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GCSE Psychology Course Handbook

Welcome to GCSE Psychology. During this course you will learn

how to analyse and evaluate research – looking at the

advantages and disadvantages of the methods used to test the

participants. You will also learn about ethics in psychology –

what things we can and cannot do to our participants.

We will look at 10 areas of psychology, including non-verbal

communication, memory, phobias and obedience. (see pages 5

to 14 for a full syllabus). We will investigate research done

by psychologists and see if it supports their theories. We will

do ‘mini experiments’ in class as well as using videos and the

Internet.

There are three examinations at the end of the course, B541,

B542, B543. B541: Studies and Applications in Psychology 1

and B542: Studies and Applications in Psychology 2 have 40%

of the total GCSE marks each and both exams are 1 hr 15

minutes. B543: Research in Psychology has 20% of the total

marks and is 1 hour.

At the end of each topic, you will be required to complete the

relevant homework section in this handbook. The homework is

taken from past exam papers to give you a good idea of what

to expect in the exams.

We hope you enjoy the course! Gook Luck!

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CONTENTS

Welcome page pp 2

Syllabus overview pp 4

Syllabus in depth pp 5-14

The exams pp 15 – 16

Research methods pp 17 – 22

Sampling pp 23 -24

Ethics pp 25-28

Homework tasks pp 29 onwards

(These are all taken from past exam papers so that you will be able to

practice your exam technique)

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This is an overview of what topics you will study on the course

Unit B541: Studies and Applications in Psychology 1

Biological Psychology: • Sex and gender

Cognitive Psychology: • Memory

Developmental Psychology: • Attachment

Social Psychology: • Obedience

Individual Differences: • Atypical behaviour


Biological Psychology: • Criminal behaviour

Cognitive Psychology: • Perception

Developmental Psychology: • Cognitive development

Social Psychology: • Non-verbal communication

Individual Differences: • The self

Unit B543: Research in Psychology

Planning research

Doing research

Analysing research

Planning an investigation

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This tells you in depth what you will study and what you will need to

know for each exam – make sure you refer to this when you are doing

your revision!!


Biological Psychology Sex and gender Key concepts: sex, gender, masculinity, femininity, androgyny

Core theory: biological theory

Core study: Diamond and Sigmundson (1997)

Application of research into sex and gender: equal opportunities for the sexes

Sex and gender Key concepts: You should be able to:

• distinguish between sex and gender;

• outline the concepts of masculinity, femininity and androgyny.


You should be able to:

• outline the role of chromosomes in typical gender development;

• outline the role of gonads and hormone production in typical gender development;

• describe basic evolutionary sex differences in human behaviour;

• explain the criticisms of the biological theory of gender development;

• consider psychoanalytic theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to the

role of the Oedipus/Electra complex in gender development.

Core study: Diamond and Sigmundson (1997)


• describe Diamond and Sigmundson‟s case study of the castrated twin boy raised as a girl;

• outline limitations of Diamond and Sigmundson‟s study.

Application of research into sex and gender:

• equal opportunities for the sexes


• explain how psychological research relates to equal opportunities for the sexes, e.g.

sex typing in education, gender roles at work, natural differences in choice of leisure

activities.

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Cognitive Psychology Memory Key concepts: information processing, input, encoding, storage, retrieval, output,

accessibility problems, and availability problems

Core theory: multi-store model

Core study: Terry (2005)

Applications of research into memory: memory aids

Key concepts


• describe information processing: input, encoding,

storage, retrieval, output;

• distinguish between accessibility and availability problems in memory.

Core theory: multi-store model of memory


• distinguish between sensory store, short-term memory, long-term memory with

reference to duration and capacity;

• describe the processes of attention and rehearsal;

• explain how forgetting occurs through decay and displacement;

• explain the criticisms of the multi-store model of memory;

• consider levels of processing theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to

the importance of deep processing in memory.

Core study: Terry (2005)


• describe Terry‟s experiment on the serial position effect in recall of TV commercials;

• outline limitations of Terry‟s study.

Applications of research into memory: memory aids


• explain how psychological research relates to memory aids, e.g. use of cues and

retrieval failure, use of imagery and meaning, mind mapping and organisation.

