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Motivation & Emotion
Dr James NeillCentre for Applied Psychology
University of Canberra
2013Image source
Conclusion and review
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Outline – Conclusion and review
1. Review of key content (Ch 1 - 15)2. Conclusion (Reeve, Ch 16)3. Feedback
1. Review of key content (Ch 1 - 15)2. Conclusion (Reeve, Ch 16)3. Feedback
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Case study scenario 1:Teenager struggling at school
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 447)
Mikaela, your neighbour drops by looking like she is at the end of her tether :(. Her teenage daughter is doing poorly in school and is considering dropping out. Your neighbour's face turns serious as she seeks your advice,
“What can I do? How can I motivate my daughter?”.
It has come down to this – a knock on the door and the distressed face of a concerned parent. What can you recommend?
Mikaela, your neighbour drops by looking like she is at the end of her tether :(. Her teenage daughter is doing poorly in school and is considering dropping out. Your neighbour's face turns serious as she seeks your advice,
“What can I do? How can I motivate my daughter?”.
It has come down to this – a knock on the door and the distressed face of a concerned parent. What can you recommend?
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Motivation is about explaining why
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 449)
Why do we do what we do? Why are we afraid or resistant?
Empirically supported theories can help diagnose, predict, and intervene.
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What is motivation?
"motivation" derives from
the Latin verbmovere
(to move)
"motivation" derives from
the Latin verbmovere
(to move)
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Running_Samburu_Boy.jpg, CC-by-A 2.0
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Motivation = Energy + Direction
Processes that give behaviour energy and direction.
Processes that give behaviour energy and direction.
Energy: Behaviour is relatively strong, intense and persistent
Direction: Behaviour is aimed toward achieving a particular purpose or goal
Energy: Behaviour is relatively strong, intense and persistent
Direction: Behaviour is aimed toward achieving a particular purpose or goal
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Explaining motivation: Why we do what we do
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 449)
Reasons for behaviour
Why we do what we doWhy we want what we want
Motivational statesHow motives
intensify, change, and fade
Motivation theories
explain
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Predicting motivation: Identifying antecedents
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 449-450)
Which antecedent conditions energise and direct behaviour?
Interpersonal
Intrapsychic
Environmental
Physiological
Motivation&
emotion
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Four motivational sources
Based on Reeve (2009, Figure 1.2, pp. 8-9)
Needs
Cognitions
Emotions
Externalevents
Inte
rna
l mo
t ives
The subject matter of motivation concerns those processes that give behavior its energy and direction.
The four processes capable of giving behavior strength and purpose - its energy and direction
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Framework to understand the study of motivation
Based on Reeve (2009, Figure 1.5, p. 22)
Antecedent Conditions
MotiveStatus
Sense of “Wanting to”
Urge toApproach vs.
Avoid
Energising & Directing
• Behaviour• Engagement• Physiology• Self-Report
Needs Cognitions Emotions
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Using motivational theories to solve practical problems
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 22)
PracticalProblem
Given What I know AboutHuman Motivation & Emotion
Proposed Solution/Intervention, if any
e.g., • Student dropout• Mediocre performance
• Theories• Empirical findings• Practical experience
• Do I have a strong reason to believe that my proposed intervention will produce positive benefits?• Do no harm
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Abbreviated list of the mini-theoriesAchievement motivation theory (Atkinson, 1964)
Attributional theory of achievement motivation (Weiner, 1972)
Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957)
Effectance motivation (White, 1959; Harter, 1978a)
Expectancy x value theory (Vroom, 1964)
Goal-setting theory (Locke, 1968)
Intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1975)
Learned helplessness theory (Seligman, 1975)
Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966)
Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977)
Self-schemas (Markus, 1977)
Based on Reeve (2009, Ch 2, pp. 35-38)
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The motivated & emotional brain
Thinking brainCognitive & Intellectual Functions
“What task it is doing”
Motivated brain“Whether you want to do it”
Emotional brain“What your mood is while doing it”
Brain
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 49-50)
“The brain is not only a thinking brain, it is also the center of motivation and emotion.”“The brain is not only a thinking brain, it is also the center of motivation and emotion.”
Image source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brain_090407.jpg
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Brain & physiological sources of motivation and emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, Ch 3)
Brain structures (e.g., for approach and avoid – left and right pre-frontal cortex respectively)
Hormones (e.g., for ghrelin/leptin for hunger/satiation, oxytocin for bonding)
Neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine for reward)
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The world in which brain lives
Motivation cannot be separated from the social context in which it is embedded• Environmental events act as the natural
stimulators of the brain’s basic motivational process.
