PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS, COACHING COMPETENCE,

SPORTSMANSHIP AND PERFORMANCE EFFICACY IN TEAM SPORTS

Vicar Solomon

Roll No. 03

Ph. D.

Session: (2015-Fall)

INSTITUTE OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB,

LAHORE.

ii

Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence, Sportsmanship and Performance

Efficacy in Team Sports

By

Vicar Solomon

Roll No. 03

Session 2015-Fall

Supervisor

Prof. Dr. Farah Malik

A thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

PhD. in Applied Psychology

Institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab

Lahore, Pakistan

iii

Thesis Approval

Approved/ Rejected/ Sought Revision and Resubmission.

________________________

External Examiner

________________________

Supervisor

_________________________

Director

Institute of Applied Psychology

University of the Punjab

Date: ___________

(To be signed after the Viva – Voce Examination)

iv

Declaration

I, Vicar Solomon, Ph. D (Scholar) Roll No 03, session 2015-Fall from Institute of

Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, do hereby solemnly declare

that the work submitted in this thesis entitled “Psychological Skills, Coaching

Competence, Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in Team Sports” is my own.

This work has been completed at the Institute of Applied Psychology, University of

the Punjab, Lahore and has not been previously presented to any other institution or

university for the degree.

_______________________

Vicar Solomon

v

Certificate

It is certified that Mr. Vicar Solomon worked under my supervision. His research

project on “Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence, Sportsmanship and

Performance Efficacy in Team Sports” has been approved for submission in its

present form, as a requirement for fulfillment of the Ph. D. in Applied Psychology.

_________________

Research Supervisor

Date: _____________

Submitted through

________________________

Director

Institute of Applied Psychology

University of the Punjab

Date:______________________

vi

Acknowledgements

It was quite exciting for me to explore such an emerging trend having a wide

spectrum to study and encompassing a plethora of knowledge to investigate but had

never been discussed in Pakistan. Apart from thanking Allah who bestowed me with

courage, and strong will-power to take such an audacious step by initiating research

on seemingly such an impossible task, I would like to be obliged for my mentor as

well as supervisor Prof. Dr. Farah Malik for being so supportive, not only always

keen to facilitate me but to make me ponder upon different aspects of this

phenomenon by her kind guidance and above all, having faith in me that I would

complete this work comprehensively.

Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. Sohail Saleem and Mr. Mohtashim

Rasheed; Pakistan Cricket Board, Mr. Muhammad Mubeen and Mr. Zia Baki;

Pakistan Hockey Federation for creating opportunity for me to access national and

international hockey players and cricketers. I would also like to thank authors of the

scales for their permission to use their developed research tools. I would really like to

pay my humble gratitude to Mrs. Shabnam Zafar; for accommodating me despite of

my hectic office routine, Dr. Shahnila Tariq for her unconditional moral guidance,

Mr. Faiz Younas for his affection, Zainab Raza for her concern towards my work,

Faran for his constant telephonic discussions related to my work, Muneeb, Ishaq and

Almas for their motivational phrases for me and above all my parents whose

aspirations have always been my inspirations. In the end, it is my sheer pleasure to

pay my gratitude to all those players who took part in this study because it was

impossible to achieve my goal without their co-operation.

_________________________

Vicar Solomon

vii

Table of Contents

Contents Page No.

Title Page ii

Thesis Approved Performa iii

Declaration iv

Certificate v

Acknowledgements vi

Table of contents vii

List of Tables xi

List of Figures xiii

List of Appendices xv

Life of Abbreviations and Symbols xvi

Abstract xvii

Chapter I: Introduction 1-50

1.1 Psychological Skills 4

1.1.1 Types of psychological skills 5

1.1.2 The prime performance pyramid 5

1.1.3 Level I basic skills 5

1.1.4 Level II preparatory skills 10

1.1.5 Level III performance skills 13

1.1.6 Four C’s in Sports Psychology 14

1.2 Coaching Competence 19

1.2.1 The pygmalion effect 22

1.2.2 The pygmalion effect in sports 23

1.2.3 Coaching competencies in sports 23

1.2.4 Theoretical background 25

1.3 Sportsmanship 30

1.3.1 Sportsmanship and morality 32

1.3.2 Sportsmanship and character development 33

1.3.3 Coaches and character development 34

1.3.4 Sports as a context for youth development 36

1.3.5 Conceptual approaches to character development through Sports 37

viii

Contents Page No.

1.4 Performance Efficacy 44

1.4.1 Sports and performance 45

1.4.2 Self efficacy and collective efficacy 46

1.4.3 Sources of self-efficacy 48

1.5 Summary 49

Chapter II: Literature Review 51-79

2.1 Psychological Skills 52

2.2 Coaching Competence 55

2.3 Sportsmanship 62

2.4 Performance Efficacy 68

2.5 Indigenous Researches 72

2.6 Summary 75

2.7 Rationale 76

Chapter III: Study I 80-99

3.1 Objectives 80

3.2 Phase I: Construction and Validation of Psychological Skills Scale

For Team Sports

80

3.2.1 Conceptualization of the construct 81

3.3 Sample 81

3.4 Interview Questions for Generation of Item Pool for PSSTS 82

3.5 Phase II: Determining Psychometric Properties of PSSTS 83

3.5.1 Sample 83

3.5.2 Construct validly 84

3.5.2.1 Factor 1: psycho-performance skills 92

3.5.2.2 Factor 2: perceived psychological support 92

3.5.2.3 Factor 3: psycho-competitiveness 92

3.5.2.4 Scoring procedure 92

3.5.2.5 Reliability and item analysis 93

3.5.2.6 Scaled scores 93

3.6 Discussion 97

Chapter IV: Study II 100-152

4.1 Objectives 100

ix

Contents Page No.

4.2 Hypotheses 101

4.3 Research Design 103

4.4 Sampling Strategy and Sample 103

4.5 Operational Definitions 105

4.5.1 Psychological skills 105

4.5.2 Coaching competence 105

4.5.3 Sportsmanship 106

4.5.4 Performance Efficacy 106

4.6 Assessment Measures 106

4.6.1 Psychological skills scale for team sports (PSSTS) 107

4.6.2 The coach competence scale (CCS) 107

4.6.3 Youth sport and values quesitionnaire-2 (YSVQ-2) 107

4.6.4 Collective efficacy for sports questionnaire (CESQ) 107

4.6.5 Demographic information sheet 108

4.6.6 Procedure of translation 108

4.7 Procedure 111

4.8 Ethical Considerations 111

4.9 Results 112

4.10 Summary of Findings 143

4.11 Discussion 143

Chapter V: Study III 153-231

5.1 Objectives 153

5.2 Research Design 153

5.3 Sampling Strategy and Sample 153

5.4 Interview Guide 155

5.5 Procedure 156

5.6 Data Analysis 156

5.7 Summary of Findings 219

5.8 Discussion 221

Chapter VI: Discussion 232-242

6.1 General Discussion 232

6.2 Conclusion 237

x

Contents Page No.

6.3 Limitations 238

6.4 Strengths 239

6.5 Recommendations 240

6.6 Implications 241

References 243-279

Appendices 280

xi

List of Tables

Table No. Title Page No.

Table 3.1 Kaiser-Myer Test for Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of

Sphericity (N=518)

84

Table 3.2 Factor Loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis with Oblimin

Rotation of Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS)

87

Table 3.3 Inter-correlations between Subscales and Total Scores of

Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports for Total Sample (N =

518)

94

Table 3.4 Inter-correlations between Subscales and Total Scores of

Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports i.e. Hockey (n=257)

and Cricket (n=261)

94

Table 3.5 Descriptive Statistics of the Psychological Skills Scale for Team

Sports (N = 518)

95

Table 3.6 Descriptive Statistics of the Psychological Skills Scale for Team

Sports for Hockey (n=256) and Cricketers (n=262)

96

Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Characteristics of Sample

(N=518)

104

Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Skills, Coaching

Competence, Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in Team

Sports (N=518)

113

Table 4.3 Pearson Correlation Moment Analysis Comparing Relationship

Between Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence,

Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in Team Sports

115

Table 4.4 Fit Indices for Psychological Skills, Sportsmanship and

Performance for Hockey Players and Cricketers (N=518)

121

Table 4.5 Standardized Estimates of Direct Effects 126

Table 4.6 Standardized Estimates of Indirect Paths 127

Table 4.7 Fit Indices for Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence and

Performance Efficacy in Hockey Players and Cricketers (N=518)

129

Table 4.8 Unstandardized Estimates of Main and Interaction Effects 133

xii

Table No. Title Page No.

Table 4.9 Independent Sample t-test Comparing Psychological Skills,

Coaching Competence, Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in

Team Sports (N=518)

135

Table 4.10 Independent Sample t-test Comparing Psychological Skills,

Coaching Competence, Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in

Married and Unmarried Team Sports Players (N=518)

137

Table 5.1 Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards

Influence of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Psychological

Skills of Hockey Players

158

Table 5.2 Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards

Influence of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of

Hockey Players

169

Table 5.3 Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards

Influence of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Performance

Efficacy of Hockey Players

178

Table 5.4 Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of

Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Psychological Skills of

Cricketers

188

Table 5.5 Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of

Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of Cricketers

199

Table 5.6 Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of

Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Performance Efficacy of

Cricketers

209

xiii

List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 3.1 Scree Plot Showing the Extraction of Factors for Psychological

Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS)

86

Figure 4.1 Hypothesized Model of Study II for Mediator and Moderator 102

Figure 4.2 Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model

Representing Standardized Regression Coefficients for Hockey

Players

123

Figure 4.3 Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model

Representing Standardized Regression Coefficients for Cricketers

124

Figure 4.4 Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model

Representing Standardized Regression Coefficients for Hockey

Players

131

Figure 4.5 Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model

Representing Standardized Regression Coefficients for Cricketers

132

Figure 4.6 Interaction Effect 134

Figure 4.7 Psychological Problems Faced by Hockey Players and Cricketers

during Game

139

Figure 4.8 Consulting about Psychological Problems 140

Figure 4.9 Psychological Consultancies in Future 142

Figure 5.1 Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards

Influence of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Psychological

Skills of Hockey Players

168

Figure 5.2 Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards

Influence of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of

Hockey Players

177

Figure 5.3 Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards

Influence of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Performance

Efficacy of Hockey Players

187

Figure 5.4 Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence

of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Psychological Skills of

Cricket Players

198

xiv

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.5 Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence

of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of Cricket

Players

208

Figure 5.6 Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence

of Coaches’ Coaching Competence on Performance Efficacy of

Cricket Players

218

xv

List of Appendices

Title Page No.

Appendix-A Permission Letter by Advance Study and Review Board 282

Appendix-B Permission from Authors 284

Appendix-C Permission Letters for Data Collection 288

Appendix-D Consent Form 291

Appendix-E Plagiarism Report 295

xvi

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

PSSST Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports

CCS Coaching Competence Scale

YSVQ-2 Youth Sports Value Questionnaire-2

CEQ Collective Efficacy Questionnaire

PCB Pakistan Cricket Board

NCA National Cricket Academy

PHF Pakistan Hockey Federation

M Arithmetic mean

SD Standard deviation

LL Lower limit

UL Upper limit

CI Confidence interval

N Sample size

α Reliability coefficient

β Un-standardized coefficient

SE Standard error

p Significance

d Cohen’s measure of sample effect size

k No. of items

f Frequency

% Percentage

n Sub-sample

R2 Coefficient of determination

F Analysis of variance ratio

∆R2 R2 change

xvii

Abstract

The current was designed to investigate the impact of psychological skills and

sportsmanship of players on their performance efficacy. It also highlighted the role of

coaching competence as perceived by players and coaches between psychological

skills and sportsmanship of team sports. This research was carried out into three

studies. Study I was conducted to construct and validate an indigenous Psychological

Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS). Psycho-performance skills, perceived

psychological support and psycho-competitiveness were emerged after employing

principal component factor analysis. Study II was a correlational research with cross

sectional research in which the sample of 518 team sports players (261 hockey players

and 257 cricketers) was recruited via purposive sampling. The assessment measures

included Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports, Coaching Competency Scale

(Moen & Federici, 2011), Youth Sports Value Questionnaire-2 (Lee, Whitehead, &

Ntoumanis, 2007) and Collective Efficacy for Sports Questionnaire (Short, Sullivan,

& Feltz, 2009). Results showed a significant relationship between psychological

skills, coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in hockey

players and cricketers. Sportsmanship acted as a positive and significant mediator

between psycho-performance skills and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and

unity. Coaching competence significantly negatively moderated the relationship

between psycho-performance and performance efficacy in cricketers, however,

coaching competence acted as a moderator for perceived psychological support

performance efficacy and psycho-competitiveness and performance efficacy. Study

III explored how team sports players perceive their coaches' coaching competence

helpful for development of their psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy and how coaches perceive their coaching competence helpful in teaching

xviii

psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy to their team sports

players? Open ended, semi-structured and detailed interviews were conducted with

twelve team sports players and twelve coaches. Results analyzed using Grounded

Theory Analysis and revealed perceptions of hockey players and cricketers how their

coaches' coaching competence influence their psychological skills, sportsmanship and

performance efficacy, whereas, perceptions of hockey and cricket coaches how their

coaching competence influence psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy of their players. This research will work as an empirical proof for Pakistan

Cricket Board (PCB) and Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) to conduct

psychological skills training for cricketers and hockey players for the enhancement of

their performance efficacy.

1

Chapter I

Introduction

The multidisciplinary science of sport psychology is becoming increasingly

important in sport sciences. The primary focus of sport psychological training and

counseling is to monitor the effects of healthy and specialized performance

enhancement and thus the players' psyche (Gardner & Moore, 2006). Mental

preparation aims to enhance the athlete's performance, monitor the athlete's

psychological state, and achieve an empirically well-founded intervention, taking into

account the wide-ranging diagnostic of individual-specific features. All this can be the

key to an athlete's success, as international trends are increasingly reflecting that the

outcome of a world competition depends to a great extent on the athlete's

psychological state (Birrer & Morgan, 2009). On the other hand, applied sport

psychology is the application of psychological principles of human performance in

helping athletes consistently perform in the upper range of their capabilities and more

thoroughly enjoy the sport performance process (Portenga, Aoyagi, & Cohen, 2017).

Recently, some researchers have argued that a psychological skill should refer

to a technique that can be practiced or an indicator of the level of ability, as opposed

to psychological quality (Arthur, Fitzwater, Roberts, Hardy, & Arthur, 2017). The

goal of psychological skills is to help players systematically and consistently practice

psychological skills for enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving

greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction (Weinberg & Gould, 2015). It has

been observed that these psychological skills such as arousal regulation, attentional

control, communication, goal setting, imagery, self-talk, team building and time

management improve positive thinking. During practice, attitude development of

2

players is as important as physical fitness because many studies have revealed that

under stressful situations, even the gifted fail to synchronize their psychological

approach with physical competence (Young & Knight, 2014). Moreover,

psychological components are very helpful in coping with pre-competition stress and

avoiding choking during competition (Afremow, 2013).

The end of 1990s was marked as the era fitness revolution, the 2000s named

as the sports science and analysis period and now the next era will be marked as

dealing psychological aspects of sports (Carron & Hausenblas, 1998). The role of

coaches in team sports is vital and oblivious as coaches flourish their players

physically, psychologically, technically and tactically and enable them for

accomplishing optimal goals. Coaches play a critical role in the lives of young

athletes and have the potential to influence, positively or negatively, their sporting

experiences (Zourbanos, Theodorakis & Hatzigeorgiadis, 2006). This is supported by the

premises that positive results in sports are associated with the quality of this relation

with the capacity of the coaches to effectively promote the sports development of the

athletes and its implications on the quality of sports training and sporting behavior

(Jowett, 2005). Coaching involves a central tenet of improving team or athlete

performance that requires a cognitive activity to make decisions upon a multitude of

dynamic situational factors. The wide understanding of sportsmanship as a term is

generally related to normative standards about social and moral relations in sport

(Kauffmann, 2008). Sportsmanship is the whole of the behaviors that is proper for

spirit of sport and emerged as respect showed to human honor, it has established itself

in the moral principle framework of playing honestly and fairly in every step of sport

(Sessions, 2004). Sportsmanship embodies the characteristics such as sincerity,

courage, patience, self-control, self-confidence, not to disdain, respect for others’

3

ideas and truths, courtesy, kindness, nobility, honor, partnership, and generosity

(Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). In short, sportsmanship involves the choice of ethical

behaviors in success strategies. Sportsmanship is a respect and commitment to social

norms, opponents, rules, and regulations besides the absence of a negative approach

to sporting participation and responsibility for sport (Senel & Yildiz, 2016).

Today, sport psychological thinking is an indispensable condition for an

integrated approach as number of factors and aspects required to be focused when

optimizing sport performance (Gardner and Moore 2006). The players should be

viewed through a system approach as there are many exogenous factors affecting his

functioning. The integrative approach gives space to the individual context of the

athlete and treats him holistically. In addition to performance optimization, sport

psychological training focuses on the player's individual psychological position,

characteristics and well-being, highlighting and exploiting his skills, and helps

acquiring skills that enhance the athlete's psychological status at both competitive

conditions and overall life (Hardy, Roberts, Thomas & Murphy, 2010). During the sport

psychological work, players' psychological profile is surveyed and mapped

thoroughly, in order to emphasize strengths and eliminate weaknesses by

psychologically handling critical situations. Therefore, three studies were carried

related to this context. Study I aimed to develop an indigenous scale for the

psychological assessment of team sports players i.e. hockey players and cricketers,

study II primarily investigated the relationship between psychological skills, coaching

competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports, whereas, study

III explored how team sports players perceive their coaches' coaching competence

helpful for development of their psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy and how coaches perceive their coaching competence helpful in teaching

4

psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy to their team sports

players?

1.1 Psychological Skills

Psychological skills encompass learned behaviors employed by players

pragmatically and pave their way towards distinction in sports (Thomas, Reeves &

Bell, 2008). Psychological skills are mental state that permits a player to cope with his

or her opponents in competition and facing crucial situations through a strong-

minded, focused, self-reliant, and controlled pattern of behavior during field (Jones,

Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002). Psychological skills are important characteristics that

are beneficial for players in accomplishing excellence in performance during crucial

match situations and critical conditions. These skills are attributed as fundamental

components of performance comprising cognitive abilities that enable players in

polishing themselves through psychological skills training. They incorporate different

psychological techniques including sports injury rehabilitation, performance related

perfectionism and balance between sports and others aspects of life (Kross,

Bruehlman-Senecal, Park, Burson, Dougherty & Shablack, 2014). Internal capabilities

that assist a player to improve performance by controlling his or her mind

competently and steadily in order to accomplish attainable goals are called

psychological or mental skills (Graham, 2011). These skills are a set of trainable

mental abilities that are reinforced by successful performance and enable players to

improve their thoughts, feelings and physical sensations along with building self-

confidence, setting realistic goals, managing stress, using imagery and visualization to

be task oriented and game specific (Nicholls & Jones, 2013).

5

1.1.1 Types of psychological skills. There are numerous psychological skills

such as motivation, confidence, arousal control, goal setting, imagery and

visualization, relaxation, and interpersonal skills that have significance in sports

(Silva & Stevens, 2002). There are nine fundamental psychological skills; attitude,

goal setting and commitment, people skills, motivation, self-talk, mental imagery or

visualization, concentration, and managing stress and emotions (Orlick, 2000).

1.1.2 The prime performance pyramid. The prime performance pyramid

conceptualization of developing important contributors individual and team sports

performance. Sports specific coaching is needed for the development of functional

skills and participation with players in functional performance training guarantees

successful performance (Hill, 2001). The prime performance model characterizes

balance between functional movement patterns, functional performance, and

psychological skills that are adequate for optimal level of performance. This pyramid

is divided into three levels: Level 1 basic skill, Level 2 preparatory skills, and Level 3

performance skills (Cockerill, 2002).

1.1.3 Level I basic skills. The first step in the development of psychological

skills is the identification of the importance of these skills but their nature varies

across different sports. These mental skills establish a wide base for achieving long-

term goals and uphill tasks with long lasting requirement of practice from coaches to

assist their players in the application of basic skills into their sports (Jowett &

Lavallee, 2007).

1.1.1 Mental skills involved in basic skills. There are several mental skills

involved in basic skills. Following skills are involved in basic skills.

1.1.3.1.1 Attitude. Attitude is a positive choice of a successful players and it

helps them to compete against high profile teams and learn not only from their

6

failures but also from successes. The first and foremost duty of players is to maintain

a balance between their sport and other areas of life (Holt, Tamminen & Black, 2009).

Attitude in sports develops into personal and social domains of winning and losing. A

good mental attitude towards sports is essential for the survival of players but a bad

attitude can make or break not only a player but also the entire team. Attitude requires

capability to control mind in a right direction by dominating on negative thoughts and

crucial situations. During competition, players have less time to win or lose and also

to exhibit positive sports performance but the attitude is always revealed into positive

or negative direction (Gray, 2004).

The prime sport attitude requires from players to keep their sport in view and

play keeping their sports participation in a healthy way in life. A successful player is

one who wins the game but the winning or losing is not under control of physical

strength of player but in his or her positive attitude towards game. Winning requires

best effort, playing up to the mark and most importantly enjoyment in game, whereas,

failure is poor play due to bad time. Attitudes determine winning and losing and

lessen pressure, competition stress and assist players to achieve goals. Positive

attitude builds confidence by allowing meeting challenges of competition (Koedijker,

Oudejans & Beek, 2007). Attitude depicts winning and losing but winning doesn’t

identify areas of improvement. Winning doesn’t enable how to handle unavoidable

hindrances and hindrances of sport. On the other hand, losing permits to increase the

winning ratio and marks the areas of improvement in performance. Winning and

losing is linked with the nature of attitude as it directs you responses towards

adversity by eliminating disappointment because of losing. Attitude towards winning

and losing regulate the consistency of players to achieve their goals and successful

7

players experience different benefits from sports participation (Mesagno, Marchant &

Morris, 2008).

1.1.3.1.2 Motivation. Players are attracted to participate in sports due to

several reasons ranging from being interested in physical activities and competition to

the joyfulness of being an active team member. Teams' performances can be

improved by coaches by channelizing their players towards right direction and these

motivational challenges can be explained by different motivational theories that apply

psychological constructs to sports for enhanced sports performance (Hatzigeorgiadis,

Zourbanos, Goltsios & Theodorakis, 2008). Motivation is the basis of all the sports

related efforts and achievements in sports settings. Different psychological skills,

confidence, attention and emotional control are useless in the absence of motivation.

Motivation is a key factor for a player to maximize performance (Barker, 2002).

Motivation is a drive that directs an individual to accomplish goals and the

environmental factors that affect it. In a broader perspective, motivation is coined as

the combination of all factors that cause humans beings and animals to behave in a

similar pattern (Hardy, Roberts & Hardy, 2009). Motivation has always been an

important topic to be discussed in psychology for many years and there has been an

extensive research for identification of the reasons for children and adolescents to be a

part of sporting activity or not to be involved in sports. Despite of several perspectives

on motivation in sports, social cognitive perspective has always been significant and

sports psychologists actively review goal achievement theory (Moen & Verburg,

2012).

Task related motivation enables one to initiate and be persistent towards his or

her work by dealing with the feeling of exhaustion, boredom and desire to perform

uphill tasks. Motivation is correlated with one's strength and direction of behavior and

8

can be divided into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Hardy, Roberts &

Hardy, 2009). Intrinsic motivation is a one's internal dedication towards anything that

comes from within that encompasses internal motivation to know, accomplish and

experiencing novelty (Barker, 2002). Moreover, it leads players towards ambition to

overcome a difficult task, satisfaction in optimal performance and goal setting

maintain motivation. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation comes from external

sources of a player. It involves sports participation for monitory benefits, medals and

publicity. It usually takes place when one is motivated to facilitate his or her life and

upgrade living standards (Moen & Verburg, 2012). A player can be inspired to

perform by different things and they can be grouped as tangible rewards and

intangible rewards. Tangible rewards are physical in nature, however, intangible

rewards include admiration and gratitude from others (Carlson, 2005).

1.1.3.1.3 Goal setting. Goal setting is viewed as a significant ability where

players are required to be skilled at in attaining higher standards and optimizing

performance during game. Goal setting is a pattern that enables players in

comprehension towards their current level and desired level of performance during

game. Sports psychologists can teach players about setting efficient goals that are

helpful in concentrating on the performance instead of focusing on the outcome of

competition (Haddad & Tremayne, 2009).

John, Dunn and Dunn (1999) postulated goal setting as subjective goals and

objective goals. Subjective goals are relevant to a specific performance in game,

however, objective goals are based on a players' personal performance. Holt, Tink and

Fox (2008) argued that prosperous players tend to have realistic and measureable

goals and are committed towards their training sessions on daily basis. Goal setting is

a psychological technique that is used to uplift one's commitment towards achieving a

9

personal goal. However, the nature of can be either short or long term that allows

players to be focused during crucial match situations. Moreover, goal setting is

important for players training and helps them to focus on their motivation to stick

with their aims (Dunn & Dunn, 1999).

Goal setting is the combination of identification and achievement of personal

goals. Commitment and confidence enhance when challenging goals are turned into

realistic goals in goal setting. The effectiveness of goal setting is linked with personal

characteristics and one's orientation towards his task and ego. Players tend to have

lower control over the match result when success is regarded as beating others

(Chalabaev, Sarrazin & Cury, 2008). The nature of goals can be positive or negative

and the most important comprehension is a differential approach between to set a goal

and to identify a technique to achieve a goal. Optimal performance can be attained by

goal setting and helps to assess an individual about his or her current position. Goal

setting can be facilitated with the help of psychological skills training and it would be

helpful in outcome of a healthy competition (Holt, Sehn & Ball, 2012)

1.1.3.1.4 People skills. A successful player considers themselves as a part of a

large social system that includes their family, friends, teammates, and coaches with

home he or she can expresses his or her thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Good

communication skills, conflict resolution strategies, and effective dealing with

negative and difficult opponents are learnt by them with the emergence of their

successful career (Young, 2011). People skills are used to positively communicate,

narrate, and negotiate for the conflict resolution. Successful players completely relate

with their teammates, coaches, management, and family to be happy. Effective people

skills are abilities to listen and communicate with others on personal or professional

level. These skills include willingness to work together, problem solving, conflict

10

resolution, maintaining relationship with others and have positive attitude towards

them, optimism, and be avoidant form the negative emotions (Sheeran, 2002). A

major gender difference has been observed by coaches that females are easier to

coach than that of females. Effective people skills enables sports personals not only

how to talk communicate but also how to deal with people (Omar-Fauzee, Yusof &

Zizzi, 2009).

1.1.4 Level II preparatory skills. Preparatory skills are used before

competition for optimal performance in a specific performance action (Carlson,

2005).

1.1.4.1 Mental skills involved in preparatory skills. Preparatory skills

involves following mental skills.

1.1.4.1.1 Self-talk. Self-talk is an inner speech and a link between one’s

thoughts and performance. It involves personally addressed cues that activate

responses and different actions helpful in improving performance. It is an inner

distracter with cognitive and motivational functions. Motivational functions are

concerned with arousal. Self-talk can improve confidence and anxiety. It drives an

individual towards goal accomplishment and enhances concentration on performance

related thoughts (Hardy, 2006).

Hardy (2006) postulated that self-talk is exhibited through different things i.e.

wording, thinking or a smiling face. However, self-talk can be described in three

different patterns; self-talk is viewed as focusing towards oneself and can be aloud or

just a whisper to oneself, often can be described as self-statement and anything that

can be said to oneself. Takahashi and Van Raalte (2010) postulated self-talk as a

verbal outcome of a personal statement addressed to oneself and described it as a

11

distinguished feature of an internal position that can be expressive aloud or internally

and interestingly sender of a message is regarded as receiver also.

Positive self-talk techniques enhance performance, self-esteem, and focus than

that of negative self-talk. Individual sports employs self-talk more than team sports.

Successful players maintain their self-confidence during crucial match situations with

the help of realistic and positive self-talk. Self-talk is used to control thoughts,

emotions, and behavior during competition (Zourbanos, Hatzigeorgiadis, Bardas &

Theodorakis, 2013). Different self-talk cues work differently in different situations by

increasing confidence during competition. Self-talk is related to imagery and

visualization that improve concentration, focus, and potential during competition.

Players are trained to self-talk by preparing verbal cues or phrases and consistently

train in various conditions to better prepare themselves for competition (Zervas,

Stavrou & Psychountaki, 2007). Negative self-talk enhances one's motivation and

performance in crucial circumstances. Motivational talk to oneself is a useful

approach and named as matching self-talk to the task. However, diversity of sporting

tasks incorporates fine and gross motor skills. Moreover, self-talk intends to vary

across different competitive situations and viewed mostly as situational (Hardy,

2006).

12

1.1.4.1.2 Mental imagery. Successful players imagine themselves in

performing well in competition with the help of different specific and realistic mental

images to recover from poor performance. Mental imagery is an experience that

occurs in the absence of suitable stimuli for the appropriate perception (Callow &

Hardy, 2001). Mental imagery is used as a link between goal settings and self-talks

for the enhancement of sports performance. Imagery is helpful in the improvement of

physical and psychological skills. Self-confidence can be improved with the help of

imagery under any stressful situations. Mental imagery motivates optimal

performance and mental rehearsal. Moreover, mental imagery is helpful in the

enhancement of intrinsic motivation (Abma, Fry & Relyea, 2002).