Developmental Psychology Attachment Key concepts: separation protest, stranger anxiety, secure attachment, insecure-avoidant

attachment, insecure-ambivalent attachment

Core theory: Bowlby‟s theory

Core study: Hazen and Shaver (1987)

Application of research into attachment: care of children

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Key concepts You should be able to:

• describe separation protest and stranger anxiety as measures of attachment;

• distinguish between different types of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-

ambivalent.

Core theory: Bowlby‟s theory


• explain the concept of monotropy;

• explain the concept of a critical period in attachment;

• describe the effects of attachment, deprivation and

privation;

• explain the criticisms of Bowlby‟s theory of attachment;

• consider behaviourist theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to

reinforcement in attachment as opposed to instinct.

Core study: Hazen and Shaver (1987)


• describe Hazen and Shaver‟s survey of the relationship between attachment types and

adult relationships;

• outline limitations of Hazen and Shaver‟s study.

Application of research into attachment: care of children


• explain how psychological research relates to care of children, e.g. dealing with

separation in nurseries, encouraging secure attachments through parenting classes,

dealing with stranger anxiety in hospitalised children.

Social Psychology Obedience Key concepts: obedience, defiance, denial of responsibility

Core theory: theory of situational factors

Core study: Bickman (1974)

Application of research into obedience: keeping order in institutions and situations


• distinguish between obedience and defiance;

• explain what is meant by the term „denial of responsibility‟.

Core theory: theory of situational factors


• explain the effect of environment on obedience, i.e. setting, culture;

• explain the effect of authority and the power to punish on obedience;

• explain the effect of consensus on obedience;

• explain the criticisms of situational factors as an explanation of obedience;

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• consider dispositional factors as an alternative theory, with specific reference to the

role of the authoritarian personality in obedience.

Core study: Bickman (1974)


• describe Bickman‟s field experiment into effects of uniform;

• outline limitations of Bickman‟s study.

Application of research into obedience: keeping order in institutions and situations


• explain how psychological research relates to keeping order in institutions, e.g. use

of punishment in schools, use of authority in armed forces, effect of prison setting.

Individual Differences Atypical behaviour Key concepts: typical behaviour, atypical behaviour, fear, agoraphobia, social phobia, school

phobia, acrophobia, arachnophobia

Core theory: behaviourist theory

Core study: Watson and Rayner (1920)

Application of research into atypical behaviour: behaviour therapy for phobias

Key concepts


• distinguish between typical and atypical behaviour in relation to fear;

• outline common types of phobia: agoraphobia, social phobia, school phobia,

acrophobia and arachnophobia.

Core theory: behaviourist theory


• distinguish between an unconditioned stimulus, neutral stimulus and a conditioned

stimulus;

• distinguish between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response;

• use the process of classical conditioning to explain the onset of phobias;

• explain the criticisms of the behaviourist theory of atypical behaviour;

• consider evolutionary theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to

preparedness.

Core study: Watson and Rayner (1920)


• describe Watson and Rayner‟s experiment to induce a phobia in a young child;

• outline limitations of Watson and Rayner‟s study.

Application of research into atypical behaviour: behaviour therapy for phobias


• explain how research relates to psychological behaviour therapy for phobias, e.g.

use of stimuli in systematic desensitisation, use of classical conditioning in flooding

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and implosion therapy, cognitive therapy for going beyond behaviour modification.


Biological Psychology Criminal behaviour Key concepts: crime, measures of crime, criminal personality


Core study: Mednick et al (1984)

Application of research into criminal behaviour: crime reduction

Key concepts


• outline the problems of defining and measuring crime;

• explain the concept of a criminal personality.



• explain the role of heritability in criminal behaviour;

• explain the role of brain dysfunction in criminal behaviour;

• describe the facial features associated with criminals;

• explain the criticisms of the biological theory of criminal behaviour;

• consider social learning theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to

vicarious reinforcement of role models in the learning of criminal behaviour.

Core study: Mednick et al (1984)


• describe Mednick et al‟s adoption study into the genetic basis of criminal behaviour;

• outline limitations of Mednick et al‟s study.

Application of research into criminal behaviour: crime reduction


• explain how psychological research relates to crime reduction, e.g. biological

perspective on use of prisons, implications of research for crime prevention,

reinforcement and rehabilitation.

