have a(n) _____. If you cannot stop asking for more water during flights, then you have a(n) _____.

1. Obsession; compulsion

2. Compulsion; obsession

3. Phobia; obsession

4. Plane ticket; pet camel


What Do You Know?

Serena sometimes feels absolutely on top of the world. She feels ecstatic for no apparent reason, and everything around her seems to be wonderful and beautiful. However, after a few weeks of feeling great, Serena becomes horribly upset, begins sleeping 12 hours a day, and constantly crying. Which disorder might Serena have?

A. Clinical depression

B. Bipolar disorder


What Do You Think?

Although genetic predisposition for depression plays a significant role in whether someone develops it, stressors in the environment, such as divorce, also can have an major effect on the onset and expression of depression.

A. True

B. False


What Do You Know?

Brian spends most of his days thinking about what a wonderful human being he is. Every time he looks in a mirror, he is amazed at how good looking he is. Brian likely has:

A. Antisocial personality disorder

B. Narcissistic personality disorder


What Do You Think?

After a week of intensive therapy with most sessions lasting up to six hours Amanda was diagnosed with multiple personality disorder. Her therapist claims to have met three of Amandas personalities. Do you believe this claim?

A. Yes

B. No


What Do You Think?

If you have an identical twin who has been diagnosed with schizophrenia, there is almost a 50% chance that you will develop the disorder as well.

A. True

B. False



Psychology:






Psychological & Biological Treatments:Helping People Change

Chapter Sixteen


Lecture Preview

Psychotherapy

Insight therapies

Behavioral approaches

Is psychotherapy effective?

Biomedical treatments


Psychotherapy

A psychological intervention designed to help people resolve emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems and improve the quality of their lives

Over 500 brands of psychotherapy


Who Seeks and Benefits?

20% of Americans have received psychotherapy at some point in their lives

Females go more than males, Caucasians more than minority groups

True despite research that shows therapy can benefit all these groups equally


Who Practices Psychotherapy?

Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, counselors, and social workers are the mainstays of the mental health profession

But people with non-advanced degrees also often offer psychological services

Social services agencies, crisis intervention centers


Paraprofessionals

Often obtain agency-specific training and attend workshops that enhance their education

Little to no difference in effectiveness between experienced and novice therapists

But, professionals know how to operate within system and choose more effective treatments


Effective Therapists

Warm and direct

Establish a positive working relationship

Tend not to contradict clients

Select important topics to focus on in session

Match treatments to needs of clients


Insight Therapies

Psychotherapies where the goal is to expand awareness or insight

Encompasses psychodynamic, humanistic, and group approaches


Psychodynamic Therapy

Share the following approaches and beliefs

1. Causes of abnormal behaviors stem from traumatic or adverse childhood experiences

2. Analyze certain things, including avoided thoughts and feelings, wishes and fantasies, and significant past events


Psychodynamic Therapy

3. When clients achieve insight into unconscious material, the causes and significance of symptoms become evident

This insight then often causes symptoms to disappear


Psychoanalysis

Developed by Freud, one of the first forms of therapy

Goal is to decrease guilt and frustration and make the unconscious conscious

Try to bring to awareness previously repressed impulses, conflicts, and memories


Psychoanalytic Approaches

1. Free association

2. Interpretation

3. Dream analysis

4. Resistance

5. Transference

6. Working through


Neo-Freudian Tradition

More concerned with conscious aspects of the clients functioning

Emphasize the impact of cultural and interpersonal influences on behavior

More optimistic, emphasize needs for power, love, status (not just sex and aggression)


Neo-Freudian Tradition

Sullivans influence on interpersonal therapy

Short term treatment (12-18 sessions) originally developed for depression

Also effective at treatment of substance abuse and eating disorders


Psychodynamic Therapies

Research, however, shows that insight is notnecessary to relieve distress

In addition, many concepts are difficult to falsify (non-scientific)