Motivation cannot be separated from the social context in which it is embedded• Environmental events act as the natural
stimulators of the brain’s basic motivational process.
We are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behaviour• A person is not consciously aware of why he or
she committed the social or antisocial act.
We are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behaviour• A person is not consciously aware of why he or
she committed the social or antisocial act.
Base
d on
Ree
ve (
2009
), C
h 3
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Need:
When needs are nurtured and satisfied, well-being is maintained and enhanced.
Motivational states therefore provide the impetus to act before damage occurs to psychological and bodily well-being.
If neglected or frustrated, the need’s thwarting will produce damage that disrupts biological or psychological well-being.
Any condition within an organism that is essential and necessary for life, growth, and well-being.
Based on Reeve (2009)
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Need structure:Types of needs
Needs
Physiological Needs
(Chapter 4)
• Thirst• Hunger• Sex
Psychological Needs
(Chapter 6)
• Autonomy• Competence• Relatedness
Social Needs(Chapter 7)
• Achievement• Affiliation • Intimacy• Power
Internalised or learned from our emotional and socialisation histories
Inherent within theworkings of biologicalsystems Based on Reeve (2009)
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Failures to self-regulate physiological needs
People fail at self-regulation for three primary reasons
1People routinely
underestimate how powerful a
motivational force biological urges
can be when they are not currently
experiencing them.
2People can lack
standards, or they have inconsistent,
conflicting, unrealistic, or inappropriate
standards.
3People fail to
monitor what they are doing as they
become distracted,
preoccupied, overwhelmed, or
intoxicated.
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Psychological need
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 142-143)
Inherent source of motivation that generates the desire to interact with the environment so as to advance personal growth, social development, and psychological well-being.
“when people find themselves in environments that support and nurture their psychological needs, then positive emotions, optimal experience, and healthy development follow.” (Reeve, p. 142)
Inherent source of motivation that generates the desire to interact with the environment so as to advance personal growth, social development, and psychological well-being.
“when people find themselves in environments that support and nurture their psychological needs, then positive emotions, optimal experience, and healthy development follow.” (Reeve, p. 142)
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Self-determination theory
Autonomy Competence Relatedness
Three psychological needs
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 145)
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Four essential ways of supporting autonomy
Based on Reeve (2009,p. 149)
1. Nurture inner motivational resources2. Rely on informational language3. Promote explanatory rationales4. Acknowledge & accept negative feedback
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Involving competence
• Flow: a state of concentration that involves a holistic absorption in an activity
1. Optimal challenge and flow
• Setting the stage for challenge• Performance feedback
2. Interdependency between challenge and feedback
• Information about the pathways to desired outcomes• Support and guidance for pursing these pathways
3. Structure
• Considerable error making is essential for optimising learning.• Failure produces opportunities for learning.
4. Failure tolerance
Key environmental conditionsBased on Reeve (2009,pp. 155-159)
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Relatedness• Emotionally positive interactions and
interaction partnersInvolving relatedness: Interaction with others
• Intimate and high-quality relationships that involve caring, liking, accepting, and valuing
Supporting relatedness: Perception of a social
bond
• In communal relationships, people care for the needs of the other, and both feel an obligation to support the other’s welfare
Communal & exchange relationships
• Relationships that provide a rich supply of relatedness need satisfaction and clear and convincing rationale for the other’s prescriptions and proscriptions
Internalisation
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 162-165)
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What makes for a good day?Based on Reeve (2009pp. 167-168)
Psychological Nutriments for Good
Days
DailyAutonomy
DailyRelatedness
Daily Competence
Psychological Nutriments necessary for Good Days, Positive Well-Being, and Vitality
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Social needs
Definition: An acquired psychological process that grows out of one’s socialisation history that activates emotional responses to a particular need-relevant incentive.
Definition: An acquired psychological process that grows out of one’s socialisation history that activates emotional responses to a particular need-relevant incentive.