Cognitive Psychology Perception Key concepts: sensation, perception, depth cues, linear

perspective, height in plane, relative size, superimposition,

texture gradient

Core theory: constructivist theory

Core study: Haber and Levin (2001)

Application of research into perception: advertising

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• describe the difference between sensation and perception using shape constancy, colour

constancy and visual illusions;

• explain depth cues, including linear perspective, height in plane, relative size,

superimposition and texture gradient.

Core theory: constructivist theory


• outline the role of experience in perception;

• explain the concept of top-down processing;

• explain the concept of perceptual set;

• explain the criticisms of the constructivist theory of perception;

• consider the nativist theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to bottom-

up processing in perception.

Core study: Haber and Levin (2001)


• describe Haber and Levin‟s experiment into depth perception and familiarity of objects;

• outline limitations of Haber and Levin‟s study.

Application of research into perception: advertising


• explain how psychological research relates to advertising, e.g. use of context in

perceptual set, use of motivation in perceptual set, subliminal advertising and levels

of perception.

Developmental Psychology Cognitive development Key concepts: invariant stages, universal stages, sensori-motor stage, pre-operational

stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage

Core theory: Piaget‟s theory

Core study: Piaget (1952)

Application of research into cognitive development: educating children


• describe how cognitive development occurs in invariant and universal

stages;

• outline the stages of cognitive development: sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete

operational and formal operational.

Core theory: Piaget‟s theory


• describe the concept of object permanence;

• describe the concept of egocentrism and the process of de-centring;

• describe the concept of conservation;

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• explain the criticisms of Piaget‟s theory of cognitive development;

• consider Vygotsky‟s theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to the zone

of proximal development.

Core study: Piaget (1952)


• describe Piaget‟s experiment into the conservation of number;

• outline the limitations of Piaget‟s study.

Application of research into cognitive development: educating children


• explain how psychological research relates to educating children, e.g. key stages in

relation to Piaget‟s stages, active/discovery learning, scaffolding in relation to

Vygotsky‟s theory.

Social Psychology Non-verbal communication Key concepts: non-verbal communication, body language, facial expressions

Core theory: social learning theory

Core study: Yuki et al (2007)

Application of research into non-verbal communication: social skills training


• outline examples of body language as a form of non-verbal communication;

• outline examples of facial expressions as a form of non-verbal communication.

Core theory: social learning theory


• explain the role of observation and imitation in learning non-verbal behaviour;

• describe the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning non-verbal behaviour;

• describe cultural variations in non-verbal communication;

• explain the criticisms of the social learning theory of non-verbal behaviour;

• consider evolutionary theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to survival

and reproduction.

Core study: Yuki et al (2007)


• describe Yuki et al‟s experiment into cross-cultural differences in interpreting facial

expressions;

• outline limitations of Yuki et al‟s study.

Application of research into non-verbal communication: social skills training


• explain how psychological research relates to social skills training, e.g. rehabilitation

of criminals, customer-service training, managing conflict by managing body language.

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Individual Differences The self Key concepts: individuals as unique, free will

Core theory: humanistic theory

Core study: Van Houtte and Jarvis (1995)

Application of research into the self: counselling


• understand the idea that individuals are unique;

• explain the concept of free will.

Core theory: humanistic theory


• distinguish between self concept and ideal self in relation to self esteem;

• explain the idea of unconditional positive regard;

• explain the idea of self actualisation;

• explain the criticisms of humanism as an explanation of the self;

• consider trait theory as an alternative theory, with specific reference to extraversion

and neuroticism.

Core study: Van Houtte and Jarvis (1995)


• describe Van Houtte and Jarvis‟ interviews about pet ownership amongst adolescents;

• outline limitations of Van Houtte and Jarvis‟ study.

Application of research into the self: counselling


• explain how psychological research relates to counselling, e.g. raising self esteem in

depressed people, individual choice in careers counselling, humanistic principles of

relationship counselling.

Unit B543: Research in Psychology Planning research Types of studies

Hypotheses Analysing research

Variables Types of data

Experimental designs Descriptive data

Sampling techniques Tables, Charts & Graphs

Ethical considerations Evaluating Findings

Doing research Sources of Bias

Experiments Planning an investigation

Questionnaires Investigation skills

Interviews Design skills

Observations Types of studies

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As preparation for this exam we will be conducting mini experiments within the class and

as homework assignments

Planning research Hypotheses You should be able to:

• frame a null hypothesis;

• frame an alternate (research) hypothesis;

• distinguish between null hypotheses and alternate hypotheses.