Research shows no evidence for repressing hurtful memories either


Psychodynamic Therapies

Many are questionable from a scientific standpoint, difficult to research

Still, brief PD is better than no treatment, but less effective than cognitive-behavioral ones

Not effective for psychotic disorders


Humanistic Psychotherapy

Therapies that share an emphasis on the

Development of human potential

Belief that human nature is basically positive

Stress importance of assuming responsibility for our lives and living in the present


Person-Centered Therapy

Developed by Carl Rogers, centers on the clients goals and ways of solving problems

To ensure positive outcome, therapist must

Be authentic and genuine

Express unconditional positive regard

Show emphatic understanding


Person-Centered Therapy

Tries to increase awareness and heightened self-acceptance

This hopefully causes people to

Think more realistically

Become more tolerant of others

Engage in more adaptive behaviors


Gestalt Therapy

Aim to integrate differing and sometimes opposing aspects of clients personalities into a unified sense of self

Recognizes the importance of awareness, acceptance, and expression of feelings

Utilizes empty-chair technique


Humanistic Therapies Evaluated

Core concepts are difficult to falsify

But, the conditions for effective therapists have been found to be related to outcome

More effective than no treatment, but mixed results compared to other therapies


Group Therapies

Refers to therapies that treat more than one person at a time

Range from 3-20 people, can be efficient, time-saving, and less costly than individual

Effective for a wide range of problems and about as helpful as individual treatments


Alcoholics Anonymous

Self-help groups like AA have become very popular and widespread

Composed of peers with similar problems, often no professional therapists

Based on 12 Steps method, but little research demonstrating its effectiveness


AA Alternatives

Controlled drinking programs encourage people to set limits and drink moderately

Can be effective for many people

Relapse prevention treatment assumes people will slip up and plans accordingly

Lapse does not equal relapse


Family Therapies

See most psychological problems as rooted in a dysfunctional family system

The patient is the whole family system, not one individual

Focus on interactions among family members


Family Therapies

Strategic family interventions are designed to remove barriers to effective communication

Structural family therapy has the therapist immerse herself in the family to make changes

Both are more effective than no treatment and at least as effective as individual therapy


Behavioral Approaches

Behavior therapists focus on specific problem behaviors and variable that maintain them

Assume that behavior change results from the operation of basic principles of learning

Use a wide variety of behavioral assessmenttechniques


Exposure Therapies

Confronts clients with what they fear with the goal of reducing the fear

Earliest was systematic desensitization, developed by Joseph Wolpe in 1958

SD gradually exposes clients to anxiety producing situations through the use of imagined scenes


Systematic Desensitization

Based on principle of reciprocal inhibition - we cant be anxious and relaxed at the same time

Uses counterconditioning by repeatedly pairing an incompatible relaxation response with anxiety

Can use imaginal and in vivo exposure to the fear situations listed on the created hierarchy


Systematic Desensitization

Dismantling research showed that no single component was essential

Led to development of exposure with response prevention therapies like flooding

Very effective for many anxiety disorders, like phobias, OCD, and PTSD


Modeling in Therapy

Participant modeling has the therapist

Model a calm encounter with the clients feared object or situation

Guide the client through the steps of the encounter until she can cope unassisted

Used in assertion and social skills training, along with behavioral rehearsal


Operant Procedures

Applied behavior analysis procedures to treat autistic children

Token economies reward clients for desirable behaviors with tokens to exchange for items

Mixed support for the use of aversion therapies (e.g., Antabuse and alcohol)


Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies

All share three core assumptions

1. Cognitions are identifiable and measurable

2. Cognitions are key in both healthy and unhealthy psychological functioning

3. Irrational beliefs or thinking can be replaced by more rational and adaptive cognitions


Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

Developed by Albert Ellis starting in 1950s

Emphasizes changing how we think, but also how we act

How we feel about the consequences of an event is determined by our beliefs or opinions


Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

Our vulnerability to psychological disturbance is a product of the frequency and strength of our irrational beliefs

To the ABC, Ellis added D (dispute the beliefs) and E (adopt more effective ones)


Other CBT Approaches

Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy around the same time as Ellis REBT

Focuses on identifying and then modifying distorted thoughts and long-held core beliefs

Works very well with depression, some evidence for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia


Third Wave of CBT

After behavioral (first) and cognitive (second), these therapies focus on acceptance

Includes Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Dialectical Behavior Therapy

Highly eclectic, remains to be seen if these are superior to accepted CBT methods


CBT Evaluated Scientifically

More effective than no or placebo treatment

At least or more effective than psychodynamic and humanistic therapies

At least as effective as drug therapies for depression

In general, CBT and BT are about as effective for most problems


Is Psychotherapy Effective?

Prior to 1970s, considerable controversy on it

Meta-analysis studies proved that therapy does work in alleviating human suffering

But which therapy? And for whom?


Is Psychotherapy Effective?

Some researchers claim the dodo bird verdict

All have won, and all must have prizes

But there are clear cut exceptions, like

Use of BT and CBT for behavior problems in youth

BT and CBT for anxiety disorders

Some therapies may actually be harmful


Some Potentially Harmful Therapies

Facilitated communication

Scared Straight Programs

Crisis debriefing

DARE programs

Coercive restraint therapies


Common Factors

Many therapies may be comparable due to common factors that cut across therapies

Specific factors are those that characterize only certain therapies

Most agree that both matter, but are divided over the degree of each

LO 16.9


Empirically Support Therapies

Name for interventions for specific disorders supported by high-quality scientific evidence

Most therapists do not use ESTs in practice

Many BT, CBT, acceptance, and interpersonal therapies have been found to be useful


Fooled by Ineffective Therapies

Five reasons can help explain why bogus therapies can gain a dedicated public following

Spontaneous remission

Placebo effect

Self-serving biases

Regression to the mean

Retrospective rewriting of the past


Biomedical Treatments

Attempt to directly alter the brains chemistry or physiology to treat psychological disorders

Psychopharmacotherapy use of medications is the most widespread

Began with use of Thorazine in 1954; today almost 15% of Americans are on antidepressants


Psychopharmacology

Today, medications are available to treat most psychological disorders

Antianxiety, antidepressants, mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, psychostimulants

Unfortunately, we dont know exactly whymost of these work


Cautions to Consider

Not a cure-all, as most meds have numerous side effects that need to be weighed

Most dissipate after discontinuing the drug, but not all (tardive dyskinesia)

Weight, age, and even racial differences often affect drug response


Cautions to Consider

Questions about efficacy and safety of SSRIs in children and adolescents

Overprescription is also a concern for many, especially of psychostimulants for ADHD

Polypharmacy is prescribing many medications at the same can be hazardous


Evaluating Psychopharmacotherapy

In many cases, therapy alone can produce as great or better benefits for many disorders

Clear advantages to combining meds and therapy when

Symptoms interfere greatly with functioning

Therapy alone hasnt worked for a 2 month period


Electrical Stimulation

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) involves patients receiving brief electrical pulses to the brain that produce a seizure

Used to treat severe problems (intractable depression, schizophrenia) as a last resort

6-10 treatments given three times a week



Most who undergo ECT would do so again, and report improvements

Must weigh benefits against problems

Over 50% relapse in six months

Short-term confusion and clouded memory



Vagus nerve and transcranial magnetic stimulation are both FDA approved for treatment-resistant depression

No large-scale studies on effectiveness, side effects similar to or greater than ECT


Psychosurgery

Brain surgery to treat psychological disorders, like prefrontal lobotomies

Used today as an absolute last resort with a handful of conditions

Severe OCD, depression, bipolar disorders

Chapter 16

Approaches to Treatment

and Therapy


What Do You Know?

Antipsychotics are also sometimes prescribed to treat mental disorders such a bipolar disorder.