Imagery incorporates sensory experiences as a part of stimulation, whereas,

visualization is replication of visual stimulus. Imagery includes sound, body

awareness, ability to form clear images, controlling images, refreshing before

producing images, and many other physical and psychological experiences. Imagery

is prevalent in sport and helps cricketers to improve their performance. Imagery is

helpful for players to forecast problem solving, preparation for tournaments, coping

with difficulties by reinforcing excellent performance (Callow, Hardy & Hall, 2001).

Mental imagery involves actual sport experience by replicating competitive

images, sensations, feelings, and emotions. It is beneficial in physical practice and in

improvement in a specific motor skill and enhances mental toughness. Imagery can be

enhanced through different methods. Slow motion imagery can enhance instinctive

changes in movement (Martin, Mortiz & Hall, 1999). Different images can be lead

towards unrealistic expectations and imagery can cause exhaustion during motor

performance. Imagery can be helpful to be expert in performance. Imagery can be

13

developed through cognitive developmental course by individual imagery script.

These scripts could be helpful to modify players from burnout and boredom.

Moreover, imagery is a psychological technique that positively affects different

psychological states by using coping skills, and evaluating previous performances

(Abma, Fry & Relyea, 2002).

1.1.5 Level III performance skills. Performance skills are used during

optimal performance behavior. Basic skills and preparatory skills form the bases of

performance skills. Each of higher level skill integrates preceding level (Carlson,

2005).

1.1.5.1 Mental skills involved in performance skills. Following skills are

involved in performance skills.

1.1.5.1.1 Dealing effectively with anxiety. Successful players widely accept

that anxiety, anger, and negative emotions are major part of sport experience and it is

essential to convert these negative emotions into positive one for high level

performance. Emotions can disturb feelings and actions during competition as they

are rapid and conscious. Anxiety can be handled due to nature of pattern that is known

during competition. Anxiety levels are changeable and the nature of anxiety can be

positive or negative that is based on the handling strategies of players. Anxiety is a

reaction to risks in the environment that are showed through fight or flight responses

(Brooks, 2014). There are two different perspectives of anxiety: trait anxiety and state

anxiety. Trait anxiety is an inborn instinct that involves having a predisposition to

give up before any important competition. State anxiety is situation based that is

associated with specific situation. Trait and state anxiety lead toward two

mechanisms: somatic anxiety that have physical feelings, and cognitive anxiety that

14

involve mental aspects (Cox, Martns & Williams, 2003). Competition evokes

different psychological and physiological reactions as there are different threats

towards one’s self esteem and ego. Nature of anxiety is dependent on the nature of

sports as now-a-days, sport demands different stressors such as physical exhaustion

and emotional weaknesses (Dohmen, 2008). On the other hand, sports are unique

opportunity for personal growth and a healthy way to free body and mind from

different concerns. The main hindrance during competition is the inability to control

one’s mind. There is a strong link between emotions and performance. Players use

emotions helpful in performance and a problem in performance (Psychountaki &

Zervas, 2000).

1.1.6 Four Cs in sport psychology. Players respond physically and

psychologically to the increased level of stress due to competition that can negatively

influence their performance resulting in being tense, speeding heart rate, sweating and

being worried about the competition. It makes difficult for them to sustain

concentration on their competition (Bebetsos, 2015). Coaches are very keen in

psychological aspects of sports and pointed out techniques to remain focus in

competitive situation and controlling negative emotions for optimal performance.

Confidence, commitment, concentration, and control are commonly considered as

four Cs of sports psychology and are psychological skills essential for optimal

performance in sports (Williams & Straub, 1998).

1.1.6.1 Confidence. Confidence can be found in various dimensions of

sporting fields; therefore, confidence can be linked with mental toughness,

determination and courage (Vealey, 1986). Team sports players are constantly

evaluated on their confidence levels towards their performance abilities. Coaches,

15

sports fans and media constantly discuss players' confidence as a vital ability to win

(Cox, Martns & Williams, 2003). Moreover, performance can be influential when

players' efficacy expectations are stronger and their abilities are developed properly

(Bandura, 1977). According to many players, confidence is delicate under pressure

conditions but confidence permits players to be focused on important tasks.

Fluctuations in performance can deteriorate confidence from best performance to

worst performance (Birrer & Morgan, 2009). Confidence emerges from the

assessment of a player between his or goals and abilities. The achievement of these

goals can lead towards the sense of self-confidence. Self-confidence enable players to

reserve minor things not included in strategies, enthusiasm, a positive strategy and

contributing responsibility for success (Fransen et al, 2015).

1.1.6.2 Commitment. Commitment is a psychological state that depicts the

aspiration to continue sport participation and performance of players is dependent on

their commitment and long term goals (Scanlan et al, 2016). Common hindrances in a

player’s commitment are lack of improvement, decreased interest in training sessions,

performance anxiety, communication gap between coach and player, boredom, and

lack of enjoyment in sports. Coaches and management contribute to a player’s

commitment level by being supportive and helpful with the help of giving positive

feedback during bad phases of performance (Scanlan et al, 2009).

1.1.6.2.1 Factors affecting commitment. Wilson et al (2004) developed sport

commitment model and postulated that satisfaction, individual investment, chances to

be involved in sports, attraction, social restrictions and social support affect a player’s

level of sport participation and commitment. Satisfaction is taken a stronger predictor

16

of commitment in young players. It was also revealed that satisfaction with sport and

participation in opportunities are stronger predictor of commitment in team sports.

Scanlan et al (1993) agreed suggested that motivation is an important element for

commitment that force initiatives and directs sustainable behaviors over a period of

time.

1.1.6.3 Concentration. Concentration is the ability to maintain attention on a

specific stimulus. Concentration can be disturbed by one’s feelings, thoughts and

emotions that usually lead us. Strong concentration demands emotional energy. Hard

worker players try to be more concentrated on their games. Influential concentration

is uncomplicated procedure (Cockerill, 2002). Concentration is natural when the mind

is totally disbursed with instant situation. Players become fascinated in competition by

paying greater attention only those cues that can help them to perform better.

Concentration is energetic as it shifts from one point to another. Decrement in

concentration happens when attention is divided into irrelevant things. Concentration

has an important role in performance excellence. Concentration enables players to be

focused on competition to avoid choking and other performance related issues

(Wilson, Schmid & Peper, 2006).

1.1.6.3.1 Types of concentration. Concentration is characterized in different

way for particular sport skills and movements. Sports demand ability to shift between

these different types of concentration. It is required by players to handle their

attentional focus. Dimensions of concentration can be grouped in four categories:

External broad is the assessment of surroundings to find out different defense

approaches used by the opponents. Internal broad is an analysis of current

circumstances and development of game plan. Internal narrow involves mental

17

practicing of a particular movement. The last one is external narrow focusing ability

of a player to perform his or her best and concentrate on actual environmental cues

(Wilson, Schmid & Peper, 2006).

1.1.6.3.2 Demands for concentration. The demands for concentration differs

with the nature of sport such as maintained concentration, cycling, racing, and tennis

involves short spans of concentration, whereas, cricket, shooting and golf required

intense concentration. Collective disturbances in concentration are tension, stress,

fatigue, and muscle fatigue (Martens, Vealey & Burton, 1990). Moreover, emotions

are also influential on concentration and it was found that positive emotions triggered

maximal performance and negative emotions were less likely to lead optimal

performance and majorly decreased performance. Concentration can be improved

with different cues. Task related cues are helpful in centering attention in suitable way

to increase performance. Attention and concentration can also be enhanced by

different exercise and techniques (Prussia & Kinicki, 1996).

1.1.6.3.3 Strategies to improve concentration. Concentration can be improved

with the help of different strategies. One of the most important ways to maintain focus

is to set goals for every competition. Players use goal setting that is helpful to remain

focused on specific task at a specific time. Players use different cues and phrases that

are rehearsed to sustain concentration on uphill tasks (Atkinson, 2013). Player

develop a schedule for a specific competition such as self-monitoring before the

match, pre-competition self-talk, competition and post competition discussion with

teammates. Proper rehearsal and implication of these strategies can be useful to

uphold concentration under difficult situations (Cox, Martns & Williams, 2003).

18

1.1.6.4 Control. Control is considered as emotional control and poise. A

player’s ability to endure control on his or her emotion in difficult situation and to be

focused is necessary to be succeed is called control (Callow, Hardy & Hall, 2001).

Poor performance is linked with two emotions: anxiety and anger. Emotions can be

influential on concentration of players. Identification of players’ feelings about a

specific emotion and comprehension about the causes of those feelings and thoughts

is necessary to attain emotional control. Sports provoke different emotions during

training and competition. Emotions are decisive in dictating achievement of

sportsmen. Consistent performance is determined by stability of one’s emotions.

Emotional reactions are influential on expected challenges during training and

competition. The ability to handle emotions enables players to perform under pressure

conditions (Hagger, Wood, Stiff & Chatzisarantis, 2010).

1.1.6.4.1 Consequences of emotional responses. Performance can be affected

by different emotional reactions. Interpersonal consequences can be cognitive,

physiological and motivational. Increased level of arousal can affect muscular tension

and harmonization. Cognitive consequences are applicable on concentration, decision

making process and information processing. Increased physiological arousal can

affect performance in positive or negative way. Anger can provoke risky behavior in

sport settings (Nideffer, 1993). Motivational consequences influence a player’s desire

to perform. Commitment can be affected by long term and emotions. Judgment about

situation is influenced by emotions of teammates’ and opponents’ in field (Mullen,

Hardy & Oldham, 2007).

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1.2 Coaching Competence

Despite a broader literature on coaching and its theoretical models,

unfortunately, any specific theory is not available for guiding trainers and

practitioners. Kauffmann (2008) defined coaching as beneficial relationship between a

client and a consultant using different behavioral patterns and approaches for assisting

in achieving a mutually acknowledged goal for betterment of his or her professional

competence and happiness that results effectively within a formal coaching

agreement. Iwatsuki, Van Raalte, Brewer, Petitpas and Takahashi (2016) stated that

executive coaching is a pragmatic and leadership development process that formulates

a leader's competence to accomplish short term and long goals. Whitmore (2002)

systematically defined coaching as a one to one process that helps players to develop

rapidly sustainable outcomes resulting from better goal setting and better decision

making. Grant (2006) recommended coaching as a cooperative technique involving

focusing on solutions of problems, systematic result orientation and increasing client's

quality of life and performance in different areas of life through self-directed learning.

The significant role of coaches in competitive sports is undisputable as excellent

coaches are responsible for supporting their players physically, psychologically and

technically and enabling them for accomplishing their desired goals (Horn, 2008). It is

usually believed in the literature of sports psychology that it only explores

measureable forms of coaching and usually don’t provide insight into the coach

athlete interaction and relationship. The success of a coach significantly depends on

his or her life and work ethics that determine his work philosophies. Professional

knowledge and skills adopt dynamics of professional training. Important

competencies for the education of sport coaches include their daily routine training as

well as planning, leadership and knowledge (Jones, Armour & Potrac, 2002).

20

The excellence of professional performance can be considered not only the

result of acquired competence, but also of the self-assessment of one's own

competences. The perception of professional competence is frequently explained as

the feeling that a professional shows in relation to his or her own professionalism that

is directly linked to career success (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Now-a-days,

coaching has formulated an independent profession in different fields linked to

growth. Professional coaches focus on interpersonal issues i.e. trustworthiness, regard,

communication skills, positive mind set, problem solving attitude and active

involvement of the coachee (Brailsford, 2014).

Coaching broadens its horizon as a professional field is equally popular within

organization and general public. Coaching attract people as they wish for increased

life quality, more contentment and various processes for accomplishing their desires

(Lynch & Mallett, 2006). Coaching facilitates as a consideration towards commitment

and dedication in one's life as coaching aims exploring novel talents and lead to

higher effectiveness (Reckase, 2006). Generally, people require a supportive partner

who provides them with better life experiences for maximizing their current abilities.

Coffee, Rees and Haslam (2009) suggested that coaches work as guiding individuals

by stimulating individual for accomplishing their personal and professional

performance. Hu and Bentler (1999) postulated that coaching is associated with the

activities of personal training coaches help individuals maintaining a permanent focus

on their temperament by enhancing their strengths and minimizing their weaknesses.

Jowett and Cockerill (2003) indicated that coaching help people in learning instead of

teaching them and emphasis on optimizing performance and facilitates them.

Professional coaching is linked with different psychological, managerial and sporting

literature. It was also highlighted that coaching initiated in work-settings around

21

1980's and aimed to focus on problematic behaviors with less used technical

approaches. Gyllensten and Palmer (2007) specified that psychological consultancy

intended to improve one's performance of executives. Jowett and Cockerill (2003)

divided coaching into three periods: organizational growth and psychological

approaches were introduced in early stage (1950-1979), the middle period (1980-

1994) utilized efforts of psychologists for standardization and investigating ways to

broaden their practices; the third stage can be viewed as recent (1995-till date) and it

has laid foundation of professional coaching organizations.

The concerns of professional competences are important for the coaching

process and required attention of coaching literature (Myers, Chase, Beauchamp &

Jackson, 2010). The earlier researches restricted coaches to overt performance and

faced major criticism for ignoring the underpinning psychological premises that

provide better explanation of coaches' behavior. Therefore, literature pointed out to

examine coaches' thinking patterns and knowledge (Kao, Hsieh & Lee, 2017).

Professional competence revealed a coach's ability to apply his or her knowledge and

thoughts and enlarging his or her interests towards knowing through effective

practices. Furthermore, knowledge and competence are being confused as same but

they are different in nature and meaning (Brackenridge, 2002). According to Côté and

Sedgwick (2003), knowledge is regarded as a theoretical framework or a principle

that can be recalled, learnt and replicated. On the other hand, application of

knowledge according to societal norms is regarded as competence and it can be

defined as a collective function of knowledge, skills and confidence (Kappenberg,

2008).

Professional competence permits coaches for applying theory into practice and

viewed as a significant part of coaching procedure and must be comprehended for

22

better understanding of coaching effectiveness. Qualitative approaches and job related

work analysis revealed that behavior of coaches and competences are prolonged to

domains of task practices, competition and management (Cushion, Armour & Jones,

2003). Moreover, personal and social competences of coaches signify their abilities

related to communication, learning and responsibility that formulate the foundation of

their interaction with participants, assisting staff and players for leading coaching

education programs (Potrac, Jones & Cushion, 2007). However, a coach can perform

efficiently when he or she makes essential use of different coaching competencies.

Researches on perceived coaching competencies permit a comprehension of the

perspective in which coaches believe they are skilled and require more training for

improving their coaching styles. Perception of competence has been investigated as an

integral part of teaching and coaching effectiveness (Jowett & Meek, 2000). Bandura

(1977) explained in his social-cognitive theory that perception of competence is

cognitive process that involves people with personal judgment about their capability

in coping with different competitive environmental demands. Coaches' perception of

competence can be varied in terms of coaches' personal demographics i.e. experience

and education. Significantly professional experience of coaches has always been

taken under consideration as a vital source of knowledge and competence (Olympiou,

Jowett & Duda, 2008).

1.2.1 The pygmalion effect. Feldman, Robert, Prohaska and Thomas (1979)

pointed out that there is resemblance between a coach-player and teacher-student

relationship particularly in communication styles and effectiveness on players'

motivation and performance is named as Pygmalion effect. Therefore, exploration of

Pygmalion effect in sports is important to be discussed.

23

1.2.2 The Pygmalion effect in sports. Pygmalion effect is the phenomenon in

which one's expectations for another person's behavior work as a self-fulfilling

prophecy (Miller, Salmela & Kerr, 2002). The Pygmalion phenomenon exemplifies

different leader-follower relationships. At a broader level, it is very much possible for

a leader to be a manager, instructor, supervisor or a sporting coach. The concern of

the Pygmalion effect for management is linked the conceptualization of boosting

performance through greater expectations and viewed as a reciprocal agenda

incorporating raising productivity, managers should integrate heightened expectations

and manifestations of conflicting expectations. Higher expectations are central to be

ignored and are considered as enriched coach-athlete relationship including leadership

and development (Jussim, & Harber, 2005).

1.2.3 Coaching Competencies in sports. In sports, coaching has always been

used as identical with all aspects that coaches need to fulfill in their roles (Yardley,

Hay, Sedgwick & Baker, 1999). Coaching as a profession is considered as least one

of different perspectives that coaches are required to fulfill for betterment and

effectiveness of their coaching. Learning and results are significant in competitive

sports and several relational issues are considered as fundamental to accomplish

development among players (Jowett & Meek, 2000). A beneficial coach-athlete

relationship guarantees to develop talents of players (Poczwardowski, Barott &

Henschen, 2002). Lim, Mahat, Ahmad and Khor (2014) defined that helpful coach

and athlete relationships are concerned by mutuality between feelings, thoughts and

behaviors of coaches and their players and it is generally emphasized by studying

Closeness, Commitment, Complementary and Co-operation. Closeness is regarded as

the tendency to which coaches and athletes are linked via emotional attachment

(Jowett & Cockerill, 2003). Commitment is being viewed as a coach and an athlete

24

wish for maintain their professional relationship over the period of time.

Complementary is referred as the mutual coach-athlete interaction that is thought to

be as cooperative and operational. Lastly, co-operation is the degree of mutual

understanding (Gilbert, Côté & Mallett, 2006).

Common features of coaching competence incorporate relationships,

interaction, goal setting, executing professionalism and performance. However,

coaching results for optimal performance are critical to use of shared language

(Myers, Beauchamp & Chase, 2011). Coach competencies literature highlighted that

there is a lack of a coach and a coachee's reliable tool that validate perceptions of

players regarding competencies of coaches (Moen & Federici, 2012). Therefore, a

coaching competence scale consisting of five dimensions figured out five major

dimensions that are beneficial for coach-athlete relationship and they are as under:

1.2.3.1 Creating the relationship. Mutuality is considered as a fundamental

principle of coaching relationship. Mutuality is viewed as a relation that is based upon

dignity, understanding and reactive listening and interaction. A coach can establish

mutuality by meeting his or her coachee with respect (Kellett, Humphrey & Sleeth,

2006).

1.2.3.2 Communication attending skills. Moen and Kvalsund (2008) defined

communication attending skills as the ability to question rightly by using active

listening. Coaches' attending skills are thought to provide coachees the impression

that they have being heard, focused and understood by their coaches. Active and

passive listening skills are also significant as they enable coachees to continue

discussing and investigating different issues.

25

1.2.3.3 Communication influencing skills. Communication influencing skills

are marked as listening a coachee devotedly so that he would automatically be open

towards change. Coaches' influencing skills are considered to be effective for their

coachees' motivation for achieving optimal performance. However, open-ended and

interactive questioning session can also be helpful in encouraging players to be more

open about themselves towards their coaches (Moen & Federici, 2013).

1.2.3.4 Facilitate learning and results. Coaches motivate their coachees to be

energetic, interactive and to be an active part of learning process initiated by them.

Facilitation for learning and results try to discover different perspectives for coaches

that help them regarding their coachees for better development and learning.

Facilitation for learning and results is viewed as one the most important competency

of coaches (Moen & Kvalsund, 2008).

1.2.3.5 Make the responsibility clear. Moen and Federici (2012) postulated

awareness as a requirement for enabling oneself for taking responsibility and is

important for a coach to clarify that his or her coachee is accountable in his learning

process. Moreover, comprehensive usages of communication attending skills is

helpful in establishing trust for the coachee and opens him up and allow him or her to

be self-explorative. It is helpful both for a coach and a player to be more active and

open in taking responsibility during competitive situations.

1.2.4 Theoretical background. Different studies have pointed out that coach-

athlete relationship issues and interpersonal dynamics should be discussed more

(Erickson, Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007). Therefore, it is very much needed to

highlight interpersonal issues in beneficial relationships that are associated with

development and learning areas (Nohria & Khurana, 2010). Kauffman (2008)

26

suggested that development of one's abilities is inclined by several interpersonal

features. Moreover, coaching emerged solely to meet the requirements of dignified

attitudes actively by involving others in structured learning process. An important

aspect in discussing theoretical background of coaching competence is that coaching

is practiced as related to one's demographical characteristics prior to be a coach.

These features collectively emerge from different aspects and promote variability in

theoretical background. Generally, coaches approach coaching practices from

different traditional coaching specific training programs (Moen & Federici, 2011).

The issue related to theory and practices are derived from that how much that specific

theory contributes to the field of coaching. Moreover, coaching appropriates

integration of theory development along with practices. Following are different

theories that are related to coaching competence:

1.2.4.1 Adult learning. Adult learning lays the foundation of coaching as

learning is an integral factor of coaching process. Adults learn from children and it

usually happens in educational setting and peer gatherings. Knowles (1984) proposed

that adult learning is characterized by constituting an independent self-concept that

facilitate in the process of. Adults are responsive to plethora of life experiences that

facilitate different resources for learning. Moreover, learning needs vary as per social

roles and involve application of learning through problem centered focus. Adults tend

to be internally motivated and prefer intended participating in different learning

experiences. Awareness about these differences is a major requirement for

comprehending working with adults. Coaches are required to be self-directed for adult

learning and enable adults in discussions with coaches during coaching sessions.

Effective coaching styles allow one to collaborate his or her resources and personal

experiences for producing dramatic results (Kearsley, 2010).

27

1.2.4.2 Transformational learning. According to Christie, Carey, Robertson

and Grainger (2015), a coach and a client realize coaching experience as a

transformational process. Transformational learning theory declares that learning

drives to empowerment, openness to unique and novel experiences, reflective process

and enable individuals to highlight meaning from their experiences of life. Mezirow

(2009) described disorienting dilemma as a factor of transformational learning. It is

viewed as one experiences an event that is reflective and then s choice is needed to be

made between two differently owned values. Coaching practices involve different

value clarification processes. A coach who is skilled enough to classify these

dilemmas is influential in discovering value systems and beliefs for resolving conflict.

1.2.4.3 Coaching models. Models are significant in coaching process but due

to lack of validated coaching process initiated by coaching training programs.

Coaching has always been a consequence in a wide variety of models that are used to

attain goals in coaching and described a clear connection between model and theory

by supporting his model with psychological and social theories of adult development

(Hall, Otazo & Hollenbeck, 1999). Jones (2006) proposed that executive coaching

that is similar to one's personal and life coaching creating different demands on coach

demanding a focused work-related effective and career contentment issues. Flaherty

(2002) model of change proposed five principles. Firstly, relationship incorporate

mutual trust, admiration and freedom of expressions. Secondly, theoretical constructs

were taken into considerations. Third principle initiated coach-athlete mutual

involvement in learning process. Fourthly, comprehension that adults are in the

middle of their own process and fifth principle named as coaching is process not a

technique. These principles are named as the flow of coaching. When an individual is

coaching in the flow, he or she would have move from five different phases;

28

relationship building, offering coaching services, assessment of client's competency

levels, interpretations that make up client's life, formative planned outcomes and

coaching conversation. Moreover, Flaherty (2002) dismisses the value of techniques

to the coaching process, enhancing quality relationships and practices that result in the

sustainability of behavior change.

1.2.4.4 In co-active coaching. Rostron (2009) postulated in co-active

coaching that followed as: a client is naturally creative, resourceful, co-active

coaching encompasses client's whole life, the agenda by the client and mutual coach-

client relationship. It was also stated that coaching is a process of action and learning

and an outcome of collaborative coach-client mutual work. Tschannen-Moran and

Tschannen-Moran (2010) narrated that goal achievement is important in coaching.

Learning is being emphasized instead of goal achievement as learning proposes novel

resourcefulness and stronger muscles for change. The coaching model is based on

listening, intuition, curiosity, learning and self-management of the agenda of coaches.

Moreover, it is viewed as a client-centered process that incorporates coaches' role as

creating environment for the fulfillment according to agenda of the client.

Whitmore (2002) initiated that coaching is all about transformation and

change. Coaches who work with leaders usually offer that there are four roles of

masterful coaches: leaders developing other leaders, optimizing performance, thinking

partners and collaboration architect. It was also proposed that the ideal coaching

process incorporates a learning loop that is beyond identification mental models and

drive behavior into reflection upon the background of every individual. These models

provide the base of novice coaching practices and several similarities were observed

in all of these models including transformation of actions, coaching as a learning

29

process, building relationships and feedback as an important coaching process.

Moreover, all these similarities provide a thought pattern investigating how coaching

is being practiced and its desired outcomes formed as practicing manners (Amorose,

2005).

1.2.4.5 Horn model. Horn (2008) created a model of coaching effectiveness

that integrates theories, antecedents, and outcomes of coaching behaviors. The center

of Horn's model is coaches' behaviors, with antecedents and outcomes on both sides.

Precursors of coaches' behavior include personal characteristics that shape

expectations and beliefs of coaches. Coaching behaviors then may directly affect

athletes' cognitions and behavior secondarily affects outcomes through athletes'

perceptions of their coaches' behavior. Horn's model synthesizes the processes

underlying how coaching behaviors can influence athletes' psychosocial and

behavioral outcomes. Horn's (2002) integrated model of coaching efficacy is reliable

with theory and research on coaching effectiveness. Coaches' feedback patterns,

leadership style, motivational orientation, autonomy-supportive behaviors, and

interpersonal relationship style all affect young athletes' motivation, perceptions of

competence, and affective experiences. Coaches who supply instruction and

encouragement following mistakes as well as contingent praise and reinforcement for

successes positively influence youths' self-esteem and attraction to sport. Coaches

who provide athletes with choice and autonomy enhance athletes' sport enjoyment,

feelings of personal autonomy, and intrinsic motives for continuing participation.

Thus, Horn's model is useful as an organizational or heuristic approach to understand

and examine the mechanisms by which coaches shape athletes' psychosocial and

behavioral outcomes. In sum, theory-based and empirical studies of coaching

effectiveness solidify coaches as critical sources of youths' develop (Mageau, 2003).

30

1.3 Sportsmanship

Shields and Bredemeier (1995) manifested character development of youth as

one of the most emerging areas of sports. Parents, coaches and officials have been

working in their own capacity as a prospective mean for increasing character of youth.

Sports participation promoted opportunities to the youth for being involved in the

process of socialization as it learned them social values and norms including self-

control and responsibility. In the early 20th century, popularity increased in

professional sports with a parallel increase in highly competitive youth sport

programs (Kaye & Ward, 2010). In contrast to earlier physical activity programs

focused on character development, new youth sport programs emphasized

competition and skill development. In this way, youth sport was viewed as a training

ground for elite athletes and was attractive to parents and youth as a path to future

fame and fortune in professional sports. Since the early 20th century, youth sports

have continued to increase in popularity, and today roughly 47 million youth play

organized sports every year. Thus, sport has been and remains an important context

for developing character (Kelly & Hickey, 2008).

Sports involve daily human emotions into field like tension, sadness, respect,

tolerance, harmony and love. Sports and games are linked from fair play to

sportsmanship at a broader level. Sportsmanship can be comprehended through

different social and moral relations and can be viewed as a behavior that is reasonable

for game spirit, mutual respect and playing fairly and honestly during competition

(Beller & Stoll, 1995). Now-a-days sports are being played at amateur or professional

level, however, amateur sports are supposed for participating, maintaining healthy life

style, entertainment, having leisure time and day to day human interaction. Whereas,

31

at professional level, sports lead to different unsporting behaviors include being a

winner in any case and opponents and officials being involved in cheating. Similarly,

main characteristics of sportsmanship incorporate emotional control, valor and

courage. Therefore, sportsmanship is viewed as being respective and committed to

social norms, rules and opponent team members by eliminating negative mind set to

sport participation and responsibility (Rudd & Mondello, 2006).

Sportsmanship and morality have a vital role in sports at school level. It is

widely believed that sports can promote sports related behaviors, values and character

building. Sports provide different social facilities to attain social values contributing

to morality and character building in the society (Lee, Whitehead & Ntoumanis,

2007). Sportsmanship is necessary for character building and sports deliberately

promote morality and judgment by defiance to rules and regulations of game.

Morality promotes sportsmanship including trustworthiness, integrity and

responsibility (Lumpkin & Stokowski, 2011). Sports and other physical games and

activities facilitate players with different opportunities for being skillful, strategic,

committed, respectful and being dignified. These strategies provide six main features

of character including trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring and

good citizenship. However, the major limitation is that sportsmanship would not

facilitate positive character development specifically keeping winning factor in mind

(Barez, 2008).

Wankel and Berger (1990) stated that sportsmanship is a desire for being

successful by maintaining committed attitude, dignity and fairness towards play.