Variables You should be able to:

• distinguish between independent variables and dependent variables;

• outline what is meant by an extraneous variable;

• explain how extraneous variables can be controlled, including standardisation.

Experimental designs You should be able to:

• distinguish between repeated measures and independent groups designs;

• describe the strengths and weaknesses of a repeated measures design;

• describe the strengths and weaknesses of an independent groups design.

Sampling techniques You should be able to:

• distinguish between a target population and a sample;

• distinguish between random sampling and opportunity sampling;

• describe the relative strengths and weaknesses of random and opportunity sampling

with reference to representative samples and biased samples.

Ethical considerations You should be able to:

• discuss the issues of informed consent and right to withdraw;

• discuss the issues of confidentiality;

• discuss the issues of protection of participants, including deception, and health and

well-being.

Doing research

Experiments You should be able to:

• describe the use of laboratory experiments;

• describe the use of field experiments;

• describe the strengths and weaknesses of laboratory and field experiments.

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You will be asked to plan an investigation (based on one of the above methods) in the

examination.

Planning an investigation

Investigation skills You should be able to:

• carry out an experiment;

• carry out a questionnaire;

• carry out an interview;

• carry out an observation.

Design skills You should be able to:

• state the hypothesis for an investigation;

• describe and justify the sample used in an investigation;

• describe ethical issues involved in an investigation;

• describe and justify how the variables are measured in an investigation;

• describe and justify the control of extraneous variables in an investigation;

• describe the procedure used in an investigation;

• explain the strengths of the method used in an investigation;

• explain the weaknesses of the method used in an investigation;

• describe how data is analysed in an investigation.

Assessment

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GCSE: The Exams! GCSE Psychology (J611)

Unit B541: Studies and Applications in Psychology 1 This question paper has five sections:

One topic is selected from each of the five approaches in

Section A, B, C, D, E. Four of the five topics are assessed in four sections worth 15 marks

each. The first three sections contain only short-answer questions, with questions worth

up to four marks. The fourth section also comprises short-answer questions, with the last

one worth six marks.

The final topic is assessed in one section worth 20 marks. This section contains gradated

questions with the final question being worth 10 marks.

In each section, short-answer questions may include stimulus questions, e.g. completing

tables, multi-choice, matching concepts and interpreting sources.

Different topics are assessed in different sections across the series of examinations.

40% of the total GCSE marks

1 hr 15 mins written paper

80 marks

This unit is externally assessed.

Unit B542: Studies and Applications in Psychology 2 This question paper has five sections:

One topic is selected from each of the five approaches in

Section A, B, C, D, E. Four of the five topics are assessed in four sections worth 15 marks

each. The first three sections contain only short-answer questions with questions worth up

to four marks. The fourth section also comprises short-answer questions with the last one

worth six marks.

The final topic is assessed in one section worth 20 marks. This section contains gradated

questions with the final question being worth 10 marks.

In each section, short-answer questions may include stimulus questions, e.g. completing

tables, multi-choice, matching concepts and interpreting sources.

Different topics are assessed in different sections across the series of examinations.


1 hr 15 mins written paper

80 marks

This unit is externally assessed.

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Unit B543: Research in Psychology This question paper has two sections:

Section A: You are required to answer a series of questions, based on and around a

source, that test knowledge of the research process. The source material presented in the

exam describes a piece of research. This section is worth 25 marks.

Section B: You are required to plan an investigation based on a stimulus provided in the

exam. The method will be specified and chosen from an experiment, questionnaire,

interview or observation. The questions are based on the design skills listed in the

specification.

This section is worth 15 marks.


1 hr written paper

40 marks

This unit is externally assessed

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RESEARCH METHODS

Scientific Experiment (laboratory experiment)

This method is widely used in psychology because it gives the psychologist greater control

over what happens, compared with many other research techniques. Therefore, cause and

effect can be tested. The experimenter alters one variable (called the independent

variable - IV) and then measures the effect this has on another variable (called the

dependent variable - DV).