Examples: ● Achievement● Affiliation● Intimacy● Power
Examples: ● Achievement● Affiliation● Intimacy● Power
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 173)
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Primary need-activating incentiveIncentive that activates each social need’s emotional and behaviour potential
Social need Incentive that activates each need
Achievement Doing something well to show personal competence
Affiliation Opportunity to please others and gain their approval
Intimacy Warm, secure relationship
Power Having impact on othersBased on Reeve (2009,Table 7.2, p. 175)
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Achievement goals
Two Main Achievement
Goals
Mastery Goals
- Develop one’s competence
- Make progress
- Improve the self
- Overcome difficulties with
effort and persistence
Performance Goals
- Prove one’s competence
- Display high ability
- Outperform others
- Succeed with little apparent
effort
- Prove one’s competence
- Display high ability
- Outperform others
- Succeed with little apparent
effortBased on Reeve (2009,pp. 183-184)
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Benefits of adopting mastery goals
Preference for a challenging task one can learn from
Adoption of amastery goal
Work harder
Persistlonger
Performbetter
Use conceptually based learning strategies
Experience greater intrinsic than extrinsic motivation
More likely to ask for information & help
(rather than a performance goal)
Based on Reeve (2009)
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Avoidance motivation & well-being
Fear
of
failure
Perform-ance-
avoidance
goals
LOW *Self-esteem
*Personal control
*Vitality
*Life satisfaction
*Psychological well-being
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 187-189)
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Affiliation and intimacyProfile of high intimacy motivation
Based on Reeve (2009, Table 7.7, p. 192)
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Conditions that involve & satisfy the affiliation and intimacy needs
Affiliation need
‘Deficiency-oriented motive’
Deprivation from social interaction: Social isolation and fear
Social acceptance, approval, and reassurance
Intimacy need
‘Growth-oriented motive’
Interpersonal caring, warmth, and love
Relatedness within a warm, close,
reciprocal & enduring relationships
Need-involving condition
Need-satisfying condition
Based on Reeve (2009,pp. 193-195)
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Power
• Leadership• Aggressiveness• Influential occupations• Prestige possessions
Conditions that involve and satisfy the need for power
• Power increases approach tendencies.• People high in the need for power more easily acquire
the goals they seek.
Power and goal pursuit
Based on Reeve (2009,pp. 196-198)
The need to impact on others
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Motivation to exercise personal control:Initial assumptions and understandings
People desire control over their environment so as to be able to make: positive outcomes ↑ likely negative outcomes ↓ likely
Exercising personal control is predicated upon a person's belief that s/he has the power to influence results favourably.
The strength with which people try to exercise personal control can be traced to their expectancies of being able to do so.
People desire control over their environment so as to be able to make: positive outcomes ↑ likely negative outcomes ↓ likely
Exercising personal control is predicated upon a person's belief that s/he has the power to influence results favourably.
The strength with which people try to exercise personal control can be traced to their expectancies of being able to do so.
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 231)
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Two kinds of expectanciesExpectancy: A subjective prediction of
how likely it is that an event will occur.Expectancy: A subjective prediction of
how likely it is that an event will occur.
Efficacy expectations“Can I do it?”
Expectation of being able to enact the behaviours needed to cope
effectively with the situation at hand.e.g.,
Can I do 20 mins on a treadmill, 3 x week for 12 months?
Outcome expectations“Will what I do work?”
Expectation that one's behaviour will produce positive outcomes (or prevent negative outcomes).
e.g.,Would I lose 5 kgs as a result?
Motivation to exercise personal control
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 231-232)
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Self-efficacy
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 233-235)
One’s judgment of how well one will cope with a situation (given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one faces).
Capacity to improvise ways to translate personal abilities into effective performance.
The opposite of self-efficacy is self-doubt.
Self-efficacy predicts the motivational balance between wanting to give it a try vs. anxiety, doubt and avoidance.
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Sources & effects of self-efficacy
Based on Reeve (2009, Figure 9.3, pp. 235-240)
Extent of self-efficacy
Personal behaviour
history
Vicarious experience(Modeling)
Verbal persuasion(Pep talk)
Physiological activity
Choice(Approach vs.
avoid)
Effort and persistence
Thinking and decision making
Emotional reactions
(Stress, anxiety)
Sources of self-efficacy Effects of self-efficacy
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skier-carving-a-turn.jpg
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Empowerment
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 241)
Empowerment
Knowledge
Self-efficacy beliefs
Skills
Empowerment involves possessing the knowledge, skills, and beliefs that allow people to exert control over their lives.
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Mastery versus helplessness
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 243-244)
Mastery motivational orientation
• A hardy, resistant portrayal of the self during encounters of failure
• Failure feedback can be helpful and constructive information.