Sportsmanship can also be explained as being a good sporting attitude including

morality, ethics and integrity. The development of sportsmanship can be explained as

being involved in different activities that bring change in oneself by intentionally

32

promoting moral development (Beller & Stoll, 1995). According to Weinberg and

Gould (2015), sportsmanship is being taught to players systematically and morality

and sportsmanship cannot be achieved by only participating in sports. Rudd and

Mondello (2006) considered that sportsmanlike environment can only be provided

players with mutual efforts of coaches, management and officials by comprehending

moral aspect of sportsmanship. French (2001) observed that players mark their

coaches as being a major influencer of being a winner at any cost. It is also claimed

that a coach can be influential on his or her players' sportsmanship, motivational

climate and resolution of moral dilemmas. Modeling is also significant that highlight

the phenomenon that youngsters learn sportsmanship by observing their desired and

undesired behaviors. Lemyre, Roberts and Ommundsen (2002) described that from a

social learning perspective, coaches modeling of morally appropriate or inappropriate

behaviors will likely to be influential on moral actions of players. Secondly, attitude

of players has been influenced by their perception of their coaches towards desired or

undesired sports related behavior. Motivational climate marked as one of the most

important factor that can influence sportsmanship of players (Kavussanu &

Ntoumanis, 2003). Executive coaching climate elaborates success as outperforming

opponents and being linked with players maintain personal growth relating to

depicting good sportsmanship (Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer, 2005).

1.3.1 Sportsmanship and morality. Generally, it is viewed that

sportsmanship and fair play are linked with morality as they need acting according to

internal and moral principles. Sportsmanship can be defined as valuing rules and

regulations of sports and distinguishing between good and bad practices during

competitive situations (Kavussanu & 2001). Fair play referred as respecting

opponents, participation with sporting spirit and attitude, appreciating equal

33

opportunity and responsible behavior towards teammates and opponents. In order for

a moral action to occur, it is necessary for someone to have not only the capacity for

moral reasoning but also to have established attitudes and affects concerning a moral

problem (Lee, Whitehead & Ntoumanis, 2007).. Taking into consideration that the

study of morality is a complex issue, sport studies, which were conducted in order to

examine various aspects of moral development, investigated moral judgment,

reasoning, and intention either independently or in combination with other variables,

such as achievement goal orientations (Lerkiatbundit, Utaipan, Laohawiriyanon &

Teo, 2006).

1.3.2 Sportsmanship and character development. It has been widely study

topic for sports psychology researcher that character development can be done

through sport participation. It was also believed that youth could learn positive values

and life lessons sports participation (Lind, 2000). Character and moral development

can be used interchangeably; however, Shields and Bredemeier (1995) determined

character in sports setting as an empathetic, role taking and moral reasoning. Moral

development has been viewed as encompassing concepts of sportsmanship, pro-social

behavior, sportsmanship and fair play. Significant others within the sport context

influence youths’ sportsmanship attitudes and behaviors by interacting with

participants in many ways. A coach spends time with young players and their

reliability and integrity play an immense role in character development (Castro, Stein

& Bentler, 2009). A coach can facilities his or her players with informational and

constructive feedback about their performance and desired behaviors by establishing

supportive with them (May, 2001). These kinds of social impacts can be linked to

psychologically helpful for players by improving their self-insight, enjoyment and

motivation. While much is known about coaches’ influence on youths’ skill

34

development and motivational outcomes, considerably less is known about coaching

mechanisms for promoting sportsmanship. This is surprising given the importance

placed on sport as a vehicle for building character (Young, Jemczyk, Brophy & Côté,

2009).

There are different theories and frameworks that highlight different

mechanisms for sportsmanship among sports participants. Bandura (11997) coined

social learning theory stating that coaches learns moral attitudes through observational

learning and they can be functional as a mentor and promote desired behaviors that is

required in sports. Structural developmental theory (Brenner, 2002) stated that one

reaches more mature level by going through moral dilemmas and maintain balance

among oneself and others interests. Therefore, a coach can take benefit by involving

his players in meaningful discussion that allow them to look at well-being of others.

The positive youth development theory claims that character can be substitute by

being a part of activities that facilitate opportunities for being skillful and interaction

with others. A coach who expects positivity from his or her players can be helpful in

maintaining supportive relationships and empowering environment positively

contribution to the society. All these theoretical approaches provide better insight on

how coaches can be influential on sportsmanship of young athletes (Göral, Caliskan

& Yetim, 2009).

1.3.3 Coaches and character development. It has been extensively suggested

that a coach can influence on a player's character, specifically sportsmanship,

modeling, motivation, social acceptability and discussions about moral dilemmas.

Firstly, modeling is perceived as powerful mechanisms by youngsters learn about

sporting behavior by observing desired or undesired behavior of their coaches (Wright

35

& Côté, 2003). According to social learning theory, a coach's modeling of being

morally appropriate will affect his or her player's morality. Secondly, players'

perceptions towards their coaches about sportsmanship influence their attitude and

behaviors towards game. Thirdly, a coach can be influential on his or her player's

sportsmanship through motivational climate (Amonini & Donovan, 2006). Executive

performance elaborates success as outperforming opponents by connecting with

players who promote non-sporting behaviors, however, executive mastery climate

focuses on one's personal development associated with good sportsmanship. Fourthly,

a coach incorporating discussions about moral dilemmas can promote sportsmanship

(Arvaniti, 2006).

Two sport-based youth development programs feature coaches as key

contributors to character development, including respect, responsibility, integrity, and

sportsmanship. Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (Clifford & Feezell,

2009) rely upon coaches or instructors to simultaneously teach sport and life skills to

youth in physical activity contexts. In Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility

programs, physical education teachers incorporate life lessons into physical activities

by conducting awareness talks, providing opportunities for individual decision-

making, holding group meetings to discuss conflicts, and encouraging students to

reflect on their own behavior. These methods allow instructors to lead students

through five stages of responsibility, progressing from controlling one's emotions to

transferring responsibility skills to contexts outside physical activity (Larson, 2000).

Evaluation research has shown that youth experience improved self-control, effort,

and communication skills within and outside of physical activity contexts following

participation in Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility programs (Wright,

1995).

36

1.3.4 Sports as a context for youth development. It has been observed that

educators and researchers have contended that sport and physical activity can be an

important context for youth development, including character development (O’Fallon

& Butterfield, 2005). Youth sport psychology researchers have initiated systematic

lines of research to study topics such as self-perceptions, emotions, motivation, social

relationships, and moral development and participation in sport is associated with

children’s and adolescents’ cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development

(Schweitzer, Ordóñez & Douma, 2004). Youth consistently cite several reasons for

participation, including enjoyment, learning new skills, and opportunities for social

interactions. These reasons for participation are in concert with theories of motivation

that emphasize self-perceptions, emotions, and social influence to explain youths’

attraction toward and commitment to sport. Research suggests that youth who are

surrounded by supportive adults and peers, feel competent in their abilities, and enjoy

their activities are more likely to be motivated to continue participating (Volkwein,

1995).

Given that social influence is a predictor of motivation youths’ social

interactions and relationships with significant others were mainly taken under

consideration. Family members, such as parents and siblings, connote key sources of

influence on youths’ physical activity experiences (Hanson, 2009). Parents socialize

their children and teenagers into physical activity by modeling attitudes and

behaviors, interpreting their children’s experiences, and providing emotional and

tangible support. Older siblings positively influence younger siblings' physical

activity participation by being a role model and providing social and emotional

support (Scanlan et al, 2013). Peers, such as teammates and non-sport friends, also

play an important role in youths' sport experiences. Youth participants cite friendships

37

as a reason for participation motivation, see peers as an important source of sport

enjoyment, and use peer comparison and evaluation to judge their physical

competence. Acceptance by one’s peer group and high quality friendships enhance

youths’ motivation for and enjoyment of physical activity experiences. Collectively,

the quality of relationships and interactions with parents, siblings, peers, and

teammates shape the trajectory of youths' psychosocial development through sport

(Lind, 2000).

Character building and moral development have been defined differently and

theoretical conceptualization of character building and moral development can be

traced back in traditions of philosophy (Rudd & Mondello, 2006). Beller and Stoll

(2995) postulated character as a set of qualities that one's possess however, moral

development can be marked as different psychological processes involving moral

reasoning and morality. Within sport contexts, character building and moral

development have been used collectively but Shields and Bredemeier (1995)

highlighted three types necessary in explaining character in sports: perspective taking,

role-taking, and empathy; moral reasoning and beliefs; and motivational orientation.

Moreover, moral development can be referred as a phenomenon encompassing

sportsmanship, integrity, pro-social behavior and fair play, however, interpretation of

moral development can be subjective (Kaye & Ward, 2010).

1.3.5 Conceptual approaches to character development through sport.

Sport psychology researchers have used and found support for several theories from

mainstream psychology, including social learning and structural developmental

theories, to understand moral functioning in sport. Other perspectives from the

positive youth development framework have also been used to study character

38

development through sport participation. Each conceptual approach shares a common

emphasis on social contextual influences of youths' moral development processes

(Sheeran, 2002). Different theoretical approaches explained strategies and techniques

that are being used by coaches to promote sportsmanship. To understand the process

through which sportsmanship develops, it is necessary to examine moral development

theories as these theoretical frameworks facilitated with insight on how a coach can

be significant in promoting sportsmanship, moral development and character building

in players.

1.3.5.1 Social learning theory. Social learning theory claimed that morality

replicates one's depiction of reasonable and acceptable behavior by maintain societal

norms. Bandura (1982) stated that one learns moral behaviors and attitude by

observing his or her significant others. Increasing spectrum of social learning theory,

Bandura (1997) proposed social cognitive theory of moral reasoning and postulated

that one's moral cogitations and attitudes are being affected by internal and external

sources. Behaviors of children are reinforced by parents and society initially and they

promote internal standards for self-assessment later. Children behave pro-socially to

escape from punishment and ultimately enjoying self-worth. Socialization leads to

moral development as one becomes aware of societal norms of moral behavior

(Solomon, 1984). Later, Jones and McNamee (2000) studied development of pro-

social behaviors in children and adolescents and proposed that pro-social behavior

incorporates different behaviors that concentrate on others instead of self-interests.

However, individual differences and different environmental factors collectively work

as major determinants whether children behave pro-socially towards others or not. In

a nut shell, social learning theories focused on social contextual influences on youth

by displaying pro-social and anti-social behaviors.

39

1.3.5.2 Structural developmental theory. Weiss and Smith (2002) described

structural development theory proposing morality as being expressive and concerned

for others' well-being and being focused on cognition and reasoning of moral

dilemmas. Moral development can be marked by the progression of one's moral

reasoning as Kohlberg (1969) explained individuals' development of moral reasoning

as a development three stages that include pre-conventional, conventional, post-

conventional. It was also emphasized that individuals' environmental factors and

experiences were significant for them in reaching at executive levels of moral

reasoning. Kohlberg and Hersh (1977) highlighted that a teacher can stimulate moral

development of youth by provoking discussions on different moral issues. They also

discussed that one perceives a moral atmosphere in a specific context that replicates

the prevailing attitudes of acceptable behaviors and it is important as one's moral

decisions are always subjective to group norms. Moreover, individuals' advancement

through moral development is reliant on their social interaction.

Gilligan (1977) promoted theoretical conceptualization of structural

developmental theory by stating that moral reasoning is prior to concerns for others

and showed apprehensions about previous moral development studies explaining that

women reached less mature levels of moral reasoning than men. From different

interviews, it was founded that moral reasoning of women is linked with

responsibility to others, negotiating one's own interest with others and dominant

feelings not to hurt others. It was emphasized that moral judgment based on care and

concern for others were as important, reliable and valid as moral judgment based on

principles of justice. These findings were supported by the work of Horn (2004) as

stated that female bodybuilders viewed their responsibilities and relationships with

others when they are being conclusive regarding making decision about usage of

40

drugs for performance enhancement. Gilligan's (1977) concepts were significant for

incorporating one's social obligations to others as a central idea of reasoning process

about moral dilemmas. As a whole, structural development theorists viewed that

moral reasoning through cognitive and interpersonal factors that contributes to

individuals' moral judgment.

1.3.5.3 Rest’s model of moral action. Rest (1986) integrated cognitive,

emotional, and behavioral processes into his four-component model of moral action.

The first component is moral sensitivity that is one's ability to recognize moral

situations. An individual must interpret the situation and assess possible outcomes.

The second component is moral judgment. An individual must evaluate the situation

and decide what course of action is closest to the moral ideal. The type of moral

reasoning and thought processes behind these decisions are most salient in

determining moral judgments. The third component, moral intention denotes to one's

choice of action relative to competing options. The fourth component, moral

character, refers to enacting the action plan reflected by a one's actual behavior. These

components are significant for defining moral actions of people. It is insufficient to

examine one's moral actions without considering the cognitive processes underlying

such behaviors. Further, while Rest's model is presented sequentially, each component

does not necessarily lead to the next and a person's moral understanding, decisions,

intentions and actions are interlinked. By incorporating multiple components of

morality, Rest was able to comprehensively represent the complex, multifaceted

processes of moral development. Shields and Bredemeier (1995) adapted Rest's four-

component model of moral action to sport and physical activity contexts and

highlighted personal competency, social contextual, and ego processing factors that

may impact the four components of Rest's model.

41

1.3.5.4 Positive youth development approach. The positive youth

development framework provides another perspective for studying youths' character

development through sport. This approach views young people as valuable resources

and contributors to society rather than problems to be fixed (Damon & Gregory,

2002). Accordingly, researchers and practitioners are interested in nurturing youths'

social, emotional, cognitive, and moral competencies (West, Ravenscroft & Shrader,

2004). Positive youth development programs in contexts of social, organizational and

religious activities are successful when youth learn numerous life skills and

demonstrate psychosocial growth. Several personal development goals focus on

enhancing youths' character and moral outcomes (Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth,

1998). Damon and Gregory (2002) discussed the importance of developing a moral

identity where one explains himself or herself in aspects of moral qualities. One's

moral identity is closely related to one's social identity and can facilitate youths'

aspirations to contribute to society. Scales and Leffert (1999) identified responsibility

as another aspect of character development. Youth develop responsibility when adult

leaders encourage ownership of one's work, create high expectations for behavior, and

hold youth accountable for their actions. Collectively, character is an important part of

youth becoming contributing members of society.

According to the positive youth development framework, several social

contextual factors must be in place to elicit positive moral growth among participants.

Physical and psychological sense of security, supportive relationships within positive

youth development settings are very necessary for youth (Eccles & Gootman, 2002).

Moreover, youth must have opportunities for skill building and belonging as well as

experience positive social norms to develop physical, intellectual, and psychological

skills. Youth must also feel empowered and have opportunities to occupy leadership

42

roles (Todd, 2003). Caring and supportive adult leaders who provide opportunities for

skill learning and an autonomy-supportive environment facilitate character

development among participants. Positive psychosocial results occur when young

people participate in a desired activity and can learn exchangeable social skills. Roth

and Brooks-Gunn (2009) highlighted sport as a unique developmental context that

promotes physical outcomes and benefits, in addition to social and emotional ones.

Youth development programs in physical activity settings afford opportunities to

simultaneously learn a variety of psychological and physical skills. Thus, the positive

youth development approach is an appealing way to understand character

development in sport and physical activity contexts.

1.3.5.5 Individual difference factors and social contextual factors for moral

development. There are several studies that investigate individual differences factors

and social contextual factors related to moral dilemmas in sports. Shields (1995) and

Bredemeier studied moral reasoning about sport in relationship with demographic

characteristics i.e. age, gender and athletic status. Sports related moral reasoning

emerged as significantly lower than life reasoning on the basis of subjective

reasoning. They also exposed an important divergence in one's life and education was

significantly correlated with more energetic use of moral reasoning in solving sport

dilemmas. Moral reasoning has been associated with moral attitudes and behaviors of

youth in sports setting, however, moral reasoning are linked with greater depiction of

aggression behavior in sports (Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields & Cooper, 1987).

Moreover, males involved in executive sports and compete at international levels tend

to have more legitimize aggression and participate in aggressive behaviors.

Achievement goal orientation also advocates individual differences associated to

moral thoughts and behaviors of youth and it has come into existence that executive

43

ego orientations and lower task goal orientations are related with greater involvement

in unsportsmanlike behavior (Koc, 2013). Players who predominantly explain success

as comparing themselves with others involve in winning at any cost including false

play and cheating. However, players who are more task-oriented tend to be focused

on their own development and growth ignoring need of winning.

Social contextual factors are also important in relationship with youths'

judgments and actions related to moral dilemmas. Coaches, management and officials

play a vital role in shaping youths interpretations regarding their experiences in sports

and physical activities. Now-a-days, youth are being influential by different social

mechanisms, social acceptance, morality and motivational climate. Moral reasoning is

being influenced by observational learning and consistent to Bandura (1977) social

learning theory, modeling occurs when one adopts similar attitudes or behaviors that

he or she observes in others. Smith, Malo & Finnie (2000) explored that adolescent

hockey players stated that they had learnt to be involved in illegal hitting by observing

professional hockey players and used observed tactics in their game. Moreover,

hockey players preferring more violent professional role models showed commitment

to more assaultive penalties during match as compare to those who adopted less

violent models. In addition to reinforcement for aggressive acts, players may also feel

pressured by significant others to act in unsportsmanlike. In a nut shell, it is suggested

that social contextual factors strongly influence moral reasoning of youth as they take

behavioral cues from their significant others about desired or undesired behaviors in

sports and act according to social contexts.

44

1.4 Performance Efficacy

Psychological components related to sports have been classified as significant

in improving one's sports related performance, however, the prediction of

performance is based on the principles of sports psychology (Beauchamp, Bray &

Albinson, 2002). Interventions in sports psychology based on imagery, relaxation,

goal setting and self-talk tend to have a positive influence on players (Thelwell &

Greenless, 2001). Whitmore (2002) stated that coaching manuals adhere to different

psychological components and potential value of these factors is important in

increasing performance. Chen et al (2002) indicated that understanding limitations

and optimal performance factors have always been area of interest for sports

psychologists. In different competitive conditions, performance related demands of

athletes can be categorized into three factors i.e. the physical ability to perform

continued physical exercises, being involved in high intensity exercises, the ability of

being athletic and the ability to progress a high power output, however, performance

is indomitable by a players' technical, tactical and psychological ability. It is obvious

that the practical focus of sports psychology is on performance excellence and it can

be named as performance psychology. Heuze, Raimbault and Fontayne (2007)

elaborated performance psychology as a discipline that helps individuals how to

perform persistently in crucial situations. In a broader spectrum, it can be claimed that

sports psychology is a domain within performance psychology that investigates

principles and interventions in context to competitive situations related to

performance.

Performance psychology addresses investigation and application of

psychological principles of human performance that help individuals in performing

45

capabilities and enjoy performance process. Performance psychology trainers are

specialized in engaging individuals in broader range of activities that include

execution of different psychological and emotional components related to knowledge,

skills and abilities needed for excellence in performance (Kozub & McDonnell, 2000)

Moreover, it covers conceptualization of different psychological, behavioral

components that are required for improvement of performance and facilitate

consistent execution and positive experience in performers. Generally, performance

elaborates a discrete phenomenon where one performance a specific set of developed

knowledge, skills and abilities that is required for successful performance and

consistently involve executing an assigned task and incorporates the development of

situation related knowledge, skills and abilities applying to a distinct performance

event (Lindsley, Brass & Thomas, 1995).

1.4.1 Sports and performance. Performance can be linked with principles of

applied sports psychology and generally refers as a discipline that involves intuitive

appeal for experienced psychology (Schutz, Eom, Smoll & Smith, 1994). Applied

sports psychologists need to have specialty knowledge for every aspect and their

respective area of expertise, however, sporting context implicate specialized training

other than general performance principles. Performance psychology tries to help

individuals in being the best as per their abilities of becoming in their performance

activities. The major and obvious goals of performance psychology are the

development of adaptive mindsets, emotional integration and psychological skills

(Jooste, Steyn & den-Berg, 2014). It also aims to learn people in preparing for

performance and deliver to the best of their sporting skills with consistency. An

individual being taught about performance issues helps him or her to accomplish a set

goal. Moreover, coaching and consultation are considered as major modalities that

46

best fit in performance psychology foundation of applied sports psychology

(Mouratidou & Barkoukis, 2015).

1.4.2 Self efficacy and collective efficacy. It is unanimously perceived by

players and coaches that self-confidence is an important quality of successful

performance in sports. Self-confidence can be viewed as an important psychological

factor in sports and can be referred as the most significant factor in sports (Myers,

Feltz & Short, 2004). Self-efficacy is explained as beliefs that enable one to perform a

certain task for accomplishing specific results (Bandura, 1997). However, it is not

linked with skills one has but concerned with the judgments of what he or she

possesses as skills. It can also be viewed as a situation related self-confidence and can

be conceptualized to affect one's activities to approach and persistency he or she

demonstrate in competitive conditions. Bandura (1977) theory of self-efficacy can be

widely used for investigating self-confidence and can be defined as a cognitive

mechanism for mediating motivation and behavior of people and their judgment

towards their capability to perform at desired levels influence their behaviors. Gully,

Incalcaterra, Joshi & Beaubien (2002) stated that self-efficacy is the most affective

psychological concepts thought to influence achievement endeavors in sport

performance. The concept of self-efficacy is vibrant to coaches and players. Coaches

know what their players feel and feel about their abilities and characteristics.

Secondly, a better conceptualization of players' psyche can significantly enhance the

resulting sports performance (Magyar, Feltz & Simpson, 2004).

Players performing at higher executive functioning can lead to higher

performance and its association with performance may enhance awareness and

appreciation towards sports. Bandura (1977) postulated self-efficacy theory as a

47

process of identification modifiable antecedents of self-efficacy. The theory postulates

self-efficacy acting as the common cognitive mediator between sources and

outcomes. A considerable body of evidence shows that self-efficacy plays an

influential role, as a motivational perception guiding behavior, determining the

successful self-regulation of various health behaviours such as eating healthy and

sport and exercise (Feltz, Chase, Moritz & Sullivan, 1999). In particular, self-efficacy

is conceptualized as an influence the activities and challenges people choose to

pursue. Importantly, when established goals become threatened we draw on self-

efficacy beliefs to inform our decision of how much effort and persistence to put forth

towards goal attainment. Thus, self-efficacy is an important psychological construct to

consider when examining the self-regulation of sport and exercise behavior and

performance as many exercise behaviors require the continued exertion of effort and

persistence (Myers, Feltz & Short, 2004).

Collective efficacy has been explained as a developing group characteristics

composed of people perceptions and also elaborates the conceptualization in a broader

spectrum as shared beliefs of a specific group and collective abilities for arranging

and executing actions required to attain certain levels of achievement (Bandura,

1997). It is a vital factor for team sports as it can be influential to their overall efforts

as a team, consistency in critical situations and features often viewed as successful

teams and it has a positive influence on sports performance (Moritz, Feltz, Fahrbach

& Mack, 2000). It is also claimed that perceptions of self-efficacy are important

determinants of collective efficacy and it was explored that perceptions related to self-

efficacy significantly predicted one's perceptions of collective efficacy and it is rooted

in self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982). Particularly, vicarious experiences and skilled

expectations facilitated through imagery cannot enhance self-efficacy but as a result

48

enhance one's perceptions of collective efficacy. Moreover, imaging one's

components of performance can enhance his or her perceptions related to collective

efficacy (Callow & Hardy, 2001).

1.4.3 Sources of self-efficacy in sports. Following are the sources of self-

efficacy in sports.

1.4.3.1 Building upon successful experiences. There are different strategies

that can be helpful in enhancing self-efficacy in sports. These techniques include

previous performance as the major component that influence self-efficacy, therefore,

coaches want to set up situations that facilitate for successful experiences for their

players. An effective method can be operationalized as changing complex sports

related skills into chunks and they can challenge players at his or her own skill level

(Brooks, 2014). For instance, martial arts is a systematic approach that includes belt

rank and specific skills are being taught from basic level to advance level. Initially, a

player learns simple techniques that can be linked with extensive techniques to

achieve advanced skills. However, every skill at every level is challenging but not

devastating for the players and it permits players to have successful experiences for

high self-efficacy.

1.4.3.2 Observations of peers' success. Observing peers' success can also be

marked as an important method to enhance self-efficacy and enable oneself to

perform any skill successfully. Unfortunately, it is not enough to only observe a skill

but also require from a player whether he or she possesses that specific ability. For

example, if a player is watching any international skater doing a double or triple loop,

he or she would not believe initially that he or she can copy but later, when he or she

49

would observe a friend with those specific skills, he or she must have a greater

conviction to copy the technique (DeSouza, DaSilveira & Gomes, (2008).

1.4.3.3 Specific positive feedback. Verbal persuading can also increase self-

efficacy as it is important to provide specific positive feedback that is best linked to

previous performance. It can help players to convince themselves for accomplishing a

specific task. Finally, helping players in learning, finding and maintaining their

optimal level of physiological intensity for successful performance can enhance their

belief towards their abilities. Specific positive feedback can be promoted by teaching

relaxation techniques for decreasing intensity and self-talk for enhancing or lowering

intensity level as per situational requirement (Martin, Moritz & Hall, 1999).

1.5 Summary

The main focus of sports psychology has always been to emphasis the

importance of psychology in sports settings. The heightened competition stress lead

towards a sudden diminished performance both physically and psychologically by

influencing on performance abilities of players (Birrer & Morgan, 2009). Sports

psychology enables players and coaches to concentrate on psychological skills of

players by controlling negative emotions and optimizing performance and assist

players in focusing positively on their respective games. Winning can be achieved

with the utilization of psychology in sports as the major aim in sports is winning and

can be associated with optimal performance levels. Sports have been more refined and

coaches who had been unable to utilize the mental aspect of their players had faced

disgrace in their respective fields due to their poor performance (Gill,

2000). According to Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis and Theodorakis (2011),

the process of becoming an expert coach is influenced much more by their interactive,

50

situational coaching experiences, observations of peers and knowledge sharing with

other coaches that any professional preparation programs.

A new approach to coach education based on coaching contexts should be

invented and implemented, in order that both coaches and players are exposed to

relevant and optimum learning experiences and eventually working for ethical and

behavioral patterns during competition (Zervas et al, 2007). The definition of sport

includes humanized words such as sadness, sorrow, and stress as well as the terms

which are worthy of human dignity such as peace, tolerance, equality, discipline,

virtue, right, law, happiness, love, and respect (Barker, 2002). Coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy can be explained through different models

and theories and performance enhancement can be assessed in different way but there

are certain limitations yet as fluctuations in arousal cannot be predicted in pressure

Moreover, psychological skills have been studied well but there is insufficient

explanation about different psychological processes that cause decrease in

performance under pressure conditions (Holt et al, 2012).

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Chapter II

Literature Review

This chapter includes different researches on psychological skills, coaching

competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports.

2.1 Psychological Skills

Edward and Steyn (2008) tried to investigate the impact of psychological

skills training program on life, health and well-being in south-African adolescents.

Triangulation was done involving players, groups and community intervention along

with elite players' cases. It also intended to find out relationship between

psychological skills and wellbeing. Results revealed that general improvement in

psychological skills, wellbeing and performance. Moreover, psychological skills and

wellbeing correlated with concepts with corresponding elements. Miles and Neil, R.

(2013) defined three phases of psychological skills preparation. Pre-performance

phase incorporated visualization and self-talk. Significance of psychological needs

during match was discussed in performance phase and the coping strategies included

planning for assisting players with distractions and any unexpected situations.

Moreover, different competitive scenarios discussed preparation shortcoming along

with any haphazard situations.

Rothlin, Birrer, Horvath & Holtforth (2016) conducted a study to examine the

effectiveness of interventions with elite and non-elite players. Interventions invluded

psychological skills training and mindfulness that administered as a group program

aiming how these interventions increase functional athletic behavior that is necessary

for sports related performance. Randomized control designs were used for comparison

52

of psychological skills training, mindfulness intervention and control condition.

Results revealed that primary outcome is functional athletic behavior that assessed

using ambulatory assessment during match. Psychological skills training and

mindfulness intervention both were useful in improving functional behaviors of

players.

Lawless and Grobbelaar (2015) postulated a study to compile psychological

skills profile of players and compare levels of psychological skills with successful and

less successful players. The sample consisted of one hundred and forty three players

collected from an athletic championship. Perceived importance and need for

psychological skills training were also explored. It was found that successful players

reported higher achievement motivation values than that of less successful players.

Overall, there was found to be relationship between psychological skills and success

of players. Young (2014) assessed psychological skills among risk sports athletes and

the impact of experience on the use of such skills. The sample included two hundred

thirty two risk sport athletes who reported varying nature of experience by completing

athletic coping skills inventory and revealed that experienced athletes scored higher

than that of less experienced players.

Beauchamp et al, (2002) explored different psychological skills of golfers that

were important in differentiating successful players and less successful players. It was

found that successful players tend to have clear goal setting and systematic self-

evaluation of their performance. On the other hand, club level players showed higher

need for handling disturbances. Moreover, international golfers exhibited better

coping strategies than that to club level golfers. Furthermore, use of imagery was

reported by elite professional golfers.

53

Kross et al (2014) investigated different psychological skills in successful

players. Enhanced motivational levels, coping skills and concentration were found to

be used, however, confidence and goal setting reported averagely by players.

Moreover, peak performance also associated with commitment. Young and Knight

(2014) studied adherence to psychological skills training program and found that

psychological skills training was predicted by motivation and intervention remained

non-significant. Time restrictions were significant in adherence process, however,

psychological skills training was needed at personal level. Moreover, lower

motivation emerged among players who didn’t volunteer for psychological skills

training program but had increased concentration.

