psych 101 chapter 7 1 prologue to chapter 7: memory occasionally, some individuals can perform feats...

Psych 101 Chapter 7 1

Prologue to Chapter 7: Memory

Occasionally, some individuals can perform feats of memory that seem astounding to us

Memory is a cognitive tool and a tool most people are not taught how to use effectively

Psychologists are interested in how memory works and how it can be improved

We will look at some theories of memory in this chapter


3 Stages of memory: an information processing view The “information processing” view of

memory posits three stages of memory The stages are:

the sensory register short-term memory long-term memory

This theory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin as a model of memory


Stage 1: the sensory register

First stage of memory Briefly holds an exact image of each sensory

experience until it can be processed iconic memory, audiotic memory, kinesthetic

memory information remains here for a very brief time,

e.g., on the order of about a few seconds or less


Stage 2: Short-term Memory


Stage 2: the short-term memory

The second stage of memory STM will hold about 5 to 9 bits of

information (averaging around the magic number 7)

Objective in STM is to encode SR information into a form suitable for storage in LTM



Data remains in STM for about 30 seconds unless it is refreshed rehearsal is one way to refresh information in

STM getting a phone number from a directory

assistance operator is an example of use of STM and rehearsal

rehearsal is also a way to encode information for storage in LTM (though a crude method)



Chunking in STM: overcoming STM’s 5-9 bit limited desktop capacity remembering data with more than around 9

bits of information is difficult STM desktop capacity can be extended by

using “chunking” where bits are collapsed into packets of information

packet formation is the key to effective chunking techniques in STM useage


Stage 2: STM

Examples of chunking here is a series of numbers: 3504694067970098 chunked: 350 46 9406 797 0098 we’ve reduced 16 bits down to 5 bits with each bit of

information containing more information what is your driver’s license number? effective use of chunking can increase your memory

ability by at least 200%


Stage 2: STM

Encoding: Preparing information for effective storage in LTM there are many encoding strategies; some

work better than others mneumonics can you name the Great Lakes?

HOMES can you name the 9 planets in correct order?

MVEM J. SUNP


Stage 3: Long-term Memory


Stage 3: Long-term memory

The 3rd stage of memory Information stored here will remain for a

relatively indefinite time Types of LTM

Procedural LTM: skills memory Episodic LTM: memory of a specific episode in your

life Semantic LTM: memory for specific meaning of

words, symbols, other information


Stage 3: LTM

Procedural LTM How do you tie your shoe, play the piano,

play a trombone? How do you do long division?

Episodic LTM Where were you when the SST-51

“Challenger” space shuttle exploded? Where were you (if you were) when John F.

Kennedy was shot?


Episodic Memory


Stage 3: LTM

Semantic LTM What does the word “arbitrary” mean? How do you use the “Periodic Table” to

determine the number of electrons in the shells of a particular matter’s atom?

In the book, Moby Dick, what is the meaning of the relationship of Captain Ahab and the white whale?


Stage 3: LTM

Organization of LTM Organization in LTM helps to facilitate

retrieval of information from the LTM Storing an “address” with the item to be

remembered helps in its later recall Cognitively mapping information into

meaningful “trees” Adjoining one memory onto another one,

e.g., the depth of Crater Lake


Stage 3: LTM

Retrieval of LTM memories 3 ways of testing LTM

recognition memory recall memory relearning speed

Recognition: the multiple choice examination Recall: the essay examination Relearning speed: how fast can your learn

this?


Recognition: Have you seen this picture before?


Stage 3: LTM

Serial learning and LTM Observations from research into the learning

of lists The “Serial Position Effect” reveals that memory

for the first and last items in a long list is easier than for items in the middle of the list

The “Von Resteroff Effect” is useful for increasing the probability of remembering items in the middle of a long list


Stage 3: LTM

The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon when you know you know something but

cannot immediately recall it the phenomenon suggests a retrieval problem

in LTM the information is there but you cannot access

it as you have lost the address to it improve LTM by being sure to encode

addressing information in stored material


An alternative theory of memory: the “Levels of Processing” theory


“Levels of Processing” theory

Model suggests that the difference between STM and LTM is a matter of processing rather than actually different stages of memory model suggests memory is based on the cognitive

processing of information rather than on specific skills in each stage of memory

model seems to suggest memory limited by one’s ability to process information; less “hopeful” theory than Atkinson/Shiffrin view


Forgetting and why it occurs?


Biological basis for memory

An “engram” is the as-yet-unidentified physical change that takes place in the nervous system when something is learned similar to the bit-level changes that happen

on a magnetic storage disk for computers an engram could be considered to be a bit-

level change in the nervous system of an individual after learning has occurred

the search is on for the “engram”


Biological basis for memory

Synaptic theories of memory: where is the engram? Donald O. Hebb theorized that there were

physical changes at the synapses when learning occurred recent research tends to support Hebb’s theory that

there are, indeed, physical changes at the synapses data suggests that biochemistry is important in

memory and this has many implications memories by pill in the future?


Memory: Changes at the synapse?


Disorders of memory


Amnesia: Disorders in memory

There are 2 types of amnesia Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia

Anterograde amnesia an inability to store and/or retrieve new

information in the LTM person cannot remember anything newly

acquired for more than seconds



Causes of anterograde amnesia brain surgery, brain trama brain tumors, lack of oxygen (anoxia) to the

brain stroke, senility severe nutritional deficiences



Retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve old LTM data person can remember new things but not old causes of retrograde amnesia may include:

severe psychological trama severe brain trama

often associated with a psychiatric disorder called “fugue”


Enhancing memory?


Enhancing memory?

Do “smart drugs” really work? drugs designed to enhance memory are highly

controversial and should be viewed with caution memory enhancers must work at the level of the

synapses to be effective, e.g., neural transmitters drug-assisted memories can only usually be recalled

successfully if subject is in the drugged state


Enhancing memory?

Stimulants and memory: should I use stimulants to keep me hyped-up for studying for exams? memory is state-dependent you must be in the same state to most

effectively recall something that you were in when you learned it

if you are coffee-buzzed learning, then you should be coffee-buzzed testing


Application of Psychology


Application of psychology

How valid is eyewitness testimony and their memory? research by Loftus reveals that eye-witness memories

can be faulty the influence of perception on recall of events is

substantial eye-witnesses may not be lying but may be

remembering false data implications for lawyers, clients, and witnesses


How good is your memory?

Be prepared to describe the following


What did you see?

What was occurring? What color was the floor? Was there a spoon in the picture? What color was the handle on the grinder? How many eyes were in the picture? Was there any food in the picture? How was your memory?


Questions?

Any questions over chapter 7?


Test #2 coming up!

Our next test, Test #2, will be over chapters 5, 6, and 7.

Have your studyguides done and checked before test day if you desire any extra credit

If you didn’t do well on the first test, then make sure to read the textbook at least twice; study your notes carefully; use the studyguide.

psych 101 chapter 7 1 prologue to chapter 7: memory occasionally, some individuals can perform feats...

Documents

stage of memoryinformation

stage of memorystm

processediconic memory

audiotic memory

feats of memory

memory works

theories of memory

memory ability