Helpless motivational orientation
• A fragile view of the self during encounters of failure
• Failure feedback is a sign of personal inadequacy.
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Explanatory style:Relatively stable, cognitively-based personality orientation
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 253-255)
Optimistic explanatory
style• Explains bad events with
attributions that are unstable and controllable
• Related to the self-serving bias of an illusion of control which contributes to enhancing self-esteem and promoting an optimistic view of the future
Pessimistic explanatory
style• Explains bad events with
attributions that are stable and uncontrollable
• Associated with academic failure, social distress, impaired job performance, physical illness, and depression
Attributions vary in their locus, stability and controllability
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Six dimensions of psychological well-being
1. Self-acceptance2. Positive relations with others3. Autonomy4. Environmental mastery5. Purpose in life6. Personal growth
1. Self-acceptance2. Positive relations with others3. Autonomy4. Environmental mastery5. Purpose in life6. Personal growth
Based on Reeve (2009, Table 10. 1, p. 265) which is based on Ryff (1991)
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The self
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 264-266)
Four topics taking center stage
Defining orcreating the self
Relating the self
to society
Discovering & developing
personal potential
Managing or regulating
the self
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Self-concept (cognitive structure)
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 268)
a reflection of the invariance people have discovered in their own social
behaviour.(the way the self has been differentiated and
articulated in memory)
Set of beliefs an individual uses to conceptualisehis or her self e.g.,
“I am....” (self-descriptions)Cluster of domain-specific self-schemas
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Motivational properties of self-schemas
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 269-272)
Self-schemas direct behaviour to confirm the self-view and to prevent episodes that generate feedback that might disconfirm that self-view.
Consistent self
Self-schemas generate motivation to move the present self toward a desired future self.
Possible self
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Benefits of well-developed self-schema
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 268-270)
Process information about the self with relative ease.
Confidently predict his own future behaviour in the domain.
Quickly retrieve self-related behavioural evidence from the domain.
Resist counter-schematic information about him/herself.
Benefits ofwell-developed
self-schema
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Possible selves
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 273-275)
An important piece of the puzzle in understanding how the self develops
Mostly social in origin, as the individual observes the selves modeled by others.
The possible self’s motivational role is to link the present self with ways to become the possible (ideal) self.
Representations of attributes, characteristics, and abilities that the self does not yet possess.
Portraying the self as a dynamic entity with a past, present, and future.
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Cognitive dissonance
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 275-276)
A state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent with one another.
Most people are motivated to justify their own actions, beliefs, and feelings.
People are not rational beings; instead, people are rationalising beings.
Cognitive dissonance
Assumptions
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Definition of emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 301)
“Emotions are … short-lived, feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that helps us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events.”
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What is an emotion?
Feelings• Subjective experience• Phenomenological awareness• Cognition
Bodily arousal•Physiological activation•Bodily preparation for action•Motor responses
Emotion
Sense of purpose•Goal-directed motivational state•Functional aspect
Significantlife event
Based on Reeve (2009, Figure 11.1 Four components of emotion, p. 300)
Social-expressive•Social communication•Facial expression•Vocal expression
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Relationship between motivation & emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 301-303)
Emotions are one type of motive which energises and directs behaviour.
Emotion as motivation
Emotions serve as an ongoing “readout” to indicate how well or how poorly personal adaptation is going.
Emotion as readout
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What causes an emotion?
Based on Reeve (2009, Figure 11.3, Causes of the emotion experience, p. 303)
Significantsituational
event
Cognitiveprocesses
Biologicalprocesses
Feelings
Sense of purpose
Bodily arousal
Social-expressive
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How many emotions are there?Basic emotions
(Families/clusters of emotions)
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 312-317)
Basic emotions
Fear Anger Disgust Sadness Joy Interest
Negative emotion themes• Response to threat and harm
• Potential of threatening and harmful events causes fear.• In fighting off or rejecting them we experience anger and disgust.• After they occur, there is sadness
Positive emotion themes
• Motive involvement (Interest)• Satisfaction (Joy)
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What good are the emotions?