Hanton and Jones (1999) conducted a study to examine cognitive skills in

international swimmers and conducted open ended interviews with ten swimmers. It

was found that psychological skills of international swimmers initiated from learning

and parents and coaches taught imagery and stress management by developing

cognitive skills. Thelwell and Greenless (2001) highlighted the effectiveness of

psychological skills training in different sports. Cox, Martns & Williams (2003)

designed an intervention program including recreation, self-talk, goal setting,

concentration and imagery. Haddad and Tremayne (2009) suggested that imagery and

relaxation were useful for players for performance enhancement. Holt et al (2009)

postulated that confidence is a belief that enables players to perform in difficult

situations. It was recommended that confidence is a major difference between

influential and unsuccessful players as elite or influential players have higher levels of

self-efficacy. Psychountaki and Zervas (2000) specified that there is a relationship

between self-confidence and performance as diminishing confidence can reduce

performance.

54

Silva and Stevens (2002) coined that triumph or defeat can be expressed by

emotions immediately. Emotions tend to be affective on abilities of players before,

during and after competition. Jones (2006) identified that performance is associated

with different kinds of emotions. Gucciardi and Dimmock (2010) discussed that

emotions can negatively influence on motor abilities and may cause physical fatigue

by disturbing mutual co-ordination of mind and body. Chang et al (2014) claimed

that male players are more successful during competition due to their emotional

control. However, females were classified as goal oriented. Moreover, international

level players tend to have winning and goal orientation skills in comparison with

unsuccessful players. Hatzigeorgiadis et al (2008) indicated that psychological skills

are very important and play a very significant role in the rehabilitation of players

facing any kind of physical injury. Psychological skills are helpful in reducing

performance related stress and equally work as lessening pressure during competitive

conditions. These skills were also helpful in dealing with stress for upcoming

competition soon after the injury. It was also explored that performance and self-

confidence can be helpful in improving by goal setting in females.

Baumeister (1984) established that confidence and using psychological skills

tend to act as moderator for players experiencing choking. It was also claimed that

female players choked under difficult conditions. These results contributed to the

previous results that males choked during difficult match situations (Baumeister, Tice

& Hutton, 1989). Jackson, Ashford and Norsworthy (2006) interviewed elite and club

golfers along with college level golf players. It was described that peak performance

was habitual; however, thinking and arousal levels were under control. Most of the

players displayed higher level of self-confidence along with relaxation and being

fearless and imagery was also reported. Theodorakis, Hatzigeorgiadis and Chroni

55

(2008) investigated elite performance in sports and found that concentrating on

performance was more important than that of maintaining success. Moreover, parents

and coaches assisted players in the process of preparation and challenges.

Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) examined golfers by creating three different

conditions and assured that the best golfers would get a healthy compensation. Results

showed that anxiety interfered with performance after being associated with self-

consciousness. Golfers concerned about their playing positions displayed nervousness

and remained consistent on losing shots. It was also reported that experienced golfers

used self-talk in a word or sentence that’s why their performance was not influenced.

Another study investigated self-talk and performance outcomes in tennis players and

found that negative self-talk was widely used during competition and also linked to

worse performance (Wilson, 2008). Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis and

Theodorakis (2011) explored specific effects of self-talk on performance of players

and it was found that self-talk had a beneficial influence in being skillful in any sport,

performance on task accuracy and tasks involving strengths and power.

2.2 Coaching Competence

Moen and Federici (2013) studied higher levels of perceived coaching

competence in association with relational issues claiming increased satisfaction

among athletes. Coaching competence scale was used that evaluated perceived

coaching competencies elaborated by coaching profession. It was found that increased

perceived coaching competence was linked with greater satisfaction with their

performance in sports. This finding can be applicable on all dimensions of coaching

competence scale. However, athletes who reported themselves dissatisfied with their

56

performance in sports didn’t follow this phenomenon as they score higher on different

dimensions.

Zetou et al (2016) conducted a study for validation and measuring reliability

of coaching competence scale on the sample of football and basketball players. The

sample consisted of two hundred and ninety nine players including one hundred and

eighty one football players and one hundred and eighteen basketball players.

Coaching competence was evaluated by using Athletes' Perceptions of Coaching

Competency Scale II consisted of twenty four that establishing four factors:

motivation competency, game strategy competency, technique competency and

character building competency. Confirmatory factor analysis was done after

examining internal consistency of the scale and it was found that internal consistency

was high and factor loading supported factors of the original instrument.

Convincingly, it was postulated that coaching competence scale was a reliable

instrument and no difference was found in perceptions of between football and

basketball players. Moreover, perceptions of athletes towards their coaches emerged

positively both in football and basketball players.

Gilbert et al (2006) stated that successful college level soccer and volleyball

coaches spent very short time in formal coach related educational activities. Before

being indulged into coaching profession, coaches spent minimum thirteen years

playing the game at a major competition level but didn’t emerge as necessarily as a

nominated team leader. These coaches reported themselves as specialized in a few

sports when they were young during their playing period. It was also claimed that

coaching success was associated to accumulations of total coaching activity but they

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were failed in answering how much they were involved in non-formal activities and

informal activities.

Lynch and Mallett (2006) documented that five elite coaches spent most of

their time interacting with players preparing themselves for competition. On an

average, it was reported that twenty thousands in active coaching related to their

career in comparison to their formal coaching educational hours. Moreover, it was

revealed that they spent fourteen thousands hours for planning their coaching

activities. Interestingly, three coaches reported having important mentors and being

involved in formerly competing in athletics for more than eleven years, however,

most of the coaches marked themselves as higher performers instead of exceptional.

Erickson et al (2007) studied the past activities of coaches in their developmental

experiences and it was found that there were many experiences essential for achieving

university status. Career development was marked as a higher performance coaches

concentrated on a primary sport. There was very little time spent in formal coaching

educational activities. Coaches adopted leadership roles and experience as players

during their playing days. Researchers focused that minimum threshold experiences

values can better influence coaches development practices. These experiences were

resulted from the data of coaches who have displayed more than seventy five percent

of higher performance.

Young et al (2009) conducted a study to compare skilled local level and

national level coaches on fourteen different learning activities measures. It was found

that the skilled group emerged as having more experience as a head coach or assisting

coach than that of less skilled group of coaches. Skilled coaches spent more time for

interaction with players and assisting coaches. National level coaches did more post-

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secondary coaching courses. No difference was found between coaching levels. Pilus

and Saadan (2009) found that national basketball coaches tend to be as average elite

basketball players and having minimum ten years of coaching experience mostly

being involved in developmental context during those years. These coaches spent only

one hundred and eleven hours in formal coaching activities. However, cultural

perspectives and mentoring activities were not reported.

Santos et al (2010) postulated a research to investigate perceptions of coaches

related to competence and acknowledgement of training needs in relation with

professional competencies, experience and education. The sample consisted of three

hundred and forty three coaches. Factor analysis emerged for establishing coaches'

perceptions of competence and acknowledgement of training needs into three sub-

scales: competences related to annual planning; practice and competition related

competencies and competencies related to personal and coaching education. It was

found that perceptions of coaches were affected by experience as coaching having low

experience valued having lower competence and having more training needs.

Educated coaches perceived themselves as more competence than that of coaches

having less education. Most of the coaches perceived themselves as competent,

however, indicating to have training needs. Moreover it was suggested that coaches

are interested in enhancing their knowledge and competence at a broader level.

Myers et al (2006) conducted a study to establish initial validity for

multidimensional measures of coaching competency resulting from coaching

competence scale. Data was collected from eight male and thirteen female football

and eleven ice hockey players. The sample consisted of five hundred and eighty five

athletes. Results showed multidimensional internal model having motivation, game

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strategy, technique and character building that were named as dimensions of coaching

competency. However, redundancy was also reported in dimensions also. Cronbach

alpha reliability coined as good to excellent. Kao et al (2017) investigated the

relationship between coaching competency and their perceived trust in their coaches.

It was hypothesized that evaluation of athletes of four dimensions of coaching

competency is positively correlated to their trust in coaches and this relationship is

stronger at team level instead of personal level. The sample consisted of four hundred

and thirty eight basketball players including two hundred and fifty one males and one

hundred and eighty seven females. Results showed that individual and group

evaluations of four dimensions of coaching competency scale positively predicted

trust in coaches. In sum, it was postulated that improvement in psychological and

technical skills of coaches can help in betterment of trust in players towards their

coaches.

Boardley, Kavussanu and Ring (2008) conducted a study to investigate

predictors of coaching efficacy, demographic characteristics of coaches and players as

predictors of perceptions of players of their coaches' effectiveness and differentiating

between coaching efficacy and players' perceptions of coaching effectiveness. The

sample consisted of twenty six coaches and two hundred and ninety one university

level players. It was revealed that coaching experience positively predicted coaching

efficacy and male coaches tend to have greater game strategy efficacy than that of

females coaches. Experience negatively predicted perceived coaching effectiveness in

players and their coaches negatively predicted motivation and character building

coaching effectiveness. Moreover, coaches' scores on coaching efficacy were reported

higher than that of players' scores of coaching effectiveness.

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Olympiou, Jowett and Duda (2008) advanced a study by evaluating coaches'

educational levels as predictors of their coaching efficacy levels. It was an online

study and it was found that educational levels didn’t emerge as predictor of coaching

efficacy, however, significant differences were found in game strategy efficacy and

physical conditioning efficacy is observed when gender and coaches educational

levels were interacted. It was suggested that coaching related educational programs

should be arranged to raise self-efficacy of coaches and must focusing on female

coaches to increase their understanding towards male coaches' approaches to

coaching. Brailsford (2014) examined the relationship between gymnastic coaches'

ratings of their coaching efficacy and perceptions of athletes towards their coaches'

effectiveness including exploring how these perceptions are linked to performance

outcomes for the gymnasts. The sample consisted of sixteen coaches and one hundred

and nine gymnasts. It was found that no coaching effectiveness dimensions

significantly predicted performance and no gender differences were reported for game

strategy efficacy. Coaches rated themselves higher for coaching efficacy than that of

scores of their players' about their coaches' effectiveness. Poczwardowski, Barott and

Jowett (2006) investigated the relationship between perceptions of players towards

coaching effectiveness considering coaching efficacy model. The sample included one

hundred and sixty six male rugby players. Results showed that perceptions of players

of motivation effectiveness predicted effort, commitment and enjoyment. Self-

efficacy was predicted by technique effectiveness and pro-social behavior predicted

perceptions of character building. However, coaching effectiveness didn’t correlate

with anti-social behavior.

Baric and Kajtna (2009) studied personality traits, motivation, leadership

styles, emotional and social competencies. Attitudes towards coaching were also

61

examined. Coaches were categorized into two groups; group leadership that

highlighted coaching related problems, higher task orientation and reduced directivity

and the second group was named as permissiveness that featured as low behavioral

control, low achievement commanding and poorer social skills along with feedback

tendency. Results revealed that coaches of successful players were observant on

emotions of their players and showed resistance in using social skills for being

authoritative with players, however, coaches of less successful players had lower

attention for relationships and task orientation and didn’t included decision making.

Moreover, team sports coaches differentiated from the individual sports coaches due

to lack of expressed behavior and lower permissiveness.

Miller, Salmela and Kerr (2002) aimed to find out coach-athlete relationship

being like mentorship. They defined mentor as an active role model and it was

revealed that coaches act as mentors because of their expertise and experiences and

try to transform their goals into their teams. Jowett and Ntoumanis (2004) examined

twenty six elite players and found that coach-athlete relationship never tend to be

problematic. This emerged as a confirmation of the phenomenon that coaches

constructive relationships with their players facilitated as higher sports achievements.

Moreover, players projected their attitudes towards their coach as more important

component of their mutual relationship. These results were also similar to the findings

of Demers, Woodburn and Savard (2006) where elite Slovenian dancers reported

themselves satisfied with their coaches' behaviors and attitudes.

Abraham et al (2006) investigated coaches' support and social constraints from

coaches in relationship with their sports commitment of elite gymnasts. It was found

that young gymnasts identified themselves more attracted to sports commitment,

higher social support from coaches and players than that of gymnasts who labeled as

62

entrapped in their commitment. It can be concluded that coaches providing

meaningful social support to their players can positively influence enjoyment of

players and commitment to be participant of sports. Mageau and Vallerand (2003)

resulted that autonomy supportive behaviors of coaches add providing choices to

players, non-controlling feedback, and encouraging players to be expressive in their

feelings and creating initiative opportunities. Coaches' autonomy supportive behaviors

affect perceptions of players towards competence, autonomy and relatedness that

emerged as predictor of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of players. Researches also

depicted that coaches' adopting an autonomy supportive leadership style positively

influence psychological needs of players and motivation to continue their sport

(Balague, 1999).

Chiu et al (2013) explored the trend of university level sports coaches

coaching competence skills towards their players and aimed primarily to evaluate the

competency level of coaches and motivation levels of university players during

competition. The sample comprised of three hundred and twenty two players and it

was found that coaches' competence levels didn’t show any influence of gender

differences and performance of players, however, diffed by sports type i.e. individual

sport and team sport. Moreover, moderate relationship reported between coaching

competencies and achievement motivation in players. Furthermore, for coaches,

coaches' coaching competencies and their motivation competency emerged as

significant contributor to players' sport achievement motivation.

2.3 Sportsmanship

Vallerand et al (1996) attempted to postulate conceptual definition of

sportsmanship in relation with social and psychological theories. It was assumed that

conceptualization of sportsmanship behavior are being learnt through mutual

63

interaction among sports participants. For this purpose, the sample of one thousand

and fifty six male and female players were included who ended up emerging five

factors corresponding to the respect and concern for one's dedication towards sports

participation, regard for rules and officials, social conventions, the opponents and a

negative mind set toward sports participation.

Wankel and Berger (1990) evaluated measures of competitiveness,

motivational orientation and perceived purposes of sports participation as predictors

of sportsmanship. The sample constituted on three hundred and nineteen young

players who indicated that self-esteem and task mastery are strong predictors of

heightened sportsmanship invalidating influence of competitiveness and motivational

orientation. On the other hand, extrinsic factors for sports participation contributed to

lower levels on various dimensions of sportsmanship. Arnold (1994) discovered that

beginners and experienced young basketball players would be more likely to injure

their opponents if they are permitted by their coaches. Long, Pantaléon, Bruant, and

d’Arripe & Longueville (2006) originated from open ended and detailed interviews of

elite players and reported that their decisions not to follow laws, cheating, being

harmful to opponents were correlated with their coaches' will. Moreover, coaches

asking players to not follow the rules or injure the opponent players can encourage

players to act against sportsmanship.

McNamee (2009) interviewed competitive Canadian swimmers and found that

many swimmers experienced positive developmental outcomes and only a few

swimmers reported negative developmental experiences that were caused by peer

influences, parental pressure, poor coach-athlete relationship and competitive

environment. It was also suggested that coaches training programs should be initiated

64

to understand sociological pressures on young players, understanding coaches'

behaviors and encouraging positive communication skills. Nagin and Pogarsky (2003)

initiated a mixed study using questionnaires and interviews to find out understanding

levels towards sportsmanship of basketball players. The sample consisted of one

thousand five hundred and nine basketball' players who were aware of the idea of

sportsmanship but didn’t value it as all players agreed that it was acceptable to be

engaged in abusive slogans, distracting the opponents and named their behavior as an

active role of being a sports fan. Petróczi, Aidman and Nepusz (2008) introduced an

intervention program including elementary school basketball players and exhibited

their experiences through journaling and meeting with teachers. It was found that

being involved in discussions with teachers helped players to be more self-aware and

recognizing the significance of responsibility and hard work for accomplishing career

related goals.

Robinson (2003) interviewed six coaches for the period of two years. It was

revealed that effective coaches focused on creating a positive team environment by

facilitating players with discipline and increasing their physical and personal growth.

Coaches' behavior found to be as instructional along with praise and criticism. Kaye

and Ward (2010) documented ninety eight cases of anti-social sporting incidents and

found that five ethical issues were affected including breaking the law, false play,

coaches aggressive behaviors, disregard and aggression of players. It was also

reported that aggression of players was more usual in male than that of females.

Judgment and actions of youth regarding moral dilemmas in sports are being

influenced by their social surroundings. However, coaches, teammates, parents and

peers all have significant role in shaping youth interpretations in context to sports and

physical activities. Modeling, moral engagement and motivational climate are

65

influential on youth. It was revealed that hockey players and non-hockey players

reported themselves to be involved in illegal activities by observing professional

hockey players.

Dölling, Entorf, Hermann and Rupp (2009) examined issues of intercollegiate

players of American universities stating that heavy amount of money spent by

university authorities in promotion of moral behaviors and character development. It

was also pointed that there was little evidence of sports enhancing moral development

and donations didn’t spend properly for academic purposes of university but remain

confide to athletics departments only. Donovan, Egger, Kapernick and Mendoza

(2002) explored that players who had a feeling that their parents facilitated them with

learning climate focused personal betterment and signified enhanced sportsmanship

levels. For examining how goal achievement are linked to moral judgments of players

Kavussanu and Roberts (2001) developed the relationship between goal orientations

and sportsmanship attitudes and perceived validity of aggression. It was found that

ego orientation tend to have positive relationship with endorsement with cheating and

was linked with higher acceptance of being aggressive towards opponents. Dunn and

Dunn (1999) considered the relationship between goal orientations, sportsmanship

and perceived athletic aggressive tendencies. It was found that high ego orientation

was linked with greater approval of the use of aggressive behaviors. Contrarily,

players having higher task orientation showed greater regard and concern for rules

and game officials. Hemphill (2009) defined negative relationship between coaching

climate and moral reasoning along with unsportsmanlike behaviors and it was

supported by the phenomenon that coaches' stresses on winning that is obvious in

coaching related climate and lead players to believe that unsportsmanlike are legal

and ethical for achieving win at any coast. On the other hand, motivational climate

66

considerably linked to display mature moral judgment and indicated that youth

involved in mastery focused environments don’t view aggression and false play

essential to be triumphed.

Rudd and Mondello (2006) interview twelve American college coaches and

were asked to define character and two categories emerged as social and moral. Social

character can be referred as integrity, fairness and compassion and moral can be

identified as social character by competing societal pressures. It was also found that

coaches put heavy emphasis on social character than that of moral character as moral

character can lead to ethical problems in sports. No gender differences were reported

in defining character by coaches, however, it was established that the sample was very

small and can be classified as major limitation of this study. Tsai and Fung (2005)

projected a model to define how life skills are being taught through sports and stated

that a coach's characteristics, direct and indirect teaching methods provide youths

with personal development skills, however, youths' acquisition and personal skills

transfer to social settings other than sports. Moreover, youth reported more positive

developmental experiences through when players supported and developed a

meaningful connection with coaches.

Lee et al, (2007) analyzed moral decisions of players aging between eleven to

sixteen years on the sample of three hundred and seventy five of young club level

players. Three dominant aspects in youth sports were measured; acceptance for

cheating, acceptance for gamesmanship and keeping winning in proportion. Cheating

was defined as avoiding reference to obvious rule structure of a specific sport and

gamesmanship is an act that establishes the violation of game spirit during a

competition but doesn't incorporate breaking the law. However, winning was

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attributed as an adjunct category to keep balance in assessing pro-social attitudes.

These results were contrary with female athletes who reported to keep winning in

mind than that of males. Overall, it was concluded that non-acceptance of cheating

and intolerance of gamesmanship was higher in players as they shift from junior level

to senior level in their sports. Moreover, sports participation for the sake of recreation

reported to be lowered and seriousness of winning ranked higher.

Hardy and Parfitt (1991) focused on social goal orientations that occurred

when one feels successful when he or she tends to have positive social interactions

and meaningful relationships. Rudd and Gordon (2010) found that adolescents

elaborated success as having close friendship or being accepted by peers who were

more likely to have unsportsmanlike behaviors by showing unfair play. It was also

found that display of pro-social and antis-social behaviors of young football players

were predicted by the degree to which they defined success as being popular peers

with having positive peer interactions. Overall, it was suggested that individual

orientation about success contributes towards their moral intentions. Saenz et al,

(2013) conducted a research on one hundred and forty two basketball players for

observing their sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike behaviors of youth. It was found

that sportsmanlike behavior of coaches and spectators significantly predicted

sportsmanlike behavior of children. Youth sport participants observing aggressive

behaviors by professional players and coaches are likely to act in a particular way.

Goldberg et al, (2000) developed an intervention where they trained physical

education instructors to moderate conflict resolutions and share class management

with students. Other interventions where teachers and coaches created opportunities

for discussion about morally arousing situations also reported as successful (Solomon,

1984).

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2.4 Performance Efficacy

Myers, Feltz and Short (2004) conducted a study to investigate relationship

between collective efficacy and performance in American soccer players. The sample

consisted of soccer players of ten teams who had played eight consecutive games for

the formulation of two measures of collective efficacy at team level. Team level

measure of offensive performance was produced from game level performance.

Offensive performance was predicted positively by total scores of collective efficacy,

however, negatively predicted following collective efficacy scores. It had also

reported as a positive predictor of offensive performance. Zumeta, Oriol, Telletxea,

Amutio and Basabe (2015) formulated a cross sectional study to investigate

relationship between collective efficacy and psycho-social processes involved

sporting activities. It was argued that in-group identification and fusion with the group

will affect collective efficacy. The sample consisted of two hundred and seventy six

who had participated in sporting activities at university level. Results revealed that

shared flow and perceived emotional synchrony mediate the relationship between

identity fusions. Perceived emotional control mediated collective efficacy. It was also

found that both psychological and social processes define positive influence of in-

group identification and identity fusion with the group in collective efficacy. In nut

shell, the utility of collective actions and social identities were highlighted to

demonstrate the psychological and social processed associated to collective efficacy

in sporting activities.

Heuze, Raimbault and Fontayne (2007) examined the mediating effects in

relationship between cohesion, collective efficacy and performance in elite basketball

players. It also aimed to investigate correlates of collective efficacy in elite sports.

69

The sample consisted of one hundred and fifty four elite basketball players. Results

showed that two mediating relationships with collective efficacy as a mediator or pre-

performance. Pre-performance and collective efficacy relationship was mediated by

group integration task. It was also found that pre-performance, cohesion, collective

efficacy and performance were not mediated by collective efficacy. There was found

to be positive relationship between cohesion and collective efficacy. It was suggested

that professional basketball players and officials should take care of players

performing at lower level as their lower performance might lead them into decreased

cohesion. Moreover, officials must develop quality group functioning during and after

match in relationship with collective efficacy.

Magyar, Feltz, and Simpson (2004) studied the significance of confidence in

relationship to cognitive, affective and behavioral responses and highlighted factors

weakening confidence within sports. Vealey and Greenleaf (2006) model of sports

confidence was conceptual base of this study that incorporated fourteen players for

interviews. Results emerged as showing higher sports confidence facilitated

performance and positively influenced on players' cognitions, thinking and behaviors.

These players tended to be vulnerable for factors that proved to be encumbering their

confidence. These factors ended up as being correlated with their original sources and

were affected by gender. Therefore, the main focus of this intervention was to

increase confidence that must show needs of players and include sources of players

and nature of confidence that must be helpful for players during game preparations.

McEwan, Ruissen, Eys, Zumbo and Beauchamp (2017) established a

systematic review and meta-analysis of team work interventions that aimed to

improve team work and performance. For this purpose, sixteen thousand eight

70

hundred and forty nine articles were studied and meta-analysis was conducted on fifty

one articles consisting of seventy two interventions and eight thousand four hundred

and thirty nine participants. Several effect sizes were reported as positive, significant

and medium for team work interventions both for team work and performance.

Moderator analysis displayed positive and significant effects in accordance with the

sample, intervention, measurement and characteristics. Fransen et al, (2015) extended

a research on the two way relationship between confidence and performance. First of

all, confidence was outlined as process-oriented collective efficacy and outcome

oriented team confidence. Two field studies were accompanied including ten male

football players, however, study one included one hundred and thirty four participants

and study two comprised of one hundred and twenty five participants. Findings

showed partial support for relationship between confidence and performance.

Confidence was not significantly correlated to performance in the first half, however,

in second half, it was positively correlated with performance. Moreover, these

findings were consistent in relationship between confidence and performance. It was

taken into considerations that team confidence is a dynamic process that can be

influenced by both coaches and players.

Peluso et al, (2005) investigated motor skill performance being influenced by

performance enhancement technique. Nine conditions were set for one hundred and

fifty college students who voluntarily participated in this study. Golf-putting task was

assigned to all participants and it was found, students who incorporated different

performance enhancement techniques increased their putting accuracy than that of

with a control condition. Participants who reported themselves to be involved in ten

hours or less in a physical activity per week chosen self-talk strategies, whereas, those

who ended up labeling themselves being involved in ten hours or more of physical

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activity per week preferred use of imagery and visualization. Moritz et al, (2000)

documented meta-analysis for clarification of literature relevant to self-efficacy and

performance in sports. It was found that self-efficacy and performance had positively

significantly relationship with correlation of .38 that showed a clear picture for the

significant relationship between self-efficacy and performance across different sports.

Callow, Hardy, Markland and Shearer (2003) postulated a study to find out the two

ways relationship between self-efficacy and performance in which beginner golfers

participated in two different conditions varying in task difficulty level. It was found

that self-efficacy and performance had positive relationship with each other, however,

within person level, there found to be a negative non-significant relationship between

self-efficacy and performance. These results also revealed that self-efficacy cannot

always act as a strong predictor of performance. Moreover, it was discussed that

players with higher self-efficacy may turned to be optimistic by applying less

resources when setting goals.

Durand-Bush and Salmela (2002) studied the predictors of exercise related

behaviors on the sample of one hundred and forty seven adolescents. It was found that

self-efficacy acted as a significant predictor of exercise related behaviors and self-

efficacy predicted effort, persistence and performance in exercise. Feltz and Lirgg

(1998) explored the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs, weight control

behaviors and weight change in the sample of three hundred and forty nine players

who were involved in weight loss trails. It was evident that self-efficacy beliefs

strongly correlated to weight loss in relation to control behaviors and involvement in

physical activities. Mills, Munroe and Hall (2001) coined that imagery tend to have a

beneficial influence on performance. Myers, Wolfe, Maier, Feltz and Reckase (2006)

surveyed two hundred studies on the importance of imagery and concluded that

72

imagery training and performance enhancement included testimonies of elite

professional players.

2.5 Indigenous Researches

In Pakistan little work has been done on sports. A few researches have been

discussed team cohesiveness. So it is need of the day to investigate multiple factors

that can affect athlete’s performance.

Solomon and Kausar (2017) conducted to examine knowledge and awareness

of cricketers about psychological skills and their perception of significance of

psychological skills in cricket. Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were

conducted with Pakistan U19 Cricket Team and Pakistan International Cricket Team.

Information rich cases were selected in order to get in-depth information pertaining to

issues of central importance. Focus group discussion and interviews mainly focused

on two main questions i.e. what did they know about psychological skills; what is

their perception about the role of psychological skills in cricket? Data gathered

through focus group and individual interviews was transcribed and subjected to

thematic analysis. It was emerged: psychological skills were required due to changing

cricketing patterns with the passage of time; Psychological skills consisted of several

components i.e. sense of cohesiveness; psychological control; psychological

preparation; freshness of mind; adherence to instruction of coaches for mental

strengths. Psychological skills were perceived to be important for cricketers to enable

them deal with pressure effectively and help them develop positive mind set. Findings

of the present study have important implications for cricketers, for Pakistan Cricket

Board (PCB) and National Cricket Academy (NCA) to help develop psychological

73

skills in players and also to pay attention to cricketers’ psychological health along

with physical fitness.

A study was carried to develop an indigenous scale to assess psychological

skills of cricketers. The data was collected via interviews and focus group discussions

from cricketers. Interview guide was consisted of five questions: (1) In your opinion,

what kind of psychological skills are required while playing cricket. (2) Which kind

of psychological skill is helpful in making your performance better? (3) What are the

reasons while playing that effect your psychological skills or have negative effect on

your performance? (4) What is your psychological strategy during difficult condition

of the match and (5) Anything else you want to tell? Factor analysis emerged as

displaying two factors: Psychological Facilitators and Psychological Distractors.

Psychological facilitators comprised of 22 items and Psychological Distractors

included of 13 items which deals with different psychological distractors (Solomon &

Kausar, 2015).

Solomon and Kausar (2015) conducted a research to find out differences

between psychological skills and choking in first class, national, and international

cricketers. The sample of 227 (first class, national, and international cricketers)

collected through purposive sampling. Collecting data through Cricketers’

Psychological Skills Scale and Sports Competition Anxiety Test. Results showed no

mean differences for playing levels and playing positions in psychological skills and

choking. Psychological skills significantly negatively correlated with psychological

distractors and choking and psychological distractors emerged as significant

predictors of choking.

74

Haq, Najam and Kausar (2015) investigated the relationship of mental

toughness, hardiness and athletic burnout in university athletes. Sample comprised of

116 university athletes. Negative relationship mental toughness, hardiness and athletic

burnout was reported, however, positive relationship was exhibited between mental

toughness and hardiness except affective intelligence, desire to achieve and

attentional control are negatively correlated with control. Commitment moderated the

relationship between affective intelligence and physical/emotional exhaustion.

Control moderated the relationship between desire to achieve and sports devaluation.

Haq and Kausar (2014) conducted a study on coach-athlete relationship and

team cohesion in the university athlete’s performance. The sample consisted of fifty

five male athletes. Results revealed that team cohesion and social cohesion were

significantly positively related to coach-athlete relationship. No significant

relationship of performance with cohesion and coach-athlete relationship. No

significant differences were reported in coach-athlete relationship according to coach

and athlete. Social cohesion was found in football, cricket, rugby, wrestling, and tug

of war players, whereas, football players showed more difference in social cohesion.