Advantages

It is possible to claim the IV is the cause

Extraneous/nuisance variables can be controlled e.g. noise levels

It can be replicated

Disadvantages

It is an artificial situation, usually conducted in a lab to maximise control,

therefore results may not generalise to real life - low ecological validity

There may still be extraneous variables beyond the control of the experimenter

e.g. whether someone has drunk caffeine before a reaction time experiment

The results may be affected by things such as: experimenter bias, demand

characteristics etc

Field Experiment

This is an experiment which is conducted in more natural surroundings

(not necessarily a field!) It could be on the underground or in a

supermarket. Participants are unaware that they are taking part in a psychology

experiment. The independent variable is still manipulated.

Advantages

It has greater relevance for real life – higher ecological validity

The technique avoids experimenter effects such as participant bias and demand

characteristics, because the participants are unaware that they are taking part in

an experiment

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Disadvantages

Extraneous variables such as noise and heat are harder to control

It is more time-consuming and expensive than lab experiment

Natural Experiment (Quasi experiment)

If conditions vary naturally, the effects of an independent variable can be observed

without any intervention by the experimenter, or where it would be unethical to do so. For

example: looking at the effects of maternal deprivation on children who are placed, either

in foster care or children‟s homes. It would be unethical to take children away from their

mothers just to see the effect of this deprivation. It is still an experiment in the sense

that cause and effect are being identified but not a „true‟ experiment as the experimenter

is not manipulating the IV.

Advantages

Same as for field experiments

It can be a useful way to study cause and effect where there are ethical

objections to manipulating the variables

Disadvantages

Participants may be aware they are being studied and show changes simply because

of this

There is a loss of control over extraneous variables

Such conditions are not always easy or possible to find occurring naturally

Observation

Behaviour is observed in its natural environment or in written records. All variables are

free to vary and interference is kept to a minimum. No independent variable is

manipulated, but nevertheless a hypothesis (a prediction of

what you think the outcome of your experiment will be) may

be tested.

There are different types of observation:

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1. Controlled observation

This usually takes place in a laboratory. It gives some control over extraneous variables

and observer variation and bias. However, it is an artificial environment and a rigid

classification system may mean some important aspects of behaviour are missed.

2. Naturalistic observation

This is where the behaviour that is observed is naturally occurring. It gives greater

ecological validity and is useful where experimentation would be impossible or unethical.

However, extraneous variables are hard to control, it is hard to do discretely – i.e.

using a video recorder etc, replication is harder. A rigid classification system may mean

some important aspects of behaviour are missed

3. Participant observation

This is where the psychologist joins the group that he/she is observing. They may or

may not tell the other members of the group who they are and what they are doing. It

is non-structured way of gathering data. Participants act completely naturally is not

told about the study. The researcher can gain first hand experience of the roles and

interactions of those under investigation. However, the non-structured way of

gathering data may give problems with observer bias and it may be difficult to

replicate or to generalise to other settings. It may also me difficult to make notes on

the spot and memory may be unreliable

Advantages

It gives a more realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour

It has high ecological validity

If the observer remains undetected, the method avoids most experimenter effects

such as experimenter bias, demand characteristics etc

Disadvantages

It is not possible to infer cause and effect

It is difficult to replicate

It is not possible to control extraneous variables

Observer bias – the observer sees what he/she wants to see

Where an observer

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Case Study

This is a detailed account of a single individual, small group, institution or

event, e.g. Freud‟s case study of Little Hans or Watson & Rayner‟s Little

Albert. It might contain data about personal history, background, test

results or interviews.

Advantages

Gives in-depth picture producing rich data

Relates to real life

Used where a behaviour is rare – such as a boy raised by dogs

Disadvantages

Usually involves recall of earlier history and therefore may be unreliable

The close relationship between experimenter and participant introduces bias

Cause and effect are difficult to establish

You cannot replicable it

Limited sample – makes it difficult to generalise the results i.e. say that everyone

in this particular situation would behave in the same way

Time consuming and expensive

Longitudinal Study

One group of individuals is studied over a long period of time, taking periodic samples of

behaviour.