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 317-320)
Utility of emotion
Coping functions Social functions
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Coping functions of emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, Table 11.1 Functional view of emotional behaviour, pp. 318,from Plutchik (1980, p. 289))
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Social functions of emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 319-320)
2. Influence how others interact with us.
4. Create, maintain, & dissolve relationships.
3. Invite & facilitate social interaction.
1. Communicate our feelings to others.
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Individual differences in happiness, arousal, & control
Why do different people have different motivational and emotional states even
in the same situation?
Why do different people have different motivational and emotional states even
in the same situation?
Based o n Reev e (200 9, pp. 368-36 9)
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Personality & happiness
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 370)
Extraversion
Happiness
Neuroticism
Unhappiness
Happinessset point
Unhappiness set point
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Natural happiness and synthetic happiness
Natural happiness: Occurs when you get what you want.
Synthetic happiness: Occurs when you accept that you didn't get what you want. Synthetic happiness is as real as natural
happiness e.g., in dating, you look to get what you want, in
marriage, you find a way to like what you’ve got.
Natural happiness: Occurs when you get what you want.
Synthetic happiness: Occurs when you accept that you didn't get what you want. Synthetic happiness is as real as natural
happiness e.g., in dating, you look to get what you want, in
marriage, you find a way to like what you’ve got.
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Sensation seeking
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 379)
Defined as “the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences”.
(Zuckerman, 1994)
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Sensation seeking Sensation seeking determines
how a person reacts to a situation or event.
Sensation seeking determines the situations and activities a person chooses.
Sensation seeking determines how a person reacts to a situation or event.
Sensation seeking determines the situations and activities a person chooses.
Affect intensity
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 382)
Affect-stable individuals
Affect-intense individuals
Figure 13.5 Daily Mood Reports Graphed Over 80 Consecutive Days
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Control
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 384)
Perceived control
The extent to which an individual believes that s/he possesses the capacity needed to produce positive outcomes.
Desire for control
The extent to which individuals are motivated to establish control over the events in their lives.
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Contemporary psychodynamic perspective
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 395-396)
1. The unconscious Much of mental life is unconscious.
2. PsychodynamicsMental processes operate in parallel with one another.
3. Ego developmentHealthy development involves moving from an immature socially dependent personality to one that is more mature and interdependent with others. → Ego effectance
4. Object relations theoryMental representations of self and other form in childhood that guide the person’s later social motivations and relationships.
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Evolution of paradigms in psychology
1st force: Psychoanalytic2nd force: Behaviourism3rd force: Humanistic4th force: Transpersonal
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Holism
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 419-421)
Human motives are integrated wholes (rather than a sum of parts).
Personal growth is the ultimate motivational force.
Stresses “top-down” master motives such as the self and its strivings toward fulfillment
Focuses on discovering human potential and encouraging its development
Human motives are integrated wholes (rather than a sum of parts).
Personal growth is the ultimate motivational force.
Stresses “top-down” master motives such as the self and its strivings toward fulfillment
Focuses on discovering human potential and encouraging its development
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Positive psychology
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 419-421)
Focuses on proactive building of personal strengths and competencies
Seeks to make people stronger and more productive, and to actualise the human potential in all of us
Uses scientific methods to identify evidence-based methods
Focuses on proactive building of personal strengths and competencies
Seeks to make people stronger and more productive, and to actualise the human potential in all of us
Uses scientific methods to identify evidence-based methods
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Self-actualisation
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 421)
AutonomyGreater mindfulness
Courage to create
Realistic appraisals
Openness Self-realisation
The desire for self-fulfillment, the tendency to actualise one's potential. The desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. Motivation and personality (Maslow, 1954)
Two fundamental directions that characterise self-actualisation as a process
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Behaviours that encourage self-actualisation
Based on Reeve (2009, Table 15.1, pp. 424-425) and Maslow (pp. 44-49
Make growth choices (progression vs. regression or growth vs. fear)
Be honest (when in doubt) Situationally position yourself for peak
experiences Give up defensiveness Let the self emerge (listen to impulse
voices rather than introjected voices) Be open to experience (identify defences
and have the courage to give them up)
Make growth choices (progression vs. regression or growth vs. fear)
Be honest (when in doubt) Situationally position yourself for peak
experiences Give up defensiveness Let the self emerge (listen to impulse
voices rather than introjected voices) Be open to experience (identify defences
and have the courage to give them up)
69Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 425-430)
Actualising tendency“The organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing self.” (Rogers, 1951)
• Innate, a continual presence that quietly guides the individual toward genetically determined potentials
• Motivates the individual to want to undertake new and challenging experiences
Actualising tendency
• Innate capability for judging whether a specific experience promotes or reverses growth
• Provides the interpretive information needed for deciding whether the new undertaking is growth-promoting or not
Organismic valuation process
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Fully functioning individual
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 431)
EmergenceOnset of innatedesire, impulse,or motive
AcceptanceDesire, impulse,or motive isaccepted “as is”intoconsciousness
ExpressionUneditedcommunication ofdesire, impulse,or motive
Figure 15.3 Fully functioning as the emergence, acceptance, and expression of a motive
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Organismic valuing processThis process may include any of the following principles: Authenticity Autonomy Internal locus of evaluation Unconditional positive self-regard Process living Relatedness Openness to inner and outer experience
This process may include any of the following principles: Authenticity Autonomy Internal locus of evaluation Unconditional positive self-regard Process living Relatedness Openness to inner and outer experience
Based on ChangingMinds - http://changingminds.org/explanations/values/organismic_valuing.htm
72Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 431-434)
Autonomy causality orientation
Relies on internal guides (e.g., needs, interests)
Pays closer attention to one’ s own needs and feelings
Relates to intrinsic motivation and identified regulation
Correlates with positive functioning (e.g., self-actualisation, ego development, openness to experience etc.)