There was significant difference of closeness, commitment, and complementarity in

football, cricket, rugby, wrestling, and tug of war players, whereas, wrestlers showed

highest difference in closeness, commitment, and complementarity. There was

difference of closeness, commitment, and complementarity in football, cricket, rugby,

wrestling, and tug of war players. Football players reported greatest difference in

closeness, rugby showed greatest defense in commitment and complementarity. There

was difference of group characteristics, individual characteristics, and physical

characteristics in football, cricket, rugby, wrestling, and tug of war players, whereas,

cricketers showed greatest difference in group characteristics and individual

75

characteristics while football showed highest difference in physical characteristics.

Moreover, no significant predictors of performance were reported.

Solomon, Bano & Malik (2014) explored cricketers' and coaches' attitudes

towards seeking sports psychology consultation on the sample of forty five cricketers

and thirty coaches. Results revealed positive attitude of cricketers but negative

attitudes of coaches towards sports psychology consultation. Cricketers reported more

favorable attitude toward sports psychology as compared to coaches. Females had

more positive attitude toward sports psychology and higher stigma tolerance was

reported by cricketers who are playing at international level. Moreover, cricketers

with more playing experience have more positive attitude toward sports psychology.

A study was conducted to find out relationship between mental toughness and

competition stress on the sample of sixty cricketers and it was found that there was no

relationship between mental toughness and competition stress among cricketers.

National players have good reboundability than that of international players.

Moreover, middle order players and all-rounders have good ability to handle pressure

during match than that of openers and bowlers (Solomon & Mubshar, 2013).

2.6 Summary

Researchers are of the view that physical and technical abilities when

accompanied with psychological and behavioral characteristics especially winning

attitude and high morale, may enhance international players' performance manifold.

Players are required to address all those factors that are essential for successful

sporting performance not only physical but also psychological (Rothlin et al, 2016).

Including psychology in day to day life, competitions can help players to constrain

from choking vulnerable situations. Lack of psychological skills can directly convert a

76

champion into a world of losers as such skills can assist help players to tackle choking

situations in a batter way (Lawless, 2015). Psychological skills are mind related

qualities that enable players to control their emotions and be relaxed under pressure

conditions. Lack of psychological skills may lead to state and trait anxiety,

confidence, audiences, coping strategies and self-consciousness on choking. It is not

easy to determine the mechanism of choking with the help of previous literature.

Coping strategies and public status are categorized as possible moderators of choking.

Finally, it has been recommended that different psychological skills are needed to

inhibit players from decreasing their performance under pressure in their relevant

fields (Hagger et al, 2010). Team sports are more likely to choke during pressure

conditions but they study of mental and emotional skills is essential for success in

competition as psychological elements of game balance with physical abilities and

performance. The importance of self-talk and self-confidence must be enhanced by

improving positive thinking and diminishing the negative thoughts (Gardner &

Moore, 2006).

2.7 Rationale

Sports are metaphor for life that guarantees one’s success by distinguishing

oneself from others due to one’s skills, determination and hard work by connecting

between one’s sportsmanship as good sportsmanship encompasses different aspects of

a sportsman’s life such as equal respect for teammates and opponents, integrity and

above all unselfish sport participation for being a great sportsman (Heil, 1993). It is

expected from supports to teach their participants regard for opponents, responsibility,

fair play, trust, team cohesion, healthy competition and urge to be excellent. Parents

and coaches need to work together in facilitating players with atmosphere that can

77

establish positive playing experiences. Coaches are regarded as important figure in

making sports positive and enthusiastic for their players (Kao, Hsieh & Lee, 2017).

The main purpose of sports and physical activity participation must be to build self-

confidence along with teaching lifelong health and fitness related routines but the

phenomenon of coach-athlete performance expectations is often under played.

Psychological skills clarify differences between winning and losing as it is essential to

focus on psychological training to enhance psychological skills and especially to

produce outstanding performance (Edwards & Steyn, 2008).

In spite of best practice, facilities and physical fitness, generally, sudden

fluctuations in performance of cricketers and hockey players are frequently observed.

Despite a good start, collective team collapse or sudden underperformance is due to

different causes such as inappropriate behavior, lack of proper role functioning,

negative communication among team members or misunderstanding of game tactics

of opposing team (Scanlan et al, 2016). Now-a-days, psychological preparation of

players along with physical fitness is one of the fundamental requirements and

demand of team sports. Only physical training does not guarantee triumph in sports

and a good sportsman is expected to be skillful at tackling psychological aspects of

game by using different psychological tactics (Moen & Kvalsund, 2008).

Unfortunately, psychological issues and field related psychological problems of

players are being neglected and have never been addressed in Pakistan. Reality

proves that the evolution of the athlete’s performance requires better and improved

knowledge on the part of the respective coach. Similarly to what has been suggested

for players, coaches also should pass through several stages of development to attain

the expertise level (Vargas-Tonsing, Myers & Feltz, 2004). The coaches with the

highest level of training and more years of experience in the sport have spent more in

78

their training and have, of course, greater competence in adapting the contents of the

training to the stages of development of children and young people. Experienced

coaches should be stimulated to get involved in the initial stages of athletic

development. Therefore, the input of a quality coach could provide a structured

environment that optimizes learning (Mallett & Côté, 2006).

Nowadays, sport is done either at a professional or amateur level. The

purposes of amateur sport are participation, maintaining health, building strength,

resting, entertainment, having an enjoyable time, and social interaction. Sport

educators are proud of this feature with the conscious that sport contributes to

character development. Correspondingly, it is expected that features of sportsmanship

including the features such as justice, self-control, and courage should develop

(Sheard & Golby, 2006). Many important issues are still need to be explored

including factors important for healthy coach-athlete interaction despite of extensive

research as researchers explore only measureable forms of coaching behavior and

seldom provide insight into the experiences of the athlete connected with being

coached (Hatzigeorgiadis et al, 2008). The greatest challenge for Pakistan Cricket

Board and Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) and its management is to develop a

progressive moral community by not simply telling their players about the right and

wrong but to empower them to develop a principled level of morality by employing

sportsmanship before, during and after match as these principles flourish the task

oriented mastery climate. Intensive research on psychological skills of players can

help to control anxious responses, lower the probability of a player being put in

choking situation, restore self-confidence, motivation and improve positive outlook

and enhancement of performance efficacy. Therefore, the current research will

explore different perspectives of performance efficacy of cricketers and hockey

79

players both quantitatively and qualitatively in relationship with psychological skills,

coaching competence and sportsmanship.

80

Chapter III

Study I: Method

3.1 Objectives

The objectives of the study were:

1. To construct a reliable and valid scale to measure psychological skills of team

sports players i.e. hockey players and cricketers.

2. To determine psychometric properties of the scale.

3.2 Phase I: Construction and Validation of Psychological Skills Scale for Team

Sports (PSSTS)

Phase I was carried out to construct and validate an indigenous scale to

measure psychological skills of team sports players i.e. hockey players and cricketers.

This work was built upon preliminary work done by Solomon and Kausar (2015) in

M. Phil, however, the initial work was done only on the sample of cricketers and now

it was extended by including hockey players and statements generated from

interviews and focus group discussions of cricketers were taken from previous work

and emerged with newly constructed items from hockey players and cricketers (for

current study). In-depth, semi structured and detailed interviews were conducted with

six international hockey of Pakistan International Hockey Team and two international

cricketers of Pakistan International Cricket Team to develop Psychological Skills

Scale for Team Sports (PSSSTS) in Urdu, the national language of Pakistan. Scale

development involved two steps. Step I was conceptualization of the construct

through interviews, whereas, Step II comprised of item generation for Psychological

Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSSTS).

81

3.2.1 Conceptualization of the construct. First of all the construct was

conceptualized on the basis of previous literature and theoretical background (Wilson,

Schmid & Peper, 2006). After conceptualization of the construct, it was important to

construct items that properly and accurately reflect psychological skills of team sports

players. For this purpose, interview guide was prepared with the help of previous

literature and theoretical framework of four C’s model of sports psychology which

states that confidence, commitment, concentration and control are key components of

sports psychology (Thomas, Reeves & Bell, 2008)

3.3 Sample

In-depth, semi-structured and detailed interviews were conducted with six

international hockey players (n= 3 defenders, n= 3 mid-fielders, n= 1 goal keeper) and

two international cricketers (n= 1 batsman, n= 1 all-rounder) for with age range 24-29

(M= 27.13, SD= 1.31).

3.3.1 Inclusion/ exclusion criteria.

3.3.1.1 Inclusion criteria.

• Professional hockey players and cricketers of Pakistan international hockey

and cricket teams representing Pakistan at international level participated in

this research.

• Only those international hockey players and cricketers participated in this

study who were playing hockey and cricket at domestic level i.e. region,

district or department level.

• Hockey players and cricketers having minimum five years of experience

playing their respective sport at international level were included.

82

3.3.1.2 Exclusion criteria.

• Hockey players and cricketers attending any kind of training in summer camps

under Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) and Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB)

were not included in the study.

• Hockey players and cricketers less than fifteen years of age were not included.

• Female hockey players and cricketers did not take part in this study.

3.4 Interview Questions for Generation of Item Pool for Psychological Skills

Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS)

Interview guide was prepared with the help of previous literature, theoretical

framework of 4 C’s model and initial work done by Solomon and Kausar (2015).

Hence, the sample interview questions for interviews from cricketers and hockey

players for scale constructions were generated (Appendix C).

In-depth, semi structured and detailed interviews with six international hockey

players of Pakistan International Hockey Team (three playing as Defender, two

Backwards and One Goal-Keeper), two international cricketers of Pakistan

International Cricket Team (one batsman and one all-rounder) were conducted for

item generation. Cricketers and hockey players were approached from Pakistan

Cricket Board (PCB) and Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) respectively after taking

formal permission from concerned authorities and having consent from players.

Before starting the interviews, all the participants were briefed about purpose of the

research. As the information collected from participants was only for the research

purposes, therefore, the were assured about the confidentiality of their given

information. Instructions were provided to the participants. They were encouraged to

provide their true opinion and views regarding psychological skills used by them in

83

their respective sport i.e. hockey and cricket. All the interviews conducted at Pakistan

Hockey Federation (PHF) and National Cricket Academy (NCA) were audiotaped.

Each interview lasted for 20 to 25 minutes. The recorded interviews were then

transcribed and initial item pool consisting of one hundred and thirty items was

generated from the verbatim. Irrelevant items were deleted whereas repeated items

were submerged. Moreover, all the items were carefully reviewed. The researcher was

also interested in the definition of psychological skills for sports in Pakistani context.

The construct was reviewed with the help of research supervisor and the final

definition was coined as:

نڈمیں بہترین کارکردگی کو تقویت دیتی ہیں۔ یہ

و حیتوں کا مجموعہ ہیں جو کہ گرا صلا رتیں چار ذہنی نفسیاتی مہا

ٹوں میں نفسیاتی رکا ور سہولت کار وں ا ور قابو ہیں۔ ان ذہنی صلاحیتوں کو نفسیاتی چارصلاحیتیں اعتماد، عزم، توجہ ا

سہولت کاروں میں ور ہاکی کھیلنے میں کارکردگی کو بہتر بناتے بیان کیاجا سکتا ہے۔ نفسیاتی وہ عوامل ہیں جو کرکٹ ا

ور ہاکی ور سماجی عوامل ہیں جو کرکٹ ا ہ تمام ذہنی ا کاوٹوں میں و ور کارکردگی کے منفی پہلو کو کم کرتے ہیں۔ جبکہ نفسیاتی ر ہیں ا

نڈمیں ان کی

و ور گرا ثر ڈالتی ہیں ا پر منفی ا ز ہوتی ہیں۔ کے کھلاڑیوں کی کارکردگی کارکردگی پر منفی طور پر اثر اندا

Initial item pool consisted of 130 items and four point Likert scale was used to

measure the frequency of the responses (1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 =

Always). Total score on scale ranges from 4 (minimum) to 520 (maximum).

3.5 Phase II: Determining Psychometric Properties of PSSTS

3.5.1 Sample. Generally, it is viewed that the larger sample is better for

validating the research scale. However, Tabachnick and Fiddle (2007) postulated that

the sample of 300 is fine for factor analysis. Moreover, the criteria of 4:1 (4 cases per

item) were also reported. The sample of 518 team sports players including both 262

hockey players and 256 cricketers were approached for the empirical evaluation from

different hockey academies and cricket clubs from different cities of Punjab, Pakistan.

84

3.5.2 Construct validity. Principle Component (PCA) factor analysis was

carried out on 130 initial item pool. The suitability of the factor analyzed, different

assumptions were tested empirically. Sampling adequacy was determined by different

following methods:

Bartlett’s test of sphericity was also calculated to check for low correlation

among variables. So for determining the factors included, Kaiser’s criterion is

accurate when number of variables are less than 30 and the resulting commonalities

(after extraction) are all greater than .7. Kaiser (1960) criterion is also accurate when

the sample size exceeds 250 and the average commonality is greater than or equal to

.6. In any other circumstances it is advised to use a scree plot provided the sample size

is greater than 200 (Harrell, 2000). Therefore, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin was run to

check the sample adequacy. Kaiser (1960) recommended a minimum value KMO for

sample adequacy is 0.5 (0.5-0.7 = mediocre, 0.7-0.8 = good, 0.8 - 0.9 = great and

above 0.9 is superb). KMO measure was 0.91 which fall in the category of superb.

Bartlett’s test of sphericity was observed highly significant, sphericity was observed

highly significant, χ² (8385) = 26234.44, p< .001 which indicated correlations

between items was sufficiently large for PCA (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999). So, the

choice was to use scree plot. Eigen values for factor I, II and III were appropriate.

Table 3.1

Kaiser-Myer Test for Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (N=518)

Kaiser-Myer-Olkin Test for Sampling Adequacy .91

Bartlett’s test of sphericity, Approx. χ2 26234.44*

Df 8385

*p<.001.

85

To determine how many components (factors) to extract, there was a need to

consider a few pieces of information provided in the output. Using Kaiser’s (1970)

criterion, the interest was only in components that have an eigen value of 1 or more.

Cattell’s scree plot (1966) criterion calls for retaining those factors that lie

above point of inflation of the plot. The scree plot (Figure 3.1) suggested three factors

solutions.

86

Figure 3.1

Scree Plot Showing the Extraction of Factors for Psychological Skills Scale for Team

Sports (PSSTS)

Scree Plot in Figure 1 shows the extraction of factors. Scree plot extracted

three factors, therefore, Principal Component Analysis with three factors was carried

out. Items for the sub scales were selected on the criteria of having factor loadings of

.40 and above (Harrell, 2000). The factor loadings of 84 items out of 130 items of

initial item pool of Psychological Skills for Team Sports (PSSTS) on three factors

using Oblimin Rotation are given below in Table 3.2 in Urdu (see Appendix G for

English version).

87

Table 3.2

Factor Loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis with Oblimin Rotation of

Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS)

Sr.

No. Statement

Factor Loadings rit

1 2 3

1* سے ہٹا مستقبل کے بارے میں غیر یقینی صورتحال میری توجہ میچ

دیتی ہے۔

.64 .62

2* ں پھول جاتے ہیں۔

میرے ہاتھ پاو 61. میچ کے دوران مشکل صورتحال میں

.60

3* ر غصے میں میرے بارے میں کچھ بول دے تو ج

ن

ی

میچ سے پہلے اگر کوچ یا م

تی ہے۔ میری توجہ میچ سے ہٹ جا

.58 .57

4* 58. کوچ کی باقی کھلاڑیوں کی طرف پسندیدگی میرے اعتماد کو کم کردیتی ہے۔

.56

5* 58. ہے۔میری بری کارکردگی مجھے اپنے میچ کے منصوبے سے ہٹا دیتی

.56

6* ی کارکردگی خراب کی وجہ سے میر

میرے روز مرہ کے کاموں کے دباو

ہو جاتی ہے۔

.58 .55

7* کی وجہ سے اچھی کارکردگی کا مظاہرہ نہیں کرپاتا۔

57. میں میچ کے دباو

.55

8* میچ میچ کے دوران مشکل صورتحال میں جان بوجھ کر اپنی توجہ تھوڑی دیر کے لیے

ہٹا لیتا ہوں۔ سے

.57 .54

9* ئی برا بھلا کہے تو میری توجہ میچ سے ہٹ میچ کے دوران اگر مجھے باہر سے کو

جاتی ہے۔

.57 .54

10* ا کوچ میری غلطیوں کی نشان دہی کرتا ہے تو میرا اعتماد کم ہو جاتا جب میر

ہے۔

.55 .54

11* تی ہے۔جب میں برا کھیل پیش کروں تو 54. میری توجہ میچ سے ہٹ جا

.51

12* ے کوچ کی میرے بارے میں منفی رائے مجھے پریشان کرتی ہے۔ 54. میر

.51

13* ز طرح اثر اندا ی کارکردگی پر بری ٹیم مینجمنٹ کے اپس میں مسائل میر

ہوتے ہیں۔

.54 .50

14* میری توجہ میچ سے ہٹ اپنے ساتھی کھلاڑیوں سے تلخ کلامی کی وجہ سے

جاتی ہے۔

.53 .50

15* جہ میچ سے ہٹا دیتے ہیں۔ ی تو 53. میرے مالی مسائل میر

.51

16* پر فقرے کسنا سے نکلنے کے لیے مخالف ٹیم کے کھلاڑیوں

میں میچ کے دباو

شروع کر دیتا ہوں۔

.53 .50

17* مظاہرہ نہ کرنے کی وجہ سے ٹیم سے نکالے مجھے میچ کے دوران اچھی کارکردگی کا

جانے کا ڈر ہوتا ہے۔

.52 .50

(Table Continued)

88

Sr.

No. Statement

Factor Loadings rit

1 2 3

18* کرنا میری ی بری کارکردگی کے متعلق باتیں پویلین میں موجود مینجمنٹ کا میر

ہے۔توجہ میچ سے ہٹا دیتا

.52 .50

19* طرح اثر ساتھی کھلاڑیوں کی اپس میں لڑائیاں میری کارکردگی پر بری

ز ہوتی ہیں۔ اندا

.51 .50

20* جہ میچ سے ہٹتی جاتی ہے۔ تا ہے میری تو 51. جیسے جیسے میچ گزرتا جا

.52

21* ے لیے کرنا میر نقصان دہ کوچ کے ساتھ اپنے ذاتی مسائل کے متعلق بات

ہوتا ہے۔

.51 .50

22* ہوں۔ میں اجاتا

نڈ میں تماشائیوں کے سامنے دباو

و 51. میں گرا

.52

23* کوچ سے میں ٹیم سے نکالے جانے کے خوف سے اپنے کسی نفسیاتی مسئلے کا اپنے

کر نہیں کرتا۔ ذ

.50 .47

24* ر کھلاڑیوں کے ی

ئ ن

پنے س نہ ا ز میری میں جب اپنا موا ساتھ کرتا ہوں تو

کارکردگی خراب ہو جاتی ہے۔

.50 .50

25* جب میرے اچھے کھیل کی تعریف نہ ہو تو میں اپنی صلاحیتوں پر

شک کرنا شروع کر دیتا ہوں۔

.50 .47

26* میری اچھی کارکردگی کی وجہ سے لوگوں کی مجھ سے لگائی جانے والی امیدیں

دیتی ہیں۔میری توجہ میچ سے ہٹا

.50 .50

27* رکردگی کی وجہ سے میرے ساتھی کھلاڑی میچ میں میری خراب کا

مجھ سے ناراض ہو جاتے ہیں۔

.48 .47

28* اگر مجھ سے پہلے دوسرے کھلاڑی بری کارکردگی دکھا رہے ہوں تومیرا حوصلہ

جاتا ہے۔ (کم ہو ل )مورا

.48 .46

29* کہیں مجھے اپنے جاتا ہوں کہ اگر میں برا کھیل پیش کروں تو میں پریشان ہو

کپتان کی طرف سے ڈانٹ نہ پڑ جائے۔

.48 .44

30* کی وجہ سے

ساری ساری رات سو نہیں پاتا۔میں میچ کے دباو

.46 .43

31* کو کم کرنے کے لیے مخالف ٹیم کے کھلاڑیوں سے

پنے دباو میں میچ کے دوران ا

ق کرتا ہوں۔ ہنسی مذا

.43 .36

32* گی ور بات سوچنے سے میری کارکرد ئی ا میچ کے دوران اپنے کھیل کے علاوہ کو

تی ہے۔ خراب ہو جا

.43 .40

33* ہے۔ رکردگی کے لیے نقصان دہ ثابت ہوتا ضرورت سے زیادہ اعتماد میری کا

.42 .41

34* ا کوچ نے برا کھیل پیش کیا تو میر کہ اگر میں میچ سے پہلے مجھے ڈر ہوتا ہے

ا بھلا کہے گا۔ مجھے بر

.41 .40

(Table Continued)

89

Sr.

No. Statement

Factor Loadings rit

1 2 3

35* ے لیے مسائل پیدا کرتے ہیں۔ میچ کے دوران میرے غلط فیصلے میر

.41 .34

36* اگر میچ کے اغاز میں ہی خراب کھیل کی وجہ سے میرا اعتماد کم

کرنا کافی مشکل ہوتا ہے۔ اعتماد بحال ہوجائے تو میرے لیے باقی میچ میں اپنا

.41 .40

37* کہیں مجھے اپنے جاتا ہوں کہ اگر میں برا کھیل پیش کروں تو میں پریشان ہو

کوچ کی طرف سے ڈانٹ نہ پڑ جائے۔

.41 .40

38* مجھے لگتا ہے کہ میرا کوچ میرے خراب رویے کے بارے میں

جاننا نہیں چاہتا۔

.41 .40

39 میرے کپتان کا مجھے ٹیم کے معاملات میں شریک کرنا مجھے اعتماد

فراہم کرتا ہے۔

.64 .63

40 ے کوچ کا مجھے ٹیم کے معاملات میں شریک کرنا مجھے اعتماد میر

فراہم کرتا ہے۔

.58 .53

41 افزائی میری کارکردگی کو بہتر بنانے میں مدد میچ سے پہلے کوچ کی حوصلہ

کرتی ہے۔

.58 .61

42 ماضی کی اچھی کارکردگی مستقبل میں بھی اچھی کارکردگی دکھانے کا جذبہ پیدا

کرتی ہے۔

.57 .57

43 کوشش کرتا ہوں۔میں اپنے کوچز کے تجربے سے سیکھنے کی

.55 .55

44 بہتر بنانے میں میرے کوچ کا بہت اہم کردار میری نفسیاتی مہارتوں کو

ہے۔

.54 .55

45 مخالف ٹیم کے کھلاڑی کی تنگ کرنے والی باتوں کے باوجود میں کھیل پر

توجہ مرکوز رکھتا ہوں۔

.54 .50

46 و ر فضول باتوں کا جواب اپنی اچھی کارکردگی سے دیتا میں مخالف ٹیم کی گالیوں ا

ہوں۔

.53 .50

47 نڈ میں اس سے بھی

و میراکوچ مجھے میچ کے لیے جو گیم پلان دیتا ہے میں گرا

بہتر کرنے کی کوشش کرتا ہوں۔

.51 .53

48 پنے کھیل کے متعلق مشورہ کر کے میرے کھیل ر کھلاڑیوں سے ا ی

ئ ن

پنے س ا

اتی ہے۔میں بہتری

.51 .56

49 میچ کے دوران اگر کپتان کی طرف سے میرے کھیل کی تعریف ہو

جاتی ہے۔ تومیر ی کارکردگی مزیداچھی ہو

.51 .55

50 نڈ میں اترتا

و پنے پرانے میچ کی غلطیوں کو ٹھیک کر کے نئے میچ کے لیے گرا میں ا

ہوں۔

.50 .53

(Table Continued)

90

Sr.

No. Statement

Factor Loadings rit

1 2 3

51 ے دوستوں کا میرے کھیل کے بارے میں اپنی رائے کا اظہار مجھے اپنی میر

کردگی بہتر بنانے میں مدد دیتا ہے۔ کار

.50 .50

52 میرے کپتان کا مجھ پر اعتماد میرے خوبیوں کو بڑھاتا ہے۔

.49 .54

53 طرف سے میرے کھیل کی تعریف ہو تومیچ کے دوران اگر کوچ کی

تی ہے۔ میر ی کارکردگی مزید اچھی ہو جا

.48 .60

54 میری اپنے کھیل کے ساتھ ہم اہنگی میری کارکردگی کو بہتر بناتی ہے۔

.48 .50

55 گی دکھا سکتا ہوں تو میں ضرور اچھی اگر مجھے خود پر اعتماد ہو کہ میں اچھی کارکرد

ں گا۔

کارکردگی دکھاو

.47 .50

56 ز کرتا ہوں۔ کے لیے بیرونی رکاوٹوں کو نظر اندا میں میچ کے دوران پرعزم رہنے

.46 .43

57 میچ کے دوران مثبت سوچ میرے اندر اعتماد پیدا کرتی ہے۔

.43 .45

58 کر کے انہیں اگلے میچ میں ٹھیک کرنے کی کوشش میں اپنی پرانی غلطیوں کو یاد

کرتا ہوں۔

.43 .53

59 بہتر بنانے میں میرے کپتان کا بہت اہم میری نفسیاتی مہارتوں کو

کردار ہے۔

.42 .40

60 ا بھلا کہا جائے تب بھی میں اپنے اپ پر میچ کے دوران اگر مجھے باہر سے بر

قابو رکھتا ہوں۔

.42 .45

61 اسے خود حل کر میں میچ کے دوران جتنی بھی مشکل صورتحال ہے سوچتا ہوں کہ

لونگا۔

41 .41

62 نے کوچ کی ف یہ ہوتا ہے کہ میں میچ کے دوران میرے ذہن میں صر

کرنا ہے۔ بتائی ہوئی ہدایات پر عمل

40 .50

63 نے کے لیے محنت میں میچ میں اپنے مقرر کردہ مقاصد کو حاصل کر

کرتا ہوں۔

.52 .44

64 کردگی کا مظاہرہ کرتاہوں۔ ہوں اتنی ہی بہتر کار ط ہوتا میں ذہنی طور پر جتنا زیادہ مضبو

.52 .52

65 انا میچ کے دوران مجھے پتہ ہوتا ہے کہ میں نے اپنی اچھی کارکردگی سے اپنی ٹیم کو جتو

ہے۔

.50 .57

66 میں میچ کے دوران اپنا مقصد پورا کرنے کے لیے پر عز م ہوتا ہوں۔

.49 .61

67 میں ہر حال میں میچ جیتنے کی کوشش کرتا ہوں۔

.47 .54

68 میں نے میچ کی پریکٹس کے دوران جیسا کھیل پیش کیا ہوتا ہے میچ میں

س سے بھی بہتر کھیل کھیلنے کی کوشش کرتا ہوں۔ ا

.46 .50

(Table Continued)

91

Sr.

No. Statement

Factor Loadings rit

1 2 3

69 اگر میچ کے دوران مجھ سے کوئی غلطی ہو جائے تو میں خود کو حوصلہ دیتا ہوں کہ

اگلی بار میں نے اچھا کھیل کھیلنا ہے۔

.45 .47

70 افزائی میچ کے دوران میرا عزم میری حوصلہ مشکل صورتحال میں

کرتا ہے۔

.45 .52

71 صرف اپنے مقصد کی طرف ہوتی میچ کے دوران میری تمام تر توجہ

ہے۔

.44 .51

72 کردگی کا مظاہرہ کرتا ہوں۔ جب میں پر اعتماد ہوتا ہوں تو اچھی کار

.43 .40

73 کے بارے میں سوچ کر اپنے کھیل کو بہتر میں میچ کی پریکٹس کے بعد بھی میچ

بنانے کی کوشش کرتا ہوں۔

.42 .48

74 جہ میں اپنے کھیل کے بارے میں جتنا سوچتا ہوں اتنی ہی زیادہ میری تو

اپنے کھیل پر مرکوز ہوتی ہے۔

.42 .46

75 رادہ کرتا ہوں۔ میں ہر میچ میں بہترین کارکردگی دکھانے کا ا

.42 .40

76 میرے کوچ کا مجھ پر اعتماد میری خوبیوں کو بڑھاتا ہے۔

.42 .40

77 میرے سپورٹرز کی حمایت مجھے اعتماد دیتی ہے۔

.42 .55

78 اپنے اپ کو ذمے داری اگر میں میچ کے دوران اچھی کارکردگی نہ دکھا رہا ہوں تو

کا احساس دلاتا ہوں۔

.42 .40

79 ے لیے فائدہ کوچ افزائی میر کی طرف سے دی جانے والی حوصلہ

مند ہوتی ہے۔

.42 .50

80 کے بغیر میچ کھیلوں تو اپنی بہترین کارکردگی کا مظاہرہ کرتا

میں جب دباو

ہوں۔

.42 .36

81 ین میں میچ کی مشکل صورتحال کے دوران جہاں تک ممکن ہو اپنی بہتر

کارکردگی دکھانے کی کوشش کرتا ہوں۔

.42 .47

82 افزائی میرے لیے کپتان کی طرف سے دی جانے والی حوصلہ

فائدہ مند ہوتی ہے۔

.41 .42

83 میں رکھنے میرے سپورٹرز کی حمایت میری توجہ میچ پر مرکوز

میری مدد کرتی ہے۔

.41 .44

84 میں میچ کے دوران خود کو یاد دلاتا رہتا ہوں کہ میں نے اپنی پریکٹس کے مطابق

کھیلنا ہے۔

.41 .40

Eigen Value 20.32 15.63 15.63

% of Variance 10.53 8.10 23.73

Cumulative % of Variance 2.91 2.24 25.97

Cronbach’s Alhpa .92 .90 .87

Note: Factor Loadings ≥ .40, rit = item total correlation ≥ .40, items with * are reverse coded.