A. True

B. False


Your Turn

Your friend has largely withdrawn from social activities, and has stopped maintaining her appearance or apartment. If she goes to see a doctor, what do you expect her doctor to prescribe?

1. An MAOI2. An SSRI (e.g., Prozac)3. A tranquilizer (e.g., Valium)4. Lithium carbonate


What Do You Think?

In September, you were diagnosed with clinical depression. In October, your doctor treated you with Prozac, but the medication did not appear to be effective. In November, she prescribed another antidepressant that also did not work. In December, she started you on a third treatment. How patient would you be in terms of continuing to work with your doctor to find the most effective treatment?

A. Very patientB. Not at all patient


What Do You Think?

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), a procedure in which a brief brain seizure is induced, is still used to treat mental disorders.

A. True

B. False


What Do You Think?

There exists a procedure used to treat major depression that involves the use of a pulsing magnetic coil held to a persons skull over the left prefrontal cortex.

A. True

B. False


Apply What You Know

Janet has an irrational fear of spiders. She goes to a behavior therapist to help her overcome this phobia. Her therapist has her watch a film about spiders for two hours. What technique is her therapist using?

A. Systematic desensitization

B. Graduated exposure

C. Flooding


What Do You Think?

In cognitive-behavior therapy, patients are told to identify and banish the negative thoughts they might be having about their behavior.

A. True

B. False


What Do You Know?

Melissa worries that in the face of death, life holds little, if any, meaning. Which type of therapy would you suggest Melissa consider in order to discuss this issue?

A. Psychodynamic

B. Humanistic

C. Existential


What Do You Know?

When Kathleen started relating to me in the way she related to her mother, it became clear that she perceived her mother as a rival for her fathers affection. What type of therapy is being used in this scenario?

A. Cognitive

B. Behavioral

C. Family

D. Humanistic

E. Psychodynamic


What Do You Know?

That child was a bad actor; he had a serious behavior disorder. It wasnt difficult to understand how he got that way after I had a few sessions with his parents and siblings. What type of therapy is being used in this scenario?

A. Cognitive

B. Behavioral

C. Family

D. Humanistic

E. Psychodynamic


What Do You Know?

He needs to convince himself that his past failures are not elements of a pattern that will govern his future. And he needs to convince himself that he is in charge of his life, and that he can choose the paths that will lead to accomplishment and satisfaction. What type of therapy is being used in this scenario?

A. Cognitive

B. Behavioral

C. Family

D. Humanistic

E. Psychodynamic


What do you think?

Psychotherapists should be required to know about research methods and to be able to assess research in order to practice.

A. True

B. False


Your Turn

You have arachnophobia, an intense fear of spiders. What kind of therapy should you seek out for the best chance of resolving your problem?

1. Direct brain intervention2. Cognitive therapy3. Psychodynamic therapy4. Behavioral therapy


What Do You Think?

While many therapies are helpful and effective, it is possible that therapy can be harmful.

A. True

B. False


What Do You Think?

While many therapies are helpful and effective, it is possible that therapy can be harmful.

A. True

B. False


PSYC_1000_course_outline_2013_CJ_IG_edits_1_.pdf (p.1-3)Lilienfeld_et_al_textbook_LecturePPTCh13_Social_Psychology.pdf (p.4-61)Ch08_CRS_WT10e_2_24_10_Behavior_in_social_and_cultural_context.pdf (p.62-91)Lilienfeld_et_al_textbook_LecturePPTCh15_Psychological_Disorders.pdf (p.92-152)Ch15_CRS_WT10e_2_24_10_Psychological_disorders.pdf (p.153-172)Lilienfeld_et_al_textbook_LecturePPTCh16_Psychological_and_Biological_Treatments.pdf (p.173-228)Ch16_CRS_WT10e_2_24_10_Approaches_to_treatment_and_therapy.pdf (p.229-255)

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