Relies on internal guides (e.g., needs, interests)
Pays closer attention to one’ s own needs and feelings
Relates to intrinsic motivation and identified regulation
Correlates with positive functioning (e.g., self-actualisation, ego development, openness to experience etc.)
73Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 431-434)
Control causality orientation
Relies on external guides (e.g., social cues)
Pays closer attention to behavioural incentives & social expectations
Relates to extrinsic regulation and introjected regulation
Relies on external guides (e.g., social cues)
Pays closer attention to behavioural incentives & social expectations
Relates to extrinsic regulation and introjected regulation
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How relationships support the actualising tendency
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 436-439)
Quality of interpersonal relationships
Warmth Genuine-ness Empathy
Interpers-onal
acceptance
Confirmation of the other
person’s capacity for
self-determination
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Positive psychology & growth
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 440-441)
Positive psychology
• Looks at people’s mental health and the quality of their lives to ask, “What could be?”
• Seeks to build people’s strengths and competencies
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Outline – Conclusion
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 447)
Case study scenario Understanding &
applying motivation Explaining motivation:
Why we do what we do Predicting motivation:
Identifying antecedents Applying motivation:
Solving problems
Motivating self & others Motivating self Motivating others Feedback on how the effort
to motivate self and others is going
Case study scenario Understanding &
applying motivation Explaining motivation:
Why we do what we do Predicting motivation:
Identifying antecedents Applying motivation:
Solving problems
Motivating self & others Motivating self Motivating others Feedback on how the effort
to motivate self and others is going
Designing motivational interventions Four case studies Four success stories
Wisdom gained from a scientific study of motivation and emotion
Designing motivational interventions Four case studies Four success stories
Wisdom gained from a scientific study of motivation and emotion
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Case study scenario 1:Teenager struggling at school
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 447)
Mikaela, your neighbour drops by looking like she is at the end of her tether :(. Her teenage daughter is doing poorly in school and is considering dropping out. Your neighbour's face turns serious as she seeks your advice,
“What can I do? How can I motivate my daughter?”.
It has come down to this – a knock on the door and the distressed face of a concerned parent. What can you recommend?
Mikaela, your neighbour drops by looking like she is at the end of her tether :(. Her teenage daughter is doing poorly in school and is considering dropping out. Your neighbour's face turns serious as she seeks your advice,
“What can I do? How can I motivate my daughter?”.
It has come down to this – a knock on the door and the distressed face of a concerned parent. What can you recommend?
79
Motivational intervention:Three objectives
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 456-457)
Causes?Diagnose why the person is experiencing motivational problems (Explaining)
Sources? Identify the key sources of the person’s motivation (Predicting)
Strategies? Apply knowledge about motivation to solve the problem (Applying)
Causes?Diagnose why the person is experiencing motivational problems (Explaining)
Sources? Identify the key sources of the person’s motivation (Predicting)
Strategies? Apply knowledge about motivation to solve the problem (Applying)
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Understanding & applying motivation
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 448)
Three objectives
PREDICT(Sources)
APPLY(Strategies)
EXPLAIN(Causes)
How conditions will affect
motivation and emotion
Why people do
what they do
Motivational principles to solve practical problems
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Case study scenario 1:Teenager struggling at school
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 448)
Three objectivesPREDICT(Sources)
APPLY(Strategies)
EXPLAIN(Causes)
Ask what is working? (build on strengths/interests)
Extrinsic motivation?