92

The four factors were labeled as following:

3.5.2.1 Factor 1: psycho-performance skills. The Eigen value for factor 1 was

20.32 which accounted for 10.53% of variance. It included 38 items: 40, 97, 52, 111,

85, 104, 100, 103, 11, 95, 60, 127, 93, 70, 36, 79, 130, 14, 124, 20, 120, 13, 122, 83,

98, 27, 84, 12, 34, 22, 90, 64, 21, 30, 123, 26, 16 and 125. All the items in factor 1

were reverse coded. These items were named as Psycho-Performance Skills such as

‘‘ میری اچھی کارکردگی کی وجہ سے لوگوں کی مجھ سے لگائی جانے والی امیدیں میری توجہ میچ سے ہٹا دیتی ہیں’’ .

3.5.2.2 Factor 2: perceived psychological support. The Eigen value for factor

2 was 15.63 which accounted for 8.10% of variance. It included 24 items: 108, 92,

109, 128, 91, 115, 107, 113, 106, 88, 114, 117, 94, 116, 87, 118, 99, 82, 89, 72, 129,

77, 110 and 76. These items were named as Psycho-Performance Skills such as

""میری اپنے کھیل کے ساتھ ہم اہنگی میری کارکردگی کو بہتر بناتی ہے۔

3.5.2.3 Factor 3: psycho-competitiveness. The Eigen value for factor 3 was

15.63 which accounted for 23.73% of variance. It included 22 items: 25, 24, 66, 49,

50, 53, 31, 44, 42, 42, 10, 5, 9, 4, 39, 73, 17, 58, 6, 51, 8, 61 and 69. These items were

named as Psycho-Competitive Skills such as ‘‘

میں میچ کے دوران اپنا مقصد پورا کرنے کے لیے پر عز م ہوتا ہوں" ’’

3.5.2.4 Scoring procedure. The overall score range on Psychological Skills

Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS) was 84 (minimum) to 336 (maximum), however, the

score range on psycho-performance skills is from 38 (minimum) to 152 (maximum),

whereas, scoring range for perceived psychological support and psycho-

competitiveness is 24 (minimum) to 96 (maximum) and 22 (minimum) to 88

(maximum) respectively. The cut off of the scores were determined by using quartile

93

scores which divided total scores into three quartiles: >25= poor, <50= adequate and

<75= excellent psychological skills.

3.5.2.5 Reliability and item analysis. The internal consistency of the items for

Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS) was on 84 items was .94

determined by using Cronbach’s alpha whereas, sub-scales psycho-performance

skills, perceived psychological support and psycho-competitiveness have .92, .90 and

.87 reliability respectively. Moreover the total item correlation indicated that all items

were adequately related with factors of the Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports

(PSSTS).

3.5.2.6 Scaled Score. The factors of the scales consisted of different number

of items so scaled scores were computed to make the score comparable and

homogeneous and run further analysis. The formula used for this purpose was:

Scaled Scores = (Total Scale Score/ no of items)/No. of response options) x 10

94

Table 3.3

Inter-correlations between Subscales and Total Scores of Psychological Skills Scale

for Team Sports for Total Sample (N = 518)

Variables 2 3 4

1.Psycho-Performance Skills .26*** .27*** .81***

2.Percieved Psychological Support - .70** .73***

3.Psycho-Competitiveness - .71***

4.Psychological Skills -

Note: ***p<.001.

The result indicated that all three factors (psycho-performance skills,

perceived psychological support and psycho-competitive skills) have significant

positive relationships with each other and also with total score of Psychological Skills

Scale for Team Sports.

Table 3.4

Inter-correlations between Subscales and Total Scores of Psychological Skills Scale

for Team Sports i.e. Hockey (n=261) and Cricket (n=257)

Variables 1 2 3 4

1.Psycho-Performance - .28*** .20*** .83***

2.Perceived Psychological Support .24*** - .65** .72***

3.Psycho-Competitiveness .31*** .73*** - .65***

4.Psychological Skills .80*** .74*** .76*** -

Note: Upper diagonal = hockey, Lower diagonal = cricket, **p<.001.

The result indicated that all three factors (psycho-performance skills,

perceived psychological support and psycho-competitive skills) were significant

positively related with each other and also with total score of psychological skills

scale for both hockey players and cricketers.

95

Table 3.5

Descriptive Statistics of the Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (N=518)

Subscales k α M (SD) Quartiles Scoring

Range 25 50 75

Psycho-Performance Skills 38 .92 115.49 (19.80) 103 118 130 38-152

Perceived Psychological Support 24 .90 81.92 (11.00) 76 83 91 24-96

Psycho-Competitiveness 22 .87 77.55 (8.63) 74 79 84 22-88

Psychological Skills 84 .94 274.98 (30.54) 255 282 299 84-336

Note: Quartiles: >25= poor, <50= adequate, <75= excellent

Table 3.5 showed mean, standard deviation, quartiles and reliability

coefficient of psychological skills scale for team sports i.e. hockey players and

cricketers. Cronbach’s alpha found to be excellent for psychological skills scale and

its sub-scales. The quartiles for the scale and subscale determine psychological skills

as poor, adequate and excellent. Moreover, scoring range is also provided for scale

and its sub-scales and mean scores resulted to be in the given range.

96

Table 3.6

Descriptive Statistics of the Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports for Hockey (n=261) and Cricketers (n=257)

Sub-scales

k

Hockey Cricket Scoring

Range α M (SD) Quartiles

A M (SD) Quartiles

25 50 75 25 50 75

Psycho-Performance Skills 38 .92 117.37 (19.09) 105 122 131 .92 113.66 (20.33) 100 116 129 38-152

Perceived Psychological

Support 24 .88 82.27 (9.78) 77 83 90 .92 81.57 (12.08) 75 84 91 24-96

Psycho-Competitiveness 22 .84 77.88 (7.69) 74 79 84 .90 77.24 (9.46) 74 79 84 22-88

Psychological Skills 84 .93 277. 53 (27.99) 260 283 298 .94 272.48 (32.70) 249 279 299 84-336

Note: Quartiles: >25= poor, <50= adequate, <75= excellent

Table 3.6 showed mean, standard deviation, quartiles and reliability coefficient of psychological skills scale for hockey players

and cricketers. Cronbach’s alpha evolved excellent for psychological skills scale and its sub-scales for both hockey players and

cricketers. Both hockey players and cricketers tend to have equal psychological skills as exhibited by quartiles: poor, adequate and

excellent.

97

3.6 Discussion

Psychological skills comprise the deliberate use of structured sequences of

specific thoughts and behaviors by players that is essential for regulation of their

psychological state.

Psychological skills are of interest within sport and exercise psychology

because psychological states are thought to affect performance in sport settings and

enable players to enhance their performance during competition (Kudlackova, Eccles &

Dieffenbach, 2013). Therefore, the most challenging part of any sports for any player is

to attain and maintain psychological balance that facilitates performance. The ability for

attaining such mind set is thought to be dependent on the use of different psychological

skills that can be categorized as learnable and learned via instruction from coaches and

natural learning experiences such as competitions (Hardy, Hall & Alexander, 2001).

Now-a-days, team sports players are using different psychological techniques to

assist themselves in maintaining control, coping with anxiety and optimizing

performance in competitive situation. No doubt physical fitness is necessary but the

importance of psychologically strength cannot be denied. The key to be a good sportsman

is to have the ability to tackle the psychological aspects of the game. The four C’s of

sports psychology; confidence, commitment, concentration and control are very

important in this regard (Wadey & Hanton, 2008). Mental preparation is often neglected

in sports. Knowing oneself is one of the difficult tasks for everyone and it requires a

decade of hard work. Earlier comprehension regarding psychological skills was based on

only elite athletes or an individual sport, that’s why exploration regarding specific sports

98

needed to be taken under considerations. However, Solomon and Kausar (2015)

developed Cricketers Psychological Skills Scale (CPSS) that measures 4Cs in cricketers.

These 4 Cs are the concentration, confidence, commitment and control. Two factors

emerged as psychological facilitators and psychological distractors. The limitation of this

study was that this scale was only meant to be for cricketers, therefore, an extension was

required on the basis of preliminary work done by Solomon and Kausar (2015) as it has

been discussed many times that players tend to be choked during pressure situations in

many important international events. Therefore, an indigenous scale based on four C’s of

sports psychology will help to assess psychological skills of both hockey players and

cricketers (Hodge, 2007).

For this purpose, initial item pool generated from the interview verbatim of

hockey players and cricketers of Pakistan international hockey and cricket teams was

administered on the sample of 261 hockey players and 257 cricketers of different cities of

Punjab, Pakistan. Factor analysis emerged three factors as Psycho-performance skills (38

items), perceived psychological support (24 items) and psycho-competitiveness (22

items). Psychological skills are attributed as skills that are helpful during match and are

being influenced by different psychological factors i.e. confidence, motivation, pressure

handling and mutual communication and understanding. Perceived psychological support

postulated as direct or indirect support and motivation that influence players during

match. Psychological support included motivation from coaches, confidence from captain

and humor or mutual talks with other team members during match. Psycho-

competitiveness reoffered to different psychological skills that help players during crucial

99

match situations such as self-talk, imagery and planned ignoring for pressure situations.

Team sports players i.e. hockey players and cricketers are thought to be able to enhance

their performance on tasks in their domains by regulating their psychological state

through the use basic psychological skills: confidence, commitment, concentration and

control. These skills include advanced psychological skills, such as the ability to regulate

anxiety and basic psychological skills such as self-talk that underpin use of psychological

skills during crucial situations. Psychological assessment is also part and parcel for exact

overview of utilization of psychological tactics during competition by hockey players and

cricketers. The use of psychological skills scale for team sports would enable coaches and

management to get maximum output by their players, however, further studies can be

conducted to confirm these three factors extracted through this study by including other

team sports other than hockey and cricket and considering various different psychological

skills for individual sports too.

100

Chapter IV

Study II: Method

4.1 Objectives

The objectives of the study were:

1. To find out relationship between psychological skills (psycho-performance skills,

perceived psychological support and psycho-competitiveness), coaching

competence (creating the relationships, communication attending skills,

communication influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results and making

the responsibility clear), sportsmanship (moral values, competence, values and

status values) and performance efficacy (ability, effort, persistence, preparation

and unity) in hockey players and cricketers.

2. To determine the mediating role of sportsmanship between psychological skills

and performance efficacy.

3. To determine moderating role of coaching competence between psychological

skills and performance efficacy.

4. To find out differences in psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers.

5. To find out differences in psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy in married and unmarried hockey players

and cricketers.

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4.2 Hypotheses

1. There is likely to be relationship between psychological skills (psycho-

performance skills, perceived psychological support and psycho-competitiveness),

coaching competence (creating the relationships, communication attending skills,

communication influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results and making

the responsibility clear), sportsmanship (moral values, competence values and

status values) and performance efficacy (ability, effort, persistence, preparation

and unity) in hockey players and cricketers.

2. Sportsmanship will mediate the relationship between psychological skills and

performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers.

3. Coaching competence will moderate the relationship between psychological skills

and performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers.

4. There were likely to be differences in psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports players i.e. hockey players

and cricketers.

5. There were likely to be differences in psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy in married and unmarried team sports

players.

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Figure 4.1 Hypothesized Model of Study II for Mediator and Moderator

Moderator

Independent

Coaching Competence

- Creating the Relationship

- Communication-Attending

Skills

- Communication

Influencing Skills

- Facilitating for Learning

and Results

- Making the Responsibility

Clear

Independent Variable

Independent

Dependent Variable

Independent

Performance

Efficacy

- Ability

- Effort

- Persistence

- Preparation

- Unity

Psychological Skills

- Psychological

Facilitators

- Psychological

Distractors

Age

Experience

Type of Sport

Playing Position

Playing Level

Covariates

Independent

Mediator

Sportsmanship

- Moral Values

- Competence Values

- Status Values

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4.3 Research Design

Correlational (cross-sectional) research design was employed.

4.4 Sampling Strategy and Sample

The sample consisted of 518 (n= 261 hockey players and n=257 cricketers) as

calculated by G-Power 3.0 sample calculator (Faul, Buchner, Erdfelder & Lang, 2008).

The data was collected from hockey players and cricketers of different hockey clubs and

cricket academies via non-probability purposive sampling technique.

4.4.1 Inclusion/ exclusion criteria.

4.4.1.1 Inclusion criteria.

• Hockey players and cricketers currently playing at different clubs and

departments under the plat form of Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) and

Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) were approached.

• Hockey players and cricketers who have minimum one year of experience of

playing hockey and hockey at region, district or departmental level were included.

4.4.1.2 Exclusion criteria.

• Hockey players and cricketers facing any kind of band for playing their respective

sport by club/ academy due to some disciplinary actions were excluded.

• Hockey players and cricketers having any kind of disability and physical injury

didn’t take part in this research.

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Table 4.1

Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Characteristics of Sample (N=518)

Variables Hockey N=261 Cricket N=257

f (%) f (%)

Age M (SD) 22.88 (6.82) M (SD) 22.65 (4.37)

U19 (16-19) 97 (37.16) 66 (25.68)

U23 (20-23) 87 (33.34) 103 (40.07)

Above 23 (24 Onwards) 77 (29.50) 88 (34.25)

Experience in Years M (SD) 5.59 (4.89) M (SD) 4.52 (2.91)

Playing Level

Club 108 (41.4) 134 (52.1)

First Class/ National 92 (35.2) 123 (47.9)

International 61 (23.4) -

Playing Positions

Forwards 115 (44.1) -

Mid-Fielders 39 (14.9) -

Defenders 85 (32.6) -

Goal-Keepers 22 (8.4) -

Openers - 61 (23.7)

Middle-Orders - 59 (23.0)

All-Rounders - 86 (33.5)

Bowlers - 51 (19.8)

Education

Primary/ Middle 4 (1.5) 5 (1.9)

Matriculation 110 (42.1) 84 (32.7)

Intermediate 91 (34.9) 84 (32.7)

Bachelors 30 (11.5) 40 (15.6)

Masters 26 (10) 44 (17.1)

Marital Status

Married 47 (18) 32 (12.5)

Unmarried 214 (82) 225 (87.5)

Residence

Lahore 36 (13.8) 71 (27.6)

Karachi - 10 (3.9)

Sargodah 31 (11.9) 41 (16)

SheikhuPura 36 (13.8) 13 (5.1)

Faisalabad 47 (18) 59 (23)

Gojra 80 (30.7) 24 (9.3)

Toba Tek Singh 31 (11.9) 39 (15.2) (Table Continued)

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Variables Hockey N=261 Cricket N=257

f (%) f (%)

Have you ever faced any

psychological problem

during game?

Yes 139 (53.2) 146 (56.8)

No 122 (46.8) 111 (43.2)

If yes, then whom did you

consult about it?

Captain 31 (22.3) 37 (25.3)

Coach 70 (50.3) 76 (52.2)

Any-other 31 (22.3) 31 (21.2)

No-one 7 (5.1) 2 (1.3)

Required Psychological

Consultancy in future?

Yes 164 (62.8) 167 (65)

No 97 (37.2) 90 (35) Note: f = frequency, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation

4.5 Operational Definitions

4.5.1 Psychological skills. Psychological skills are the set of four mental abilities

that are used to strengthen successful performance in the field. These four abilities are:

Confidence, Commitment, Concentration, and Control (Thomas, Reeves & Bell, 2008).

Psychological facilitators are used for mental assistance in the form of different

psychological skills used by hockey players and cricketers to enhance their performance

during field by minimizing negative aspects of cricket that cause decrement in

performance. Psychological distractors are mental barriers, hindrances and inhibition of

cricketers that negatively influence their performance during field and delay their peak

performance (Solomon & Kausar, 2015).

4.5.2 Coaching competence. The International Coach Federation (2005)

systematically defined coaching as a one to one process that helps players to develop

rapidly sustainable outcomes resulting from better goal setting and better decision

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making. Coaching competence is a player’s perception towards his or her coach

competence which influences team players effectively, however, it has been difficult to

explore the relationship between behavior of coaches and performance of players as

performance is difficult to be quantified (Feltz, 1999).

4.5.3 Sportsmanship. Sports involve daily human emotions into field like

tension, sadness, respect, tolerance, harmony and love. Sports and games are linked from

fair play to sportsmanship at a broader level. Sportsmanship can be comprehended

through different social and moral relations and can be viewed as a behavior that is

reasonable for game spirit, mutual respect and playing fairly and honestly during

competition (Vallerand, 1996).

4.5.4 Performance efficacy. Performance efficacy is defined as effective change

faster than one’s opposition, consistency, better role fulfillment, a risk taking attitude that

has never been complacent or resting on commitment towards a goal (Sullivan, 2002).

4.6 Assessment Measures

The detail of assessment measures is as under:

4.6.1 Psychological skills scale for team sports (PSSTS). Psychological Skills

Scale for Team Sports (Solomon, Malik & Kausar, 2018) that consisted of 84 items with

three sub-scales: Psycho-Performance Skills, Perceived Psychological Support and

Psycho-Competitiveness included 38, 24 and 22 items respectively. The overall score

range on Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS) was 84 (minimum) to 336

(maximum), however, the score range on psycho-performance skills is from 38

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(minimum) to 152 (maximum), whereas, scoring range for perceived psychological

support and psycho-competitiveness is 24 (minimum) to 96 (maximum) and 22

(minimum) to 88 (maximum) respectively. The cut off of the scores were determined by

using quartile scores which divided total scores into three quartiles: >25= poor, <50=

adequate and <75= excellent psychological skills. The internal consistency of the items

for Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS) 84 items was.94 determined by

using Cronbach’s alpha, whereas, sub-scales psycho-performance skills, perceived

psychological support and psycho-competitiveness have .92, .90 and .87 reliability

respectively.

4.6.2 The coach competence scale (CCS). Moen and Fedrici (2012) developed

Coaching Competence Scale including different competencies related to coaching. It

consisted of five domains. Each domain had three items. These domains were named as

creating the relationship, communication-attending skills, communication-influencing

skills, facilitating for learning and results and making the responsibility clear.

4.6.3 Youth sport values questionnaire-2 (YSVQ-2). Youth Sport Value

Questionnaire-2 (YSVQ-2) developed by Lee et al, (2007) is 13-item questionnaire

having three sub-scales to measure moral, competence and status values with four or five

items for each sub-scales.

4.6.4 Collective efficacy for sports questionnaire (CESQ). Collective Efficacy

for Sport Questionnaire (Short, Sullivan & Feltz, 2005) is a 20 item questionnaire that

will measure collective team collapse on a 9-point scale with low scores indicating

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greater collapse. The 20 items measure five different elements of collective efficacy. The

five elements that are measured are ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

4.6.5 Demographic information sheet. Demographic information of the

participants was asked by using a demographic information sheet. It included sports type,

playing level, playing position, duration of playing a specific game, marital status,

education, residence and monthly income.

4.6.6 Procedure of translation. The Coach Competence Scale (CCS), Youth

Sports Values Questionnaires-2 (YSVQ-2) and Collective Efficacy for Sports

Questionnaires (CESQ) were available in English. The aim of this translation was to

generate a translation of English version of these scales into Urdu language that is

conceptualized to the original and can easily be understood by the hockey players and

cricketers.

The steps that are followed in translating The Coach Competence Scale (CCS),

Youth Sports Values Questionnaires-2 (YSVQ-2) and Collective Efficacy for Sports

Questionnaires (CESQ) are as under (Beaton, Bombardier & Ferraz, 2000).

4.6.6.1 Step 1: Conceptual definitions. Original scale was analyzed to clarify the

concepts investigated by each item of the original scale.

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4.6.6.2 Step 2: Recruitment and briefing. This step involved the recruitment and

briefing of a consultant of the target language to supervise the translation process. The

research supervisor supervised the whole research as well as translation process.

4.6.6.3 Step 3: Forward translation. The aim of this process was to obtain a

translation of assessment measures in a target language (Urdu) that was both conceptually

equivalent to the original scale as well as easily understandable for the respondents. Two

forward translations were obtained from two bilinguals (English & Urdu) M. Phil

scholars from Institute of Applied Psychology who were native speakers of the target

language and fluent in the source language. The purpose was to obtain a consensus target

language version. The consensus was developed in a meeting with supervisor between

the two forward translations and that translation was given preference which completed

the meaning behind the items in English and on which there was a mutual consent too.

Every effort was made by the translators to stay as close to the literal meaning behind the

item as they can. In that way, a final version of Urdu translation was completed.

4.6.6.3.1 Reconciled version of forward translation. This final version was then

discussed with the supervisor in order to resolve the queries and problems regarding

translation.

4.6.6.4 Step 4: Backward translation. The purpose of backward translation was

to obtain a translation into English (source language) of the target language version

(Urdu). For this purpose, two backward translations were done. The Urdu version of the

sports competition anxiety test was given to a senior M. Phil and MS (Health

110

Psychology) scholar (Institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab Lahore)

who were proficient in both English and Urdu and had not been part of the forward

translation procedure. Then researchers and supervisor developed consensus to make a

final version of both English translations for comparing it with the original one. After

getting a final version of backward translation, it was then compared with the original

version Coach Competence Scale (CCS), Youth Sports Values Questionnaires-2 (YSVQ-

2) and Collective Efficacy for Sports Questionnaires (CESQ).

4.6.6.5 Step 5: Proof reading. The aim of proof reading was to ensure that no

typing spelling or grammatical mistakes remain in the target language version. Every

effort was made by the translators to stay as close to the literal meaning behind the item

as they could. In that way, a final version of Urdu translation was completed. There were

certain discrepancies regarding translation that were noted and changes were advised by

the supervisor in the proof reading process.

4.6.6.6 Summary. The Coach Competence Scale (CCS), Youth Sports Values

Questionnaires-2 (YSVQ-2) and Collective Efficacy for Sports Questionnaires (CESQ)

were selected for the purpose of translation. The translated version of this scale can be

used in future researches to evaluate competition stress and choking in cricketers. The

translation procedure was completed with the help of supervisor and two M. Phil

students. After two forward translations, the consensus was developed with the

supervisor, Institute of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab. The consensus was

completed after discussion with supervisor and certain changes were made.

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4.7 Procedure

First of all, the synopsis was approved from Departmental Program Co-ordination

Committee (DDPC). Changes suggested by DDPC were incorporated and synopsis was

defended before Advance Study and Review Board (ASRB). After getting approved

synopsis approved from ASRB, an authority letter explaining purpose and nature of the

study was collected from the Institute of Applied psychology, University of the Punjab,

Lahore. After receiving permission from the authorities Pakistan Hockey Federation and

Pakistan Cricket Board), hockey players and cricketers were approached prior to their

matches following initial discussion with club representatives and management about

nature and purpose of the study. Consent form was filled by players for ensuring their

written consent. Moreover, players were briefed about purpose of the study and ensured

confidentiality of their information before administration of assessment measures.

4.8 Ethical Considerations

In order to conduct this research, following ethical considerations were kept in

mind.

1. The synopsis was approved from Departmental Doctoral Program Committee

(DDPC) and Advance Study and Review Board (ASRB).

2. Permission was sought from concerned authors of research tools. and concerned

authorities for data collection.

3. The consent was taken from the participants and would have right to withdraw

from participation and confidentiality of their information was assured.

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4. Results were reported accurately.

4.9 Results

Study II was aimed to investigate the relationship between psychological skills,

coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports. The data

was analyzed in the following steps. At first, descriptive statistics i.e. means, standard

deviations, frequencies and percentages were computed to provide a preliminary profile

of the sample characteristics. The mean, standard deviation, and reliability coefficients of

psychological skills scale for team sports (PSSTS), coach competence scale (CCS), youth

sport and value questionnaire-2 (YSVQ-2) and collective efficacy for sports

questionnaire (CESQ) were computed. Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to

investigate relationship between psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports. Structural Equation Modeling

(SEM) through AMOS was used to find out mediating role of sportsmanship between the

relationship of psychological skills and performance efficacy and moderating role of

coaching competence between the relationship of psychological skills and performance

efficacy. Moreover, Independent Sample t-test was used for additional analysis.

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Table 4.2

Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence, Sportsmanship and

Performance Efficacy in Team Sports (N=518)

Variables k M (SD)

Range α

Actual Potential

Psychological Skills 84 270.17 (29.24) 325 336 .94

Psycho-Performance Skills 38 111.16 (18.13) 148 152 .92

Perceived Psychological

Support 24 81.92 (11.00)

96 96 .90

Psycho-Competitiveness 22 77.55 (8.63) 88 88 .87

Coaching Competence 15 121.59 (22.36) 90 90 .90

Creating the Relationship 3 14.61 (3.14) 18 18 .70

Communication Attending

Skills

3 14.20 (3.19) 18 18 .71

Communication Influencing

Skills

3 13.56 (3.27) 18 18 .61

Facilitating for Learning and

Results

3 14.37 (3.26) 18 18 .70

Making the Responsibility Clear 3 14.51 (3.09) 18 18 .68

Sportsmanship 13 42.17 (12.74) 65 65 .83

Moral Values 5 17.11 (4.94) 25 25 .61

Competence Values 4 14.74 (4.26) 20 20 .64

Status Values 4 10.32 (5.74) 20 20 .68

Performance Efficacy 20 162.68 (28.85) 200 200 .92

Ability 4 33.11 (6.37) 40 40 .74

Effort 4 31.86 (7.10) 40 40 .75

Persistence 4 31.49 (6.88) 40 40 .68

Preparation 4 33.70 (6.27) 40 40 .80

Unity 4 32.41 (6.31) 40 40 .67

Note: k = Number. of items, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, α = Cronbach’s alpha

114

It was hypothesized that there is likely to be relationship between psychological

skills (psycho-performance skills, perceived psychological support and psycho-

competitiveness), coaching competence (creating the relationships, communication

attending skills, communication influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results and

making the responsibility clear), sportsmanship (moral values, competence values and

status values) and performance efficacy (ability, effort, persistence, preparation and

unity) in hockey players and cricketers.