Advantages

Repeated measures are used, therefore participant variables are controlled

You can draw conclusions about cause and effect

Disadvantages

Impossible to replicate because of changes in society

Requires large investment of time and money

Participants may be „lost‟ or drop out

Once the study has started the design cannot be modified

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Cross-Cultural Study

Different cultures are compared with regard to certain practices such as child-rearing,

taboos, language and thought.

Advantages

Suggests cause and effect

Rich data, provides interesting insights

Widens the scope of psychology to include a greater proportion of the human

population

Disadvantages

A non-native observer may not understand language or practices

An outsider may have cultural biases

Practices may not be directly comparable

Costly and time-consuming

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Survey/Questionnaire

This is a group of self-report method for collecting data; Oral or

written. This includes questionnaires, attitude scales, opinion polls

or interviews.

Advantages

It‟s generally quick and easy to do

Enables you to gather large amounts of data

Gives access to information not available from direct observation

Disadvantages

It is possible to draw conclusions about correlations (the relationship between two

things) but NOT state cause and effect

It relies on self-report, which is open to problems such as social desirability bias

(people gives answers that „sound good‟ rather than what they actually think!)

The method replies on people being able to understand the questions - so difficult

to use with children

It is impossible to control for personal interpretations of the questions

Correlation

This is not strictly speaking a research method but a technique of data analysis (statistical

test). It is used to look at the relationship between two things but you CANNOT state

cause and effect.

Advantages

It can be used where experimental manipulation would be unethical

A good starting point for later experimental studies

Can indicate a trend

Disadvantages

It establishes a relationship only – you cannot state cause and effect

The relationship may be due to other extraneous variables

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SAMPLING

In order to conduct any research we need some people (or animals) to study. The

participants which are to be used are called a sample. To obtain a sample, researchers

must first identify the target population. This is the whole group with which the study is

concerned, for example, a study on “the attitudes of college students towards smoking”

would have a target population of “all college students”.

Psychologists try to avoid using a biased sample; biased means ‘not representative’. As

you go through your psychology course, you will not find it difficult to provide examples of

very biased samples of participants being used.

There are several ways of choosing a sample from a target population.

1. Random sampling:

Here every member of the target population has the same chance of appearing

in the sample.

It could be done by „drawing straws‟ or „pulling names from a hat‟.

One popular method is to give each member of the target population a number

and then to take numbers from a random-number table.

An exact definition of a random sample is a sample where no member of the

target population has a greater chance of being chosen than any other

2. Systematic sampling:

Here every 4th or 10th (or any other number) name is taken from a list of the

target population.

For example, if your target population is every child in a school of 500 and you

need 25 then you can use every 20th name from the register.

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3. Stratified sampling:

A list is made of each variable which might have an effect on the research.

For example, if we are interested in the money spent on books by

undergraduates, then the main subject studied may be an important variable.

This is because students studying English literature may spend more money on

books than engineering students, so if we use a disproportionate percentage of

English literature students or of engineering students then our results will not

be accurate.

We have to work out the relative percentage of each group e.g. engineering 10%,

law 5%, medicine 15%. The sample must then contain all these groups in the same proportion as in the target population.

Gathering such a sample can be time consuming and difficult to do and such

sampling is not often used in psychology.

One example of an occasion when it is important and easy to use would be a

study of attitudes of people over the age of 80 years. In the target population

of people over the age of 80 years old, there is a grater percentage of women

than men. This difference should be reflected in the sample population.

4. Opportunity sampling:

This type of sample is the most easy and convenient to use - the researcher

simply takes advantage of having participants available at the time to use as the

sample.

For example, students at college and universities are often used by their tutors

to take part in the tutor‟s research.

You may end up using your class mates, friends, people in the LRC just because

they‟re there at the time you‟re doing your research.

5. Self selected samples:

In this case participants chose themselves by, for example, answering an

advertisement in a newspaper, sometimes replying to a postal questionnaire.

This is not a representative sample since most people do not volunteer or

return a questionnaire; those who do return the questionnaire are hardly likely

to be representative of the target population so the sample is naturally biased.

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ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

GUIDELINES FOR GCSE students

1 Aim

The aim of this document is to give guidelines to students involved in behavioural research

in schools and colleges. It addresses many of the major issues, but does not cover all of

them. Whilst the following guidelines refer to behavioural research in general, they are

written specifically with psychological research in mind.