Lack of goals?Quality of
relationships?Lack of
meaning?
Ask her about emotions?Help build skills?
(competence)Help her
identify goals?
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Applying motivation: Solving problems
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 450-451)
Two questions: How do I motivate myself? How do I motivate others?
Two questions: How do I motivate myself? How do I motivate others?
Fix what isn't working
• Repairing weaknesses
• Overcoming pathology
Accentuate what is working
• Amplifying strengths
• Improving functioning
Solving motivational problemsSolving motivational problems
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Motivating self and others
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 453)
Resource for motivating self
Life-long development of inner motivational resources
Environmental conditions
Situational events
Resource for motivating othersQuality of interpersonal
relationships
Motive status• Needs• Cognitions• Emotions
Outcomes
• Performance• Engagement• Approach• Well-being
Figure 16.1 Framework to think about motivating self and motivating others
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Motivating self
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 451-453)
Nurturing resources for motivating self:Life-long development of
productive inner motivational resources
Experiencing strong,
resilient, and
productive motivational states
Growing approach-oriented needs, cognitions,
and emotions
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Motivating others
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 453-455)
Motivator
The person (self)
Outside force
Who is motivating the person?Who is motivating the person?
86Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 453-455)
Is the social context supporting the person’s personal causation and inner motivational resources?
Primary goalEnhancing the other’s capacity for personal causation(NOT producing compliance or a predetermined pattern of desired behaviour)
Interpersonal relationship
Supports?
Undermines?
the person’s motivation
Motivating others
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Feedback on how the effort to motivate self and others is going
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 455)
Emotions
• Interest • Enjoyment• Optimism
vs.• Apathy• Anger• Pessimism
Overt behaviours
● Intense effort● Long persistence● Short latency to begin● High probability of occurrence
Well-being
● Changes in vitalityand well-being
Feedback mechanism
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Designing motivational interventions
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 456-464)
Four success stories:1. Attaining personal goals2. Motivating students3. Suppressing the urge to smoke4. Autonomy-supportive parenting
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Success stories: Attaining personal goals
Students listed goals to attain in a semester Rated extent to which goals reflect personal
interests and values Self-management plans identified sources of
distraction and counter-behaviours 62% of goals completed – sig. higher for self-
concordant goals with implementation plans Take-home message: Self-concordant goals
+ implementation plans → success
Students listed goals to attain in a semester Rated extent to which goals reflect personal
interests and values Self-management plans identified sources of
distraction and counter-behaviours 62% of goals completed – sig. higher for self-
concordant goals with implementation plans Take-home message: Self-concordant goals
+ implementation plans → success
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 459-460)
90Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 457-464)
Self-concordant goalsGoals: What people want to accomplishSelf-concordance: Why people pursue these particular goals
Clear implementation intentionsHow people plan to reach the goals
High levels ofgoal progress,
accomplishment,and
positive affect
Success stories: Attaining personal goals
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Success stories: Motivating students
Poor school attendance and performance Intervention: Activities to bolster personal
causation (perceived autonomy) in regard to schoolwork
Personal causation → Achievement motivation → Achievement
Long-term effects
Poor school attendance and performance Intervention: Activities to bolster personal
causation (perceived autonomy) in regard to schoolwork
Personal causation → Achievement motivation → Achievement
Long-term effects
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 460-462)
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Success stories: Suppressing the urge to smoke Nicotine
→ Dopamine (reinforcement)→ More Nicotine use
Intervention: Nicotine blocker→ Low dopamine release (less reinforcements)→ decreased urge to smoke
Nicotine → Dopamine (reinforcement)→ More Nicotine use
Intervention: Nicotine blocker→ Low dopamine release (less reinforcements)→ decreased urge to smoke
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 462-463)
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Success stories: Autonomy-supportive parenting Jennifer, 10, danced since 4, but now wants
to do team sports with her friends Parents supported Jennifer's strivings and
autonomy (avoiding amotivation/learned helplessness and aggressive reactance)
Jennifer later requested to return to dance Parents motivated daughter by providing a
relationship that supported and affirmed daughter's capacity for self-determination and autonomous self-regulation
Jennifer, 10, danced since 4, but now wants to do team sports with her friends
Parents supported Jennifer's strivings and autonomy (avoiding amotivation/learned helplessness and aggressive reactance)
Jennifer later requested to return to dance Parents motivated daughter by providing a
relationship that supported and affirmed daughter's capacity for self-determination and autonomous self-regulation
Based on Reeve (2009, pp. 460-462)
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Nuggets of wisdom
In tutorials, we will collect and organise your “nuggets of wisdom” (short statements about your greatest insights from the unit).
e.g., ● What has been your most significant
learning about motivation and emotion?● What is the take-home message from your
book chapter?