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Table 4.3

Correlations among Demographic Variables: Age, Experience, Playing Levels, Playing Positions and Study Variables: Psychological Skills (Psycho-Performance Skills, Perceived Psychological Support and Psycho-

Competitiveness), Coaching Competence (Creating the Relationship, Communication Attending Skills, Communication Influencing Skills, Facilitating for Learning and Results, and Making the Responsibility Clear),

Sportsmanship (Moral Values, Competence Values and Status Values) and Performance Efficacy (Ability, Effort, Persistence, Preparation and Unity) in Hockey Players (n=261) and Cricketers (n=257)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1. Age - .87*** .09 .11 .03 .02 .04 .02 .06 .13* -.04 -.04 .01 .02 .01 -.01 .13* .08 .14* .06 .16* .11

2. Exp. .75*** - -.07 .11 -.01 -.01 .01 .01 .07 .07 -.08 -.04 -.01 -.01 -.02 .01 .14* .10 .14* .07 .14* .13*

3. PSk .03 .01 - .82*** .73*** .65*** .23*** .24*** .25*** .16** .16** .12* .13* .16** .23*** -.01 .23*** .21** .18** .15* .20** .23***

4. PPr -.01 -.01 .80*** - .27*** .20** .06 .11 .09 .01 .03 .01 -.01 .03 .06 -.10 .06 .11 -.02 .02 .07 .09

5. PPS .08 .06 .74*** .24*** - .65*** .31*** .28*** .31*** .23*** .24*** .20** .22*** .22*** .31*** .06 .31*** .21** .33*** .24*** .26*** .27***

6. PCo .02 .01 .76*** .31*** .73** - .26*** .21** .27*** .23*** .18** .16** .22*** .22*** .25*** .11 .25*** .20** .25*** .18** .22*** .23***

7. CCo .04 .01 .36*** .13* .44** .37*** - .81*** .81*** .80*** .82*** .76*** .32*** .34*** .31*** .17** .45*** .32*** .41*** .42*** .38*** .35***

8. CRe .02 .03 .36*** .15* .40** .36*** .85*** - .64*** .54*** .58*** .51*** .25*** .30*** .25*** .09 .43*** .36*** .35*** .41*** .38*** .36***

9. CAt .02 .02 .32*** .13* .39** .30*** .87*** .74*** - .58*** .52*** .50*** .30*** .32*** .30*** .15* .38*** .26*** .36*** .34*** .34*** .30***

10. CInf .09 .03 .29*** .10 .36** .29*** .82*** .64*** .67*** - .57*** .48*** .23*** .23*** .18** .17** .31*** .23*** .30** .30*** .25** .24***

11. LR .07 .01 .27*** .09 .36** .27*** .82*** .56*** .64*** .58*** - .57*** .24*** .27*** .22*** .13* .33*** .20** .32*** .32*** .28*** .28***

12. ReC -.02 -.04 .27*** .08 .33** .32*** .83*** .63*** .60*** .60*** .68*** - .27*** .25*** .31*** .14* .34*** .28*** .31*** .32*** .27*** .26***

13. SMS .07 -.01 .38*** .15* .42** .42*** .50*** .44*** .45*** .46*** .39*** .38*** - .84*** .87*** .81*** .40*** .35*** .28*** .38*** .34*** .35***

14. MoralV .11 .06 .41*** .19** .43** .42*** .52*** .48*** .46*** .48*** .40*** .39*** .87*** - .71*** .44*** .40*** .35*** .25*** .38*** .36*** .37***

15. ComV .07 -.05 .44*** .24*** .43** .44*** .50*** .45*** .45*** .44*** .39*** .37*** .88*** .74*** - .53*** .38*** .34*** .28*** .33*** .33*** .33***

16. StatusV .01 -.05 .18** .01 .25** .26*** .31*** .26*** .28*** .30*** .25*** .24*** .85*** .55*** .60*** - .24*** .22*** .18** .25*** .17** .18**

17. Per.Ef. .13* .08 .41*** .19** .46** .41*** .42*** .36*** .41*** .33*** .32*** .34*** .40*** .46*** .43*** .19** - .83*** .84*** .86*** .87*** .84***

18. Ability .10 .06 .43*** .22*** .45** .41** .38*** .33*** .38*** .25*** .31*** .30*** .40*** .44*** .44*** .19** .91*** - .59*** .64*** .66*** .68***

19. Effort .13* .09 .38*** .20*** .39** .40*** .40*** .33*** .40*** .36*** .30*** .31*** .36*** .42*** .37** .16** .90*** .76*** - .66*** .70*** .59***

20. Pers. .10 .07 .34*** .13* .39** .37*** .38*** .40*** .35*** .30*** .27*** .31*** .38*** .44*** .41** .17** .90*** .80*** .77*** - .69*** .64***

21. Prep. .15* .11 .38*** .18** .45** .35*** .34*** .31*** .32*** .24*** .27*** .27*** .31*** .37*** .32** .15* .89*** .78*** .77*** .75*** - .70***

22. Unity .08 .04 .31*** .11 .37** .31*** .40*** .30*** .38*** .32*** .28*** .32*** .37*** .38*** .41** .19** .89*** .77*** .74*** .74*** .74***

Note: *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001, upper diagonal values are for hockey players (n=261), lower diagonal values are for cricketers (n=257)

Note: Exp.=Experience, PS=Psychological Skills, PPr.=Psycho-Performance Skills, PPS=Perceived Psychological Support , PCo= Psycho-Competitiveness, CCo= Coaching Competence, CRe=Creating the Relationship,

CAt=Communication Attending Skills, CInf=Communication Influencing Skills, LR=Facilitating for Learning and Results, ReC= Making the Responsibility Clear, SMS= Sportsmanship, MoralV=Moral Values, ComV= Competence

Values, StatusV= Status Values, Per.Ef.= Performance Efficacy, Pers.= Persistence, and Prep.=Preparation

116

Table 4.3 revealed that for hockey players, age was significantly positively

correlated with communication influencing skills, performance efficacy, effort and

preparation. National playing level was significantly negatively persistence and

preparation. Psychological skills were significantly positively correlated with psycho-

performance skills, perceived psychological support, psycho-competitiveness, coaching

competence, creating the relationships, communication influencing skills, communication

attending skills, facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear,

sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy,

ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. However, no correlation was found

between psychological skills and status values. Psycho-performance skills were

significantly positively correlated with perceived psychological support and psycho-

competitiveness. Whereas, no co-relation of psycho-performance was reported with

coaching competence, creating the relationship, communication attending skills,

communication influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results, making the

responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values,

performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Perceived

psychological support was significantly positively correlated with psycho-

competitiveness, whereas, significantly positively correlated with coaching competence,

creating the relationships, coaching attending skills, coaching influencing skills,

facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral

values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity. Coaching competence was significantly positively

correlated with creating the relationship, communication attending skills, communication

117

influencing skills, and facilitating for learning and results and making the responsibility

clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values, performance

efficacy, ability effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Creating the relationships was

significantly positively correlated with communication attending skills, coaching

influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results and making the responsibility clear,

sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy,

ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Communication attending skills were

significantly positively correlated with communication influencing skills, facilitating for

learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values,

competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence

preparation and unity. Communication influencing skills were significantly positively

correlated with facilitating for learning and results and making the responsibility clear,

sportsmanship, moral values, status values, competence values, performance efficacy,

ability, effort, persistence preparation and unity. Facilitating for learning and results was

significantly positively correlated with making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship,

moral values, status values, competence values, performance efficacy, ability, effort,

persistence preparation and unity. Making the responsibility clear was significantly

positively correlated with sportsmanship, moral values, status values, competence values,

performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence preparation and unity. Sportsmanship

was significantly positively correlated with moral values, competence values, status

values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Moral

values were significantly positively correlated with competence values, status values,

performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Status values

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were significantly positively correlated with performance efficacy, ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity. Performance efficacy was significantly positively

correlated with ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Ability was significantly

positively correlated with effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Effort was

significantly positively correlated with persistence, preparation and unity. Persistence

was significantly positively correlated with preparation and unity. Preparation was

significantly and positively correlated with unity.

For cricketers, age was significantly positively correlated with performance

efficacy, effort and preparation. Psychological skills were significantly positively

correlated with psycho-performance skills, perceived psychological support, psycho-

competitiveness, coaching competence, creating the relationships, communication

influencing skills, communication attending skills, facilitating for learning and results,

making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status

values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence preparation and unity. Psycho-

performance skills were significantly positively correlated with perceived psychological

support, significantly positively correlated with psycho-competiveness, coaching

competence, creating the relationship, communication attending skills, communication

influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear,

sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy,

ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Perceived psychological support

significantly positively correlated with psycho-competitiveness, coaching competence,

creating the relationship, communication attending skills, communication influencing

skills, facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship,

119

moral values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity. Psycho-competitiveness highly significantly positively

correlated with coaching competence, creating the relationships, communication

attending skills, communication influencing skills, facilitating for learning and results,

making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, status values, performance

efficacy, ability effort persistence, preparation and unity. Coaching competence was

significantly positively correlated with creating the relationships, communication

attending skills, communication influencing skills, and facilitating for learning and

results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values,

status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

Creating the relationships was significantly positively correlated with communication

attending skills, communication influencing skills and facilitating for learning and results,

making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status

values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

Communication attending skills was significantly positively correlated with

communication influencing skills and facilitating for learning and results, making the

responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values,

performance efficacy, ability effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Communication

influencing skills was significantly positively correlated with facilitating for learning and

results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values,

status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

Facilitating for learning and results was significantly positively correlated with making

the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values,

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performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Making the

responsibility clear was significantly positively correlated with sportsmanship, moral

values and competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity. Sportsmanship was significantly positively correlated

with moral values competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity. Moral values were significantly positively correlated

with competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence,

preparation and unity. Competence values were significantly positively correlated with

status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

Status values were significantly positively correlated with performance efficacy, ability,

effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Performance efficacy was highly significantly

positively correlated with ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Ability was

significantly and positively correlated with effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

Effort was significantly and positively correlated with persistence, preparation and unity.

Persistence was significantly and positively correlated with preparation and unity.

Preparation was significantly and positively correlated with unity.

It was hypothesized that sportsmanship (moral values, competence values and

status values) will mediate the relationship between psychological skills and performance

efficacy in hockey players and cricketers. For this purpose, Structured Equation Model

was employed.

121

Table 4.4

Fit Indices for Psychological Skills, Sportsmanship and Performance for Hockey Players

and Cricketers (N=518)

Model χ2 df χ2/df CFI NNFI GFI RMSEA SRMR

Initial Model 548.61 76 7.21 .87 .74 .86 .11 .08

Model Fit 104.20 70 1.48 .99 .98 .97 .03 .02

∆χ2 444.40

Note: All change in chi square values are computed relative to model, χ²>.05., GFI = Goodness of

fit index, CFI = comparative fit index, NNFI (TLI) = non-normed fit index, RMSEA = root mean

square error of approximation, SRMR = Standardized root mean square, ∆χ² = chi square change.

Table 4.4 showed results of fit indices for psychological skills (psycho-

performance, perceived psychological support and psycho-competitiveness),

sportsmanship (moral values, competence values and status values) and performance

(ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity). Absolute fit for initial model fit was χ²

(76, 518) = 548.61, p< .001. The fit indices were considered to provide an indication of

good fit of the data with the tested model. The model fit was analyzed in one key step

that included indices of absolute and relative fit (GFI, CFI, NNFI, RMSEA, SRMR) as

the chi-square test of absolute model fit is sensitive to sample size and number of

parameters, investigators often turn to various descriptive fit statistics to assess the

overall fit a model to the data. Hu and Bentler (1999) recommend χ²/df between 1 and 3,

RMSEA and SRMR values .08 or lesser and Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis

Index (TLI) or Non-normed fit Index (NNFI) and Goodness of fit Index (GFI) values of

.9 or higher are considered as good while .9 ≤ .8 is consider permissible sometimes. Since

the Root Mean Square Error of approximation and standardized root mean square

(RMSEA, SRMR) for the initial model were .11 and .08, whereas, the GFI, CFI, NNFI

122

values were .86, .87 and .74 respectively while χ²/df was 7.21. Therefore, the model did

not fit well according to the descriptive measures of fit.

So, the model modification process started as suggested by the modification

indices. Modification indices suggested covariance between error terms of subscales of

sportsmanship i.e. moral values, competence values and status values because they were

similar in content and context as well moreover the covariance between error terms in

survey based research can be legitimately drawn (Kenny 2012). The criteria of

modification indices for error covariance should be at least 4.0 (Arubuckle & Wothke,

1999). So only that covariance was drawn which chi square change was 4.0 or greater.

Again the indices of absolute and relative fit (GFI, CFI, NNFI, and RMSEA) were

compared. The Root Mean Square Error of approximation (RMSEA) and standardized

root mean square residual (SRMR) for the model fit after drawing covariance was .03 and

.02 respectively whereas the GFI, CFI and NNFI values were .97, .99 and .98

respectively while χ²/df was 1.48. These were accurate enough to fit the model as it can

be seen from figure 4.2 and 4.3.

123

Figure 4.2: Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model Representing

Standardized Regression Coefficients for Hockey Players

Note: A complex multivariate model of six endogenous variables and five exogenous variables. Completely

standardized maximum likelihood parameter estimates.

124

Figure 4.3: Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model Representing

Standardized Regression Coefficients for Cricketers

Note: A complex multivariate model of six endogenous variables and five exogenous variables. Completely

standardized maximum likelihood parameter estimates.

125

After done with the model fit, the estimates were analyzed for direct and indirect

effects for psycho-performance, perceived psychological support, psycho-

competitiveness, sportsmanship, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence,

preparation and unity for hockey players and cricketers with 5000 bootstrapped sample

(Hayes, 2015).

126

Table 4.5

Standardized Estimates of Direct Effects

Variables SMS Ability Effort Persistence Preparation Unity

Β SE Β SE Β SE β SE Β SE β SE

Psycho-Performance

Skills

-.05 .13 .09 .15 -.09 .13 -.01 .15 .03 .16 .04 .14

.22* .11 -.22 .23 -.24 .23 -.31* .23 -.24 .24 -.31* .23

Perceived Psychological

Support

.50* .20 -.36 .31 -.12 .29 -.27 .32 -.31 .32 -.28 .31

.46 .14** -.35 .35* -.48 .36* -.44 .37* -.25 .37 -.37 .36*

Psycho-Competitiveness .21 .18

-.11 .20

-.12 .18

-.18 .20 -.15 .21 -.12 .20

.35 .17* -.38 .43 -.29 .44 -.36 .44 -.47 .44 -.45 .45*

Sportsmanship - - 1.00*** .21 .90** .21 1.02** .22 1.06** .23 .99** .22

- - 1.46*** .56 .14*** .57 1.50*** .58 1.42*** .59 1.49*** .58

Total R2 .43 .63 .62 .66 .74 .66

.73 .80 .78 .77 .75 .73

Note: *p<.05., un-bold values are for hockey players and bold values are for cricketers.

Results of direct effects revealed that psycho-performance skills didn’t predict sportsmanship, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and

unity for hockey players, however, psycho-performance skills positively and significantly predicted sportsmanship and negatively and

significantly predicted effort and unity for cricketers. Perceived psychological support positively and significantly predicted sportsmanship for

hockey players, whereas, perceived psychological support positively and significantly predicted sportsmanship, ability, effort, persistence and

127

unity for cricketers. Psycho-competitiveness found to be non-predictable for sportsmanship, ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity for

hockey players, however, positively and significantly predicted sportsmanship and unity for cricketers, whereas, ability, effort, persistence and

preparation were not predicted by psycho-competitiveness. Moreover, sportsmanship found to be a positive and significant predictor for ability,

effort, persistence, preparation and unity both for hockey players and cricketers.

Table 4.6

Standardized Estimates of Indirect Paths

Variables Ability Effort Persistence Preparation Unity

β SE β SE β SE Β SE β SE

Psycho-Performance Skills -.05 .15 -.04 .14 -.05 .16 -.05 .16 -.05 .15

.32* .22 .33* .23 .33* .23 .32* .23 .33* .23

Perceived Psychological Support .50* .31 .45* .28 .51* .32 .53* .33 .50* .31

.68** .37 .68** .37 .70** .38 .66** .38 .69** .38

Psycho-Competitiveness

.21 .20

.19 .18

.22 .20 .23 .21 .21 .20

.52* .05 .52* .43 .53* .43 .50* .43 .52* .44

Note: *p<.05., un-bold values are for hockey players and bold values are for cricketers.

The results of indirect effect postulated that sportsmanship found to be non-significant mediator between psycho-performance skills and

ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity, however, sportsmanship acted as a positive and significant mediator between psycho-

performance skills and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. Sportsmanship also turned to be as a mediator between perceived

128

psychological support and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity both for hockey players and cricketers. Moreover, psycho-

competitiveness and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity were not mediated by sportsmanship for hockey players, whereas,

sportsmanship was a positive and significant mediator between psycho-competitiveness and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity for

cricketers.

129

Coaching competence will moderate the relationship between psychological skills

and performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers.

Table 4.7

Fit Indices for Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence and Performance Efficacy in

Hockey Players and Cricketers (N=518)

Model χ2 df χ2/df CFI NNFI GFI RMSEA SRMR

Model Fit 138.978 110 1.263 .99 .98 .96 .02 .02

Note: All change in chi square values are computed relative to model, χ²>.05., GFI= Goodness of fit index,

CFI=comparative fit index, NNFI (TLI) =non-normed fit index; RMSEA=root mean square error of

approximation, SRMR=Standardized root mean square.

Table 4.7 showed results of fit indices for psychological skills (psycho-

performance, perceived psychological support and psycho-competitiveness),

sportsmanship (moral values, competence values and status values) and performance

(ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity). Absolute fit for initial model fit was χ²

(110, 518) = 138.97, p< .001. The fit indices were considered to provide an indication of

good fit of the data with the tested model. The model fit was analyzed in one key step

that included indices of absolute and relative fit (GFI, CFI, NNFI, RMSEA, SRMR) as

the chi-square test of absolute model fit is sensitive to sample size and number of

parameters, investigators often turn to various descriptive fit statistics to assess the

overall fit a model to the data. Hu and Bentler (1999) recommend χ²/df between 1 and 3,

RMSEA and SRMR values .08 or lesser and Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis

Index (TLI) or Non-normed fit Index (NNFI) and Goodness of fit Index (GFI) values of

.9 or higher are considered as good while .9 ≤ .8 is consider permissible sometimes.

Model fit suggested covariance between error terms of subscales of sportsmanship i.e.

moral values, competence values and status values because they were similar in content

130

and context as well moreover the covariance between error terms in survey based

research can be legitimately drawn (Kenny 2012). The criteria of modification indices

for error covariance should be at least 4.0 (Arbuckle, 2012). So only that covariance was

drawn which chi square change was 4.0 or greater. Again the indices of absolute and

relative fit (GFI, CFI, NNFI, and RMSEA) were compared. The Root Mean Square Error

of approximation (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) for the

model fit after drawing covariance was .02 and .02 respectively whereas the GFI, CFI

and NNFI values were .96, .99 and .98 respectively while χ²/df was 1.26. These were

accurate enough to fit the model as it can be seen from figure 4.4 and 4.5.

131

Figure 4.4: Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model Representing

Standardized Regression Coefficients for Hockey Players

Note: A complex multivariate model of six endogenous variables and five exogenous variables. Completely

standardized maximum likelihood parameter estimates.

132

Figure 4.5: Empirical Results from a Complex Multivariate Model Representing

Standardized Regression Coefficients for Cricketers

Note: A complex multivariate model of six endogenous variables and five exogenous variables. Completely

standardized maximum likelihood parameter estimates.

133

Table 4.8

Unstandardized Estimates of Main and Interaction Effects

Variables Performance Efficacy

Hockey Players Cricketers

β SE β SE

Main Effect

Psycho-Performance Skills -.005 .01 .003 .01

Perceived Psychological Support .07 .03 .16*** .04

Psycho-Competitiveness .02 .04 .11 .05

Coaching Competence .15*** .02 .12*** .02

Interaction Effect

Psycho-Performance_X_Coaching Competence .00 .00 -.004*** .00

Perceived Psychological Support_X_Coaching

Competence

-.00 .00 .002 .002

Psycho-Competitiveness_X_Coaching

Competence

-.00 .00 .007 .003

Total R2 .28 .40

Note: *p<.05., un-bold values are for hockey players and bold values are for cricketers.

Coaching competence significantly negatively moderated the relationship

between psycho-performance and performance efficacy in cricketers, however, coaching

competence acted as a moderator for perceived psychological support performance

efficacy and psycho-competitiveness and performance efficacy. Hockey players tend to

have higher perceived psychological support than that of cricketers.

134

Figure 4.6

Interaction of Psycho Performance and Coaching Competence on Performance Efficacy

Figure 4.5 showed that the nature of relationship between Psycho-Performance

skills and performance efficacy become positive at high level of coaching competence.

135

There were likely to be differences in psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports players i.e. hockey players and

cricketers.

Table 4.9

Independent Sample t-test Comparing Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence,

Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in Team Sports (N=518)

Variable

Hockey

(n = 261)

Cricket

(n = 257) t

(516) p

95% CI Cohen’s

d M SD M SD LL UL

Psychological Skills 272.39 26.95 267.91 31.28 1.74 .08 -.55 9.53 .15

Psycho-Performance

Skills 112.68 17.44 109.61 18.72 1.93 .05 -.04 6.19 .16

Perceived Psychological

Support 82.19 9.88 81.64 12.04 .56 .03 -1.35 -2.45 .04

Psycho-Competitiveness 77.92 7.65 77.19 9.52 .96 .33 -.76 2.22 .08

Coaching Competence 71.92 12.14 70.61 14.07 1.12 .25 -.96 3.57 .09

Creating the Relationships 14.86 2.89 14.35 3.37 1.83 .06 -.03 1.05 .16

Communication

Attending Skills 14.39 2.90 14.01 3.45 1.33 .18 -.17 .92 .11

Communication

Influencing Skills 13.58 3.30 13.54 3.25 .14 .88 -.52 .60 .01

F Facilitating for Learning

and Results 14.47 3.17 14.28 3.35 .65 .51 -.37 .75 .05

Making Responsibility

Clear 14.60 2.88 14.41 3.29 .70 .47 -.34 .72 .06

Sportsmanship 41.84 12.07 42.50 13.41 -.58 .55 -2.86 1.54 .05

Moral Values 17.17 4.79 17.04 5.10 .28 .77 -.72 .98 .02

Competence Values 14.77 4.11 14.70 4.41 .19 .84 -1.84 .13 .01

Status Values 9.89 5.49 10.75 5.96 -.17 .08 -1.84 .13 .14

Performance Efficacy 162.37 27.00 162.74 30.70 -.14 .88 -5.35 4.62 .01

Ability 33.22 5.84 32.99 6.88 .41 .67 -.86 1.33 .03

Effort 31.65 7.20 32.05 7.02 -.63 .52 -1.62 .83 .05

Persistence 31.35 6.76 31.63 7.02 -.79 .64 -1.46 .91 .04

Preparation 33.85 6.09 33.54 6.46 .55 .58 -.77 1.39 .04

Unity 32.29 5.84 32.52 6.75 -.42 .67 -1.32 .85 .03

Note: CI = Confidence Interval, LL= Lower Limit, UL = Upper Limit.

136

The results of independent Sample t-test revealed that hockey players tend to have

higher perceived psychological support than that of cricketers. However, no mean

differences on psychological skills (psycho-performance skills and psycho-

competitiveness), coaching competence (creating the relationship, communication

attending skills, communication influencing skills, facilitating learning and results and

making responsibility clear), sportsmanship (moral values, competence values and status

values) and performance efficacy (ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity) was

found in hockey players and cricketers.

137

There were likely to be differences in Psychological Skills, Coaching

Competence, Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in married and unmarried team

sports players.

Table 4.10

Independent Sample t-test Comparing Psychological Skills, Coaching Competence,

Sportsmanship and Performance Efficacy in Married and Unmarried Team Sports

Players (N=518)

Variable

Marital Status

t

(516) p

95% CI Cohen’s

d

Married

(n=79)

Unmarried

(n=439)

M SD M SD LL UL

Psychological Skills 275.91 28.96 269.13 29.20 1.90 .05 -.23 13.77 .23

Psycho-Performance

Skills 114.44 19.07 110.56 17.92 1.75 .08 -.47 8.21 .20

Perceived

Psychological Support 83.46 9.76 81.64 11.19 1.35 .17 -.81 4.46 .17

Psycho-Competitiveness 78.43 7.56 77.40 8.81 .97 .33 -1.04 3.10 .12

Coaching Competence 71.26 14.09 71.27 12.97 -.00 .99 -3.17 3.14 .00

Creating the

Relationships 14.54 3.33 14.62 3.11 -.21 -.83 -.83 .67 .02

Communication

Attending Skills 14.32 3.44 14.18 3.14 .36 .71 -.62 .90 .04

Communication

Influencing Skills 14.01 3.07 13.48 3.31 1.32 .18 -.25 1.31 .16

F Facilitating for Learning

and Results 14.27 3.23 14.39 3.27 -.29 .76 -.90 .66 .03

Making Responsibility

Clear 14.10 3.24 14.58 3.06 -1.28 .19 -1.22 .25 .15

Sportsmanship 42.29 11.60 42.15 12.95 .08 .92 -2.92 3.20 .01

Moral Values 17.74 4.29 16.99 5.04 1.24 .21 -.43 1.93 .16

Competence Values 14.21 4.26 14.83 4.25 -1.19 .23 -1.64 .40 .14

Status Values 13.32 5.51 13.79 5.79 .01 .99 -1.37 1.38 .26

Performance Efficacy 169.07 23.33 161.38 29.63 2.57 .01 1.78 13.58 .08

Ability 34.36 4.95 32.88 6.57 2.31 .02 .21 2.74 .25

Effort 33.91 5.15 31.48 7.35 3.58 .00 1.09 3.77 .38

Persistence 32.31 5.81 31.34 7.05 1.15 .24 -.67 2.62 .15

Preparation 35.11 5.36 33.44 6.40 2.46 .01 .32 3.00 .28

Unity 33.36 5.60 32.23 6.41 1.47 .14 -.38 2.64 .18 Note: CI = Confidence Interval, LL= Lower Limit, UL = Upper Limit.

138

The results of independent Sample t-test revealed that married team sports players

reported greater performance efficacy, ability, effort and preparation. However, no mean

differences on psychological skills (psycho-performance skills, perceived psychological

support and psycho-competitiveness), coaching competence (creating the relationship,

communication attending skills, communication influencing skills, facilitating learning

and results and making responsibility clear), sportsmanship (moral values, competence

values and status values), persistence and unity in married and unmarried team sports

players.

Furthermore, three open ended questions were asked about psychological skills

from hockey players and cricketers. These questions were: have you ever faced any

psychological problems during game? If yes, then whom did you consult about your

psychological problem? Do you want to have psychological consultancy for your

psychological problem in future? Graphical representation of these questions is as under:

139

Figure 4.7 Question 1: Have you ever faced any psychological problem during game?

Figure 4.7 showed that fifty eight club level, fifty three national level and twenty

seven international hockey players answered yes to question about having any

psychological problem during game, whereas, fifty club level, thirty nine national level

and thirty four international level hockey players answered no to it. Conversely, sixty five

club cricketers and eighty two national cricketers agreed to this question by reporting yes

to having any psychological problem during game, whereas, sixty nine and forty one club

and national cricketers nullified the thought of having any kind of psychological problem

during game.

5853

27

65

82

50

3934

69

41

Hockey Club Hockey National HockeyInternational

Cricket Club Cricket National

Psychological Problem during Game

Yes No

140

Figure 4.8 Question 2: If yes, whom did you consult your psychological problems of the

game?

Figure 4.8 revealed that for club level, eleven hockey players consulted with their

captain, thirty seven hockey players consulted with captain, eight consulted any-other and

only three hockey players didn’t consult about their psychological problem due to game

with anyone. However, for national level hockey players, fourteen hockey players

consulted with their captain, twenty six consulted with their coach, eleven consulted with

any-other and only two hockey players reported that they didn’t about their psychological

problem due to game with anyone. Moreover, six, eight, twelve and only one

international hockey players revealed that they consulted about their psychological

problem with their captain, coach, any-other and no one respectively. On the other hand,

for club cricketers, nineteen cricketers reported to consult with captain, thirty four

cricketers marked themselves as consulting with coach, ten cricketers highlighted any-

1114

6

1917

37

26

8

34

42

811 12

10

22

3 2 1 20

Hockey Club Hockey National HockeyInternational

Cricket Club Cricket National

Consulting about Psychological Problem

Captain Coach Anyother No-One

141

other and only two cricketers postulated to consult with no-one about their psychological

problem during game. For national cricketers, seventeen cricketers mentioned to consult

with their captain, forty two referred to their coach and twenty two suggested to consult

with any-other about their psychological problem during game. However, none of the

national level cricketers mentioned to consult with no-one.

142

Figure 4.9 Question3: Do you want to have psychological consultancy about your

psychological problems in future?

Figure 4.9 represented that seventy club level hockey players answered yes to have

psychological consultancy in future and thirty eight club level hockey players didn’t want

to have psychological consultancy in future. However, for national level hockey players,

fifty three hockey players agreed to the idea of having psychological consultancy in

future and thirty nine disagreed to it, whereas, forty one international hockey players

appreciated this idea by answering yes and only twenty international hockey players

disregarded the idea of having psychological consultancy in future. On the other hand,

eighty three club level cricketers answered yes and fifty one club level cricketers

answered no this question, whereas, eighty four national level cricketers reported yes to

the question about having psychological consultancy in future and thirty nine national

level hockey players disagreed to this idea.

70

53

41

83 84

38 39

20

51

39

Hockey Club Hockey National HockeyInternational

Cricket Club Cricket National

Psychological Consultancy in Future

Yes No

143

4.10 Summary of Findings

The summary of findings is as under:

1. For hockey players and cricketers, psychological skills were significantly

positively correlated with coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy.

2. Sportsmanship found to be non-significant mediator between psycho-performance

skills and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity, however,

sportsmanship acted as a positive and significant mediator between psycho-

performance skills and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity.

3. Coaching competence significantly negatively moderated the relationship

between psycho-performance and performance efficacy in cricketers, however,

coaching competence acted as a moderator for perceived psychological support

performance efficacy and psycho-competitiveness and performance efficacy.

4. Hockey players tend to have higher perceived psychological support than that of

cricketers.

5. Married team sports players reported greater performance efficacy, ability, effort

and preparation.

4.11 Discussion

As multiple hypotheses were postulated, however, first of all, researcher was

interested to see the relationship between the research variables. For this purpose, it was

hypothesized that there is likely to be relationship between psychological skills, coaching

competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team sports players i.e. hockey

players and cricketers. However, on separately inspection of results for hockey players, it

144

was found that psychological skills were significantly positively correlated with psycho-

performance skills, perceived psychological support, psycho-competitiveness, coaching

competence, creating the relationships, communication influencing skills, communication

attending skills, facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear,

sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy,

ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. The reason behind these findings can be

marked as the fundamental role and contribution of psychological skills in hockey and

psychological skills of players tend to influence hockey players' skills related to

performance, psychological support that is derived from coaches, management and

teammates and competition related psychological tactics. Psychological skills of hockey

players simplifies both for coaches and players to be mutually beneficial for each other as

they have an important role towards coaching competence, maintaining coach-athlete

relationship, mutual communication, communication facilitating skills, mutual aptitude

towards learning and realization of importance of responsibility during competition.