2 Introduction

Ethical issues arise whenever psychological research is carried out and you will need to

consider these. Psychological investigations may have ethical implications for those

participating in the study, others they have contact with, members of the public, the

researcher and the reputation of Psychology. You need to consider the rights and welfare

of the people involved, the value of the knowledge obtained and the need to promote and

maintain a positive image of Psychology. Psychological research can be fun, but it should

not be carried out just for fun.

If you ask people to help you with your research, they have the right to refuse. Respect

their rights at all times and avoid exploiting them for your own interests.

Here are some of the questions you will need to ask yourself about the study you carry

out:

Should I be conducting this kind of study at all?

What is the most ethical way of carrying it out?

Am I sufficiently competent to carry it out?

Have I informed the participants of all they need and would expect to know before

taking part?

Have they willingly agreed to take part?

How do I ensure that all research records are confidential and anonymous, and will

remain so?

How do I ensure that my research is carried out professionally and in a way that

protects the rights of those involved?

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3 Choosing the best method of study

However interesting your idea might seem, you should only proceed if your study can be

ethically justified. You should familiarise yourself with previous relevant research and

findings, and you should consult someone who is suitably experienced. The first person to

approach will probably be a psychology teacher or lecturer.

4 Competence

You need to work within your limits, and seek advice from your teacher or lecturer in order

to establish your competence level.

People may ask your advice because they know you are studying Psychology. They may want

help with personal problems which may be beyond your level of competence. Be very

careful how you respond and do not claim to be more skilled or better qualified than you

really are.

5 Consent

Participants should be volunteers and told what your research is about. Whenever possible

obtain their informed consent, making sure participants fully understand what they are

agreeing to.

You will need to emphasise rather than cover up aspects of the study that might affect

someone‟s willingness to help. It is unethical to deceive people into taking part by saying

the study is about something else. You should only withhold information if the research

cannot be carried out in any other way.

Participants should be debriefed so they know exactly what the study was about; be

prepared to answer any questions. Their own results should be made available to them. If

participants will be distressed or annoyed when you give them feedback at the end of the

study you should not proceed.

Participants have the right to withdraw from your study at any time. Make sure they

realise they can do this. Be prepared to stop the study immediately if you sense

discomfort.

Participants should not be intimidated or pressurised into continuing when they do not

want to, however inconvenient it is for you. You should be aware that participants may see

you as threatening, or in a position of influence, simply because you are undertaking

research.

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Some people may be unable to give their own informed consent. These may include

children, the elderly and those with special needs. Every effort must be made to seek

permission from those with responsibility for these individuals.

For research conducted in your own school or college, you should first obtain consent from

the head teacher. This consent may also be required from parents or guardians. The head

teacher will be able to advise you on this.

Participants should be drawn from the candidate‟s own school or college, whenever

possible. Consent is not needed when carrying out naturalistic observations of behaviour

where an individual might expect to be observed, but people‟s privacy should be respected.

It is always best to check whether consent is required. Be aware that others may regard

your behaviour as suspicious.

6 Confidentiality

Respect your participants‟ privacy by treating data as confidential. Others should be

unable to identify those who have taken part in your study. Many researchers assign

numbers or initials to participants, both to identify them in their reports and to maintain

their anonymity. You may need to discuss your data with other researchers or your

supervisor, so let participants know if you intend to do this. It is unethical to divulge

individual data unless a participant has provided written permission for you to do so.

Records should be kept safely and not left where others can gain access to them.

7 Conduct

You should always be honest about your own competence and limitations. You are unlikely to

be an expert in diagnosis, psychotherapy or psychological testing. It is unethical to claim

that you are.

Make sure you consider the welfare of those affected by your study. Maintain the highest

standards of safety, ensuring that apparatus is safe and that participants do not attempt

embarrassing, dangerous, painful or illegal tasks. Your study must be designed so that

those involved are not exposed to physical or psychological risks at any time. If in doubt,

discuss this with your Psychology teacher or lecturer, and if necessary, be prepared to

abandon your study.

You should never:

insult, offend or anger participants;

make participants believe that they have harmed or upset someone else;

break the law or encourage others to do so;

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contravene the Data Protection Act;

illegally copy tests or materials;

make up data;

copy other people‟s work;

claim that somebody else‟s wording is your own.

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