In tutorials, we will collect and organise your “nuggets of wisdom” (short statements about your greatest insights from the unit).
e.g., ● What has been your most significant
learning about motivation and emotion?● What is the take-home message from your
book chapter?
95
Wisdom gained from a scientific study of motivation & emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 464)
1. Human nature can be discovered using scientific methods
2. What we don't know about motivation and emotion exceeds what we do know
3. The brain is as much about motivation and emotion as it is about cognition and thinking
4.We routinely underestimate how powerful a motivational force biological urges can be when we are currently not experiencing them
1. Human nature can be discovered using scientific methods
2. What we don't know about motivation and emotion exceeds what we do know
3. The brain is as much about motivation and emotion as it is about cognition and thinking
4.We routinely underestimate how powerful a motivational force biological urges can be when we are currently not experiencing them
96
Wisdom gained from a scientific study of motivation & emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 464)
5. The quality of one's motivation matters as much as does its quantity
6. To flourish, motivation needs supportive conditions, especially supportive relationships
7. We share many of the same needs, while other needs are acquired through experience
8. We do not do our best when we “try to do our best”; rather, we do our best when pursue a difficult, specific goal
5. The quality of one's motivation matters as much as does its quantity
6. To flourish, motivation needs supportive conditions, especially supportive relationships
7. We share many of the same needs, while other needs are acquired through experience
8. We do not do our best when we “try to do our best”; rather, we do our best when pursue a difficult, specific goal
97
Wisdom gained from a scientific study of motivation and emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 464)
9. The cognitive pillars of motivated action are “I can do it” and “It will work.”
10. Boosting self-esteem is a poor motivational strategy.
11. All emotions are good.12. Emotions are biological, cognitive,
and social reactions to important events in our life.
9. The cognitive pillars of motivated action are “I can do it” and “It will work.”
10. Boosting self-esteem is a poor motivational strategy.
11. All emotions are good.12. Emotions are biological, cognitive,
and social reactions to important events in our life.
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Wisdom gained from a scientific study of motivation and emotion
Based on Reeve (2009, p. 464)
13. Happiness lies in our genes and in what we choose to strive for.
14. We are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behaviour.
15. Encouraging growth is more productive than is trying to cure weakness.
16. There is nothing so practical as a good theory.
13. Happiness lies in our genes and in what we choose to strive for.
14. We are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behaviour.
15. Encouraging growth is more productive than is trying to cure weakness.
16. There is nothing so practical as a good theory.
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IntegrateIntegrate theories and
current research research towards explaining the role of
motivationmotivation and emotionsemotions in human behaviour.
Learning outcomes
101
Generic skills
Communication Working independently and with
others Professionalism and social
responsibility
Communication Working independently and with
others Professionalism and social
responsibility
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What worked for you? What didn't work so well for you? How could this unit be improved? Put honest views in the Unit Satisfaction Survey Also feel free to contact me directly with your feedback about any aspect of the unit.
Review and feedback
104
Quizzes preferred to exam Quiz autonomy good Book chapter preferred to essay – more real life/advanced skills, with choice of topic and social expectation
Online platform allowed collaboration and feedback Multimedia preferred to group presentation Screenr functionality – no timer shows & if messed up had to re-record
Could people have a choice of presentation format Extra workshops for book chapter & multimedia – e.g., mid-semester 2/3 might turn up - or tutorials in a lab
Not everyone has internet connection or has limits Lecture notes – simplifed non-image? - download size All assessment towards end-of-semester e.g., have a draft outline due mid-semester
Ideas and suggestions (2011)
105
References
Reeve, J. (2009). Understanding motivation and emotion (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Reeve, J. (2009). Understanding motivation and emotion (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Note: Image credits are in the slide notes which are downloadable from Slideshare
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