Moreover, psychological skills directly affect sportsmanship and performance efficacy of

hockey players including their moral values, status values and competence values, ability,

effort, persistence, preparation and unity. However, for cricketers, psychological skills

were significantly positively correlated with psycho-performance skills, perceived

psychological support, psycho-competitiveness, coaching competence, creating the

relationships, communication influencing skills, communication attending skills,

facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral

values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence

preparation and unity.

145

Importance of psychological skills in team sports specially in cricketers has been

widely emphasized by Weissenteiner, Abernetthy, Farrow and Gross (2012) who

determined the psychological characteristics and skills that are fundamental to batting

success in the sport of cricket. The sample consisted of adult-aged batsmen of two

different skill levels completed a battery of psychological tests and showed that the

highly skilled batsmen were only distinguishable from batsmen of lesser skill by their

higher degree of global mental toughness. The skilled batsmen scored significantly higher

on mental toughness dimensions relating to motivation. Furthermore, Lewinson and

Palma (2012) examined the relationships that exist between psychological skills and

confidence among ice hockey Lacrosse and soccer goalkeepers and it was resulted that

psychological skills as important, but rarely used them to enhance performance.

Goalkeepers scored higher on both the personal coping resource score and confidence

than non-goalkeepers on the personal coping resource score and confidence. Moreover,

the relationship between personal coping resource and confidence scores showed a

significant correlation exists. This study indicates goalkeepers possess a different set of

psychological skills and confidence level than their counterparts. In the light of these

results it can be concluded that psychological skills have distinction features in

relationship with coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in team

sports.

However, no correlation was found between psychological skills and status

values. Psycho-performance skills were significantly positively correlated with perceived

psychological support and psycho-competitiveness. Whereas, no co-relation of psycho-

performance was reported with coaching competence, creating the relationship,

146

communication attending skills, communication influencing skills, facilitating for

learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values,

competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence,

preparation and unity. These results can be supported by Jooste et al, (2014) conducted a

study to investigate the psychological skills of African youth soccer players in different

playing positions on the sample of one hundred and fifty two soccer players. The role of

psychological skills and overall team performance was also determined. Results yielded

insignificant differences between the subscale scores of the players in different playing

positions. Concentration was the only psychological variable associated with

performance. The middle four-ranked teams outscored the most successful and least

successful teams in relaxation. However, it cannot be claimed that psychological skill

demands differ among players in different playing positions, nor the positive correlation

between psychological skills and team success.

Secondly, it was hypothesized that sportsmanship (moral values, competence

values and status values) will mediate the relationship between psychological skills and

performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers. Results revealed sportsmanship

found to be non-significant mediator between psycho-performance skills and ability,

effort, persistence, preparation and unity, however, sportsmanship acted as a positive and

significant mediator between psycho-performance skills and ability, effort, persistence,

preparation and unity. Sportsmanship also turned to be as a mediator between perceived

psychological support and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity both for

hockey players and cricketers. Moreover, psycho-competitiveness and ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity were not mediated by sportsmanship for hockey

147

players, whereas, sportsmanship was a positive and significant mediator between psycho-

competitiveness and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity for cricketers.

These results were supported by a research where at least four individual difference

factors have been studied in relation to youths’ moral functioning in sport. First, social

perspective taking has been implicated in the expression of moral thoughts and prosocial

behaviors. Youth who are able to see situations from another’s perspective are more

likely to reason at higher levels of moral reasoning and act in prosocial ways. Second,

youths’ moral emotions and emotional regulation skills affect youths’ moral judgments

and actions during moral dilemmas. Youth who become easily angered and have little

emotional control during sport may be more likely to engage in aggressive, retaliatory

behaviors (Martindale & Abraham, 2007). Third, moral disengagement occurs when

individuals switch off their moral standards and disconnect themselves psychologically

and emotionally from the right thing to do. Moral disengagement in sport has been

related to fewer prosocial and more antisocial sport behaviors. Fourth, moral identity is

defined as the extent to which being a moral person is central to self-concept. Youth sport

participants who possess a strong moral identity are less likely to approve of and engage

in cheating. Taken together, children’s and teenagers’ cognitive maturity and self-

regulatory skills influence their moral reasoning and prosocial behaviors (Boardley,

Kavussanu & Ring, 2008)

On a broader spectrum, the importance of sportsmanship can be highlighted with

variables and it can be claimed that there is a significant role of sportsmanship in the lives

of team sports players. Mouratidou and Barkoukis (2015) investigated whether

achievement goals have differential effect on sportsmanship orientations in competitive

148

sport and it was found that all achievement goals were significant predictors of

sportsmanship orientations. On the other hand, the interpersonal relations tend to have a

significant role towards sportsmanship as a study investigating the mediating role of

interpersonal relations between intrinsic motivation and sportsmanship on players

resulted that self-concept of interpersonal relations mediated the relation between

intrinsic motivation and sportsmanship. Also, intrinsic motivation was directly and

positively associated with self-concept of interpersonal relations, which, in turn, was

positively and significantly related to sportsmanship (Yoosefi & Bahrami, 2012).

Hacicaferoglu, Selcuk, Hacicaferoglu & Karatas (2015) conducted a study to evaluate

measures of competitiveness, motivational orientation, and perceived purposes of

participation as predictors of sportsmanship. Results revealed that intrinsic reasons for

sports participation, such as enhanced self-esteem and task mastery, predicted higher

levels on multiple dimensions of sportsmanship, above and beyond the influence of

competitiveness, motivational orientation, and various demographic variables. In

contrast, extrinsic purposes for participation in sports, such as to obtain social status and a

high-status career, contributed to lower levels on 3 of the 4 sportsmanship dimensions.

These results are discussed with regard to developing a competitive sport setting that

promotes ethical standards of interpersonal behavior for young participants in sports.

Lane, Thelwell & Devonport (2009) examined the relations among students' perceptions

of motivational climate, sportsmanship attitudes, and attitudes toward content and

teachers in physical education and it was found that perceived mastery climate is a

predictor of students' attitudes toward teacher and content and positive sportsmanship

attitudes. In contrast, perceived performance climate was not a predictor or mainly

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predicted negatively the students' attitudes toward the physical education teacher,

content, and sportsmanship attitudes.

Thirdly, it was hypothesized that coaching competence will moderate the

relationship between psychological skills and performance efficacy in hockey players and

cricketers. The results found negative moderating role between psycho-performance and

coaching competence in cricketers only. These results were non-significant for previous

researches. Coaching competence significantly negatively moderate the relationship

between psycho-performance and performance efficacy in cricketers, however, coaching

competence acted as a moderator for perceived psychological support performance

efficacy and psycho-competitiveness and performance efficacy. These results can be

supported as a study by Mbam, Chimezie, Ronald and Kenneth (2015) investigated the

roles of coaching style, motivation and sports behavior on youth athletes sport

performance on the sample of one hundred athletes and it was found that there were

statistically significant difference between autonomy-supportive coaching style and

controlling climate coaching style on youth athlete performance. On the other hand,

Vidoni and Ward (2009) highlighted the importance of understanding and incorporating

both styles depending on the situational demands. They highlighted how the supportive

style, offering free choice to the athlete may not benefit them in the long term. As a

result, under this situation it would be beneficial to employ a controlling style, on the

basis that the interests of the athlete are being put first. It is essential to emphasize that

the use of a controlling coaching style is only promoted when the athlete’s free choice

could have a detrimental effect on either themselves or those around them. On the whole,

as evidenced already, the supportive coaching style is favoured for assisting in promoting

150

psychological well-being and fostering positive attitudes of athletes sport performance. It

was postulated that an autonomy supportive style has a positive relationship with

autonomous motivation. As a result it can be seen that when dealing with children and

those vulnerable to potential dropout, it may be of benefit to employ an autonomous-

supportive coaching style to prevent burnout. Also that autonomy-supportive coaching

style, however, is imperative to understand that there may be situations whereby a

controlling approach may be required for the benefit of the individual or the benefit of the

team. Amorose and Nolan-Sellers (2016) conducted a study to explore whether the

importance athletes place on behaviors of their coach moderates the relationship between

athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s feedback and their own perceptions of competence.

Overall, results of various regression analyses provided general support for the

hypothesis that a stronger effect of coach feedback on athletes’ perceptions of

competence would emerge for those athletes placing greater importance on their coach.

This effect was primarily a function of variations in the interpretation of positive and

informational feedback.

Additionally, it was hypothesized that there were likely to be differences in

psychological skills, coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy in

team hockey players and cricketers. The results revealed that hockey players tend to have

higher perceived psychological support than that of cricketers. It was also coined that

there were likely to be differences in psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportpersonship and performance efficacy in married and unmarried team sports players.

The results revealed that married team sports players reported greater performance

efficacy, ability, effort and preparation. This difference can be seen due to different and

151

unique nature of both sports as despite of being team sports, hockey is much thriller and

players in short time span than that of cricket that is being played like a marathon. These

results can be explained in the light of a study by Ilyasi, Sedagati and Salehian (2011)

who indicated that there is no significance difference in emotional competence among

team and individual athletes. These results are similar to those results which showed no

relationship between sport orientation and emotional intelligence.

These results can be highlighted in the light of results of study conducted by

Soflu, Esfahani and Assadi (2011) investigating the connection between athletic

performance and success and emotional intelligence is well known, the results of

conducted studies concerning identification of medalist athletes’ properties imply that

from among effective factors impacting the performance of athletes, the ability to

recognize, express and manage the feelings logically in stressful situations is highly

important. If athlete manages to develop emotional competencies to understand and

govern emotions he will be able not only to value them in himself and others, but also

will be able to use them to achieve the best result possible, and meet the psychological

demands of certain sport (Garcia-Coll, Ruiz, Perez, Palomo-Nieto & Martin-Esteban,

2010). Moreover, Hanton (2000, in Soflu et al., 2011) believed that Olympic athletes use

mental skills particularly imaging and self-confidence for displaying an excellent

performance, but amateur athletes, with the aim of reducing competitive anxiety in

stressful conditions, apply mental skill techniques. Lane, Thelwell and Devonport (2009)

in their study on investigating the relationship between emotional intelligence and

behavioral features with performance of student athletes, believe that having balanced

behavioral features such as controlling negative emotions and motivations in a proper

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level are the characteristics of superior athletes and states that emotional intelligence has

a positive relationship with optimum performance and self-efficacy of superior athletes

that separates the performance of these athletes from others in sensitive and important

events.

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Chapter V

Exploration of Perceptions of Team Sports Players and Coaches towards Coaching

Competence

5.1 Objectives

The objectives of the study were:

1. To investigate how team sports players perceive their coaches' coaching

competence helpful for development of their psychological skills, sportsmanship

and performance efficacy?

2. To explore how coaches perceive their coaching competence helpful in teaching

psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy to their team sports

players?

5.2 Research Design

A qualitative study was carried to explore how team sports players perceives their

coaches' coaching competence helpful for development of their psychological skill,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy and how coaches perceive their coaching

competence helpful in teaching psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy to their team sports players? Grounded theory was employed for data analysis

using the constructionist approach by Charmaz (2000).

5.3 Sampling Strategy and Sample

Twelve international team sports players (n= 6 hockey, n= 6 cricket) and twelve

coaches (n= 6 hockey, n= 6 cricket) were selected for semi-structured, in-depth and one-

154

on-one interviews. Information rich cases were selected as they would have been

beneficial for the researcher for exploring issues that were important for this research.

Purpose sampling was used for recruiting participants. The criteria for “elite” status will

be based on their coaches’ coaching and players’ playing experience (in years). The

sample was collected from Pakistan Hockey Federation and Pakistan Cricket Board

(PCB).

5.3.1 Inclusion/ exclusion n criteria.

5.3.1.1 Inclusion criteria.

• Hockey and cricket coaches who have completed Level III coaching course i.e.

minimum five years of coaching experience participated in this study.

• Ex-hockey players and ex-cricketers who have been working with different teams

as coaches after their retirement from the professional sport as a player were

included.

• Hockey players and cricketers who are currently playing in Pakistan international

hockey and cricket teams were included.

5.3.1.2 Exclusion criteria.

• Assistant coaching staff, physical trainers and management didn’t take part in this

study.

• Players and coaches having any kind of ban from Pakistan Hockey Federation

(PHF) and Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) were excluded.

155

• Hockey players and cricketers attending any kind of training in summer camps

Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) and Pakistan Cricket Board didn’t participate

in current study.

5.4 Interview Guide

An interview guide was prepared with the help of previous literature for

interviews to investigate how team sports players perceive their coaches' coaching

competence helpful for development of their psychological skills, sportsmanship and

performance efficacy and to explore how coaches perceive their coaching competence

helpful in teaching psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy to their

team sports players? Later on, interview guide was revised by the researcher under the

supervision of research supervisor. After revision, the interview guide was pilot tested on

team sports players i.e. hockey and cricket; and coaches and their feedback resulted as

minor refinements to questions phrasing and narrative.

The full interview schedule comprised of four sections. In first section,

introductory comments, aims and objective of the study and a declaration of rights of

participants presented to each participant. Second section explained the participants that

they would draw upon all aspects of their experience as a player and to create an overall

picture of performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers related to psychological

skills, coaching competence and sportsmanship. The third and main section of the

interview schedule comprised of general and specific questions related to performance

efficacy of hockey players and cricketers. The closing section summarized the interview

156

experience by inviting the interviewees to discuss any issues that may have been

overlooked by the researcher.

5.5 Procedure

After finalizing the interview guide, the researcher contacted Pakistan Hockey

Federation (PHF) and Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB), Lahore for permission to conduct

interviews as it was primary method of data collection. Availability of the participants

and their feasibility was preferred in conducting interviews. After taking consent from the

participants, they were briefed about the research purpose, process and outcome to

preserve confidentiality and anonymity of the data as all interviews were audio recorded.

Semi-structured form of interviews allowed the interviewer to ask questions in a

convenient order that may differ from one interview to another. Each interview was

consisted of 45 minutes to one hour. All interviews were transcribed with grammatical

changes to improve the flow of the text if needed.

5.6 Data Analysis

Grounded theory employed in data analysis as it is the process of category

identification and generating a theory. Grounded theory enabled researcher to identify

different categories of transcribed data and eventually made links between categories by

establishing relationships between them incorporated a number of key strategies

including constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling and theoretical coding and

eventually provided an explanatory framework to investigate how team sports players

perceive their coaches' coaching competence helpful for development of their

psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy and to explore how

157

coaches perceive their coaching competence helpful in teaching psychological skills,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy to their team sports players?

158

Table 5.1

Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Psychological Skills of Hockey Players

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

1 Ideal Coaching Competence

• Coaches’ psychological

support

• Coaches’ guidance improve

players’ game,

• Coaches’ motivation for

players

• Coaches develop interest for

game in game

II

III

I

I

Coaching Efficacy

• Motivating players

• Avoiding players’

mistakes

• Openness and

interaction with players

III

III

II

2 Concerns for Coaching

Standards

• Lack of international

exposure

• Limited thinking patterns

• Professional grooming of

coaches

I

I

I

Coaching Climate

• Mutual commitment

and dedication

• Coaches’ motivation

creates self-motivation

in players

II

I

3 Perceived Psychological Support

• Releasing pressure after

discussion with coaches

• Not sharing problems with

coach influences players’

performance

• Positive expectations from

coaches

II

III

II

Moral Training

• Coaches demand

players’ compliance

• Youngsters learn

through modeling,

• Players observe their

elders having regard for

coaches

II

III

I

4 Mutual Coach-Athlete

Understanding

• Coaches understanding

towards players

• Coaches’ comprehension

towards players

II

II

Coaches’ Professional

Competence

• Coaches provide trust

to players

• Coaches improve

players performance

• Coaches guarantee

players’ optimal

performance

I

III

I

(Table Continued)

159

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

5 Perceived Confidence and

Motivation

• Coaches’ positive remarks for

players

• Being confident after

discussing issues with coaches

• Feeling encouraged and

motivated

II

I

III

Coach as a Psychological

Facilitator

• Kindness of coaches

encourages players

• Coaches facilitate

players psychologically

• Coaches being friendly

with their players

II

II

I

6 Players’ Professional Learning

Attitude

• Revising coaches’ guidance

• Players discuss game with their

coaches

I

II

Coaches as Competitive

Skills Trainer

• Coaches unite players

before match

• Coaches’ instructions

about match situation

• Coaches deal players

individually and

collectively

II

II

I

7 Perceived Coaches’ Dedication

• Coach scold players for bad

performance

• Coaches demand performance

• Coaches also feel bad on

scolding their players

I

I

II

Coaches’ Social Support for

Players

• Coaches concerns for

players’ financial

issues

• Coaches try to get their

players jobs

• Coaches facilitate

players financially

I

II

I

8 Players’ Critical Evaluation by

Coaches

• Players fear from video

session’s discussions

• Players work according to

coaches’ guidelines

• Coaches’ appreciation and

criticism influence players

positively

II

I

IV

Coaches’ Commitment and

Dedication

• Coaches enhances

players interest for

game

• Coaching passion

indirectly motivate

players

II

II

(Table Continued)

160

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

9 Psycho-Performance Facilitation

• Coaches try to understand their

players for assigned

responsibility

• Coaches guide players on bad

performance

• Coaches feel happy when their

players perform

II

II

IV

Coaches’ Comprehension for

Players

• Evaluating players

before assigning

responsibility

• Analyzing players for

game

• Preparing players as

per coaches’

expectations

IV

II

II

Players’ Professional

Grooming

• Players’ compliance for

their coaches

• Players try to follow

coaches

• Players’ dedication for

performance

II

II

IV

Question one was asked from hockey players how their coaches’ coaching

competence influence their psychological skills, however, coaches were asked how their

coaching competence influence psychological skills of their hockey players. Table 5.1

showed focused coding along with frequency as depicted by the interviews of hockey

players and hockey coaches. Following is the qualitative analysis of focused codes of the

verbatim of hockey players and hockey coaches respectively.

For hockey players, ideal coaching competence was umbrella term that

incorporated different focused codes i.e. coaches’ psychological support, coaches’

guidance improve players’ game, coaches’ motivation for players and coaches develop

interest for game in game. As the verbatim stated:

“When coaches will have good relationship with players then players’

performance will be automatically improved as a player is being coached by a coach on

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daily basis. Coach also point outs weaknesses of his players and player is being tend to be

aware about his problem and automatically works on it. On the other hand, if player is at

distance from coach or coach is at distance from player, then player will not groom

professionally as he should have. Player would be unaware about his weakness that

would eventually lower his performance.” [Extract 1].

Secondly, focused coding (lack of international exposure, limited thinking pattern

and professional grooming for coaches) postulated as concerns for coaching standards.

The verbatim was as under:

“If we look at our national coaches, it would be clear that national coaches of

Pakistan had never been represented Pakistan at international level. Even most of them

had never attended national training camps for international matches. These coaches have

never visited any foreign country, that’s why they have a very limited exposure and

thinking. I think Pakistan Hockey Federation must work on broadening thinking pattern

of their coaches as broad minded coaches will automatically influence players

eventually” [Extract 2].

Perceived psychological support was emerged from the idea of how coach athlete-

mutual communication influences psychological skills of hockey players that

encompassed releasing pressure after discussion with coaches, not sharing problems with

coach influences players’ performance and positive expectations from coaches as focused

codes from the verbatim.

“When I share my things with my coach, I feel stress released that help me and

my coach to be on right track. Coach guide me what is better for me and what would help

me optimally. This direction psychologically relaxes me. We tend to share our each and

everything with our coach as being an elder they understand us and provide a better

solution to our problems. Coaches guide us very well and give accurate and right

suggestion that helps us in being a relaxed mind set [Extract 3].

Coaches understanding towards players and coaches’ comprehension towards

players evolved under mutual coach-athlete understanding as players disclosed different

perspectives of being involved in mutual coach-athlete communication and interaction as

showed as under:

162

“I think a young player feel very shy from his coach. He doesn’t talk initially and

assumes that his coach himself would initiate talk with him. He wishes that his coach

should have automatically known about the reasons of his downfall in performance or his

anxieties. These young players take their coaches as a super-experienced human being

that would understand each and everything without being shared by players. But with the

passage of time, as you get exposure and experience, players tend to be friendly with

their coaches. They take their relationship level to next level. As a player I understand my

affiliation and level of understanding with my coach. There must be a distinction between

coach-athlete relationships, however, friendly environment would eventually bring out

good performance by a player that would not only make strong relationship with his

coach but also with his teammates” [Extract 4].

A unique, direct and obvious benefit of coaches’ coaching competence for

psychological skills of hockey players evolved as perceived confidence and motivation

and emerged coaches’ positive remarks for players, being confident after discussing

issues with coaches and feeling encouraged and motivated as focused codes as it was

stated that “Coaches tend to give us confidence that improve our performance. Coaches

listen, comprehend and the way they respond to our issues encourages us” [Extract 5].

Players’ professional learning attitude was coined under revising coaches’

guidance peacefully and coaches discuss game with their players as focused codes

evolved as under:

“It is my responsibility to listen my coach’s advice. When I come home, I remind

all the instructions of my coach in my mind and I have witnessed that this thing had

helped me a lot. I discuss my routine with my coach on daily basis and then I don’t do so,

my performance decreases and I don’t get my game improved. Learning hockey as a

beginner is an uphill task and one wish to excel hockey by working hard and follow his

coach. As an emerging player, I used to rehears my game at home with full of dedication,

zeal and zest. However, improving hockey is also linked with discussion with coaches”

[Extract 6].

Perceived coaches’ dedication revealed different dimensions of coaches’ coaching

competence influence on psychological skills of hockey players and involved coach scold

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players for bad performance, coaches demand performance and coaches also feel bad on

scolding their players. It was extracted from the following verbatim:

“Well it is obvious that if we commit any mistake, we get punishment. Even in

our home. If we apply same situation in hockey, then obviously if we do anything wrong

that is directly or indirectly linked to our game, then obviously we’ll be punished. Our

coach will feel bad but this is part of life. Every player has his own day. One day he

performs well and somedays he doesn’t perform as per expectations” [Extract 7].

One of the most important perspective of coaching competence is players’ critical

evaluation by coaches that is obviously for the betterment of players. Focused codes

included players fear from video session’s discussions, players work according to

coaches’ guidelines and coaches’ appreciation and criticism influence players positively.

Players’ critical evaluation by coaches is obvious as:

“Coaches use to evaluate players through post-match video sessions. Players get

much stressed mentally and worry about coaches being rude and harsh in front of

teammates but I think it is the part of game and is only for our benefit. Representing

Pakistan at international level as a hockey player, we work hard on our mistakes and seek

advice from our coaches to prepare ourselves for advanced level. We are appreciated on

our excellent performance and also being cursed on committing any mistake” [Extract 8].

The last focused code was coaches’ role as a psycho-performance facilitator was

emerged as extracted three sub-focused themes i.e. coaches try to understand their players

for assigned responsibility, coaches guide players on bad performance and coaches feel

happy when their players perform. It is also elaborated in following verbatim:

“Coaches give us confidence to do certain tasks. Coaches understand us and

assign responsibilities as per our caliper. Coaches bring best out of us on field. Coaches

feel happy and satisfied when we meet their expectations. They also get angry on our

carelessness but they tend to guide us in such situations” [Extract 9].

On the other hand, coaching competence of hockey coaches is influential to

psychological skills of hockey players. Total nine focused codes (super-ordinate codes)

164

were developed by extracting different sub-codes from the verbatim of six international

hockey coaches. Firstly, coaching efficacy consisted of avoiding players’ mistakes and

openness and interaction with players from the verbatim as under:

“Suppose, if an opponent player throws ball towards my player then he would be

panic as he is able to stop it or not, and if he would be unable to stop the ball then he

would think about my anger or curse. But I am not like that. I motivate my players to ask

anything anytime but do something wrong that is against the rules and will lower

performance. It is wrong to be under pressure with the idea of being lazy at ball. Practice,

practice and practice would eventually help players to do well during match. I encourage

players for practice and try to increase their performance” [Extract 10].

Coaching climate was constituted secondly including mutual commitment and

dedication and coaches’ motivation creates self-motivation in players as emerged from

the following verbatim:

“I tend to be very kind towards my players. I motivate my players. I don’t curse

my players. I make my players psychologically free. I try to understand psyche of my

players. I can sense mistakes of my each and every player. I train my players in comfort,

cool and placid environment and produce them as star players” [Extract 11].

Coaches demand players’ compliance, youngsters learn through modeling and

players observe their elders having regard for coaches appeared as moral training. The

verbatim postulated as under:

“A coach has played at a certain level that’s why he demands his players to

practice more and more to meet his expectations. I think it is a two way relationship that

is based on respect and integrity. Now-a-days, players tend to get motivation from senior

players and try to adopt living habits of their role models in hockey. When these players

observe that their elders give us respect, they pays unconditional regard for us. Indirectly,

players seek moral values from coaches on way or the other” [Extract 12].

Coaches’ professional competence is also pursued as a strong influencer for

psychological skills of hockey players in coaches’ point of view. It incorporated coaches

165

provide trust to players, coaches improve players’ performance and coaches guarantee

players’ optimal performance as showed:

“It is necessary for a good coach to provide trust to their players so that their

performance may improve. We as a coach try to improve performance of our players on

daily basis as it is not only beneficial for our players but also goes in our own favor

professionally” [Extract 13].

Importantly, coaches seek themselves as a psychological facilitator that help

players in different ways to excel in their respective game. It was supported by kindness

of coaches encourages players, coaches facilitate players psychologically and coaches

being friendly with their players derived from the verbatim:

“When I tend to be kind with my players, they encourage themselves and get

motivation and that’s why they ask me things several times. I also show more affection

and don’t get offended. Similarly, we join our players at training time and participate in

training sessions that help players in assuming us as their friends and strengthen

themselves psychologically” [Extract 14].

Coaches tend to be an important trainer when it comes for competition. Coaches

as competitive skills trainer boosts players to perform and coaching competence help in

this regard as emerged from coaches unite players before match, coaches’ instructions

about match situation and coaches deal players individually and collectively. The

verbatim exposed as under:

“When we have pre and post-match meetings or discussions about match, we tend

to unite our players at a social gathering. We brief them about opponents. If necessary,

individual meetings are also encouraged and briefed every player according to their

requirement” [Extract 15].

Coaches’ social support for players is derived from following verbatim from

gathering different focused codes i.e. coaches concerns for players’ financial issues,

coaches try to get their players jobs and coaches facilitate players financially.

166

“Usually, players shine after taking any kind of responsibility from coach. I prefer

to assign any responsibility in or out the field depending upon the seniority of players that

help him later in his career. I financially support poor players. Such players observe their

coaches concern and try not to take any bad decision and broaden mental level of

players” [Extract 16].

Interestingly, it was revealed that coaches’ coaching competence directly help

players in increasing their psychological skills due to coaches’ commitment and

dedication towards their players. It displayed by coaches enhances players’ interest for

game and coaching passion indirectly motivate players. The verbatim discovered that:

“Any sort of additional duty by coach increases players’ interest for game and

they tend to concentrate more. We as a coach tend to show interest towards players’ game

and point out minor things during practice. Coaches practice players about technical

aspects of their game. Coaches enhance game planning of players and ask them to

practically and critically evaluate any sort of competitive situations. This process takes

time initially but eventually helps players to progress” [Extract 17].

Coaches' comprehension for players is also necessary towards their players that

help them psychologically and optimize performance of players. It incorporated

evaluating players before assigning responsibility, analyzing players for game and

preparing players as per coaches’ expectations as a coach stated:

“When we assign any responsibility to a player, we firstly evaluate him. We don’t

overburden our players as it would deteriorate his performance later. As a coach our

foremost responsibility is to analyze players towards their game and if a player is not up

to our expectations initially then we prepare him as per our requirement” [Extract 18].

The last emerged theme from focused coding was coined as players’ professional

grooming by coaches’ coaching competence involving players’ compliance for their

coaches, players try to follow coaches and players’ dedication for performance. The

verbatim suggested:

“Coach ask players about their flaws during game. Coach consult players’ game

related issues with them and train them as per requirement of players. Coaches evaluate

167

physical fitness of players. Coaches require from players to rehears and practice their

instructions at their own. Players respond differently towards coaches but some players

who are psychologically weak outside the ground, show utmost passion during match and

astonish us. They rehears at their own and upgrade their skills” [Extract 19].

168

Figure 5.1

Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Psychological Skills of Hockey Players

169

Table 5.2

Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of Hockey Players

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

1 Distant coach-athlete relationship

as a threat to sportsmanship

• Coaches impose their will to

players

• Coaches don’t give importance

to players’ opinion

• Players intentionally forgo

coaches’ opinions

II

II

III

Understanding Players

• Coaches shine players’

game

• Coaches promote their

players

• Fame enhances

confidence of players

III

III

II

2 Ideal Coach-Athlete Relationship

• Friendly coach-athlete

relationship guarantee optimal

performance

• Coaches’ appreciation boosts

players’ morale

III

III

Coaches’ Moral Guidance

for Players

• Coaches forbid players

from wrong deeds

• Coaches promote

harmony

• Coaches develop

patience among players

I

I

I

3 Mutual Coach-Athlete Interaction

• Coaches should share their

knowledge

• Coaches must avoid

grandiosity

III

I

Professional Coaching

Climate

• Friendly coaching

environment

• Understanding players’

actual condition

• Coaches guide players

about their mistakes

• Coaches should work

affectionately with

players

II

I

III

II

4 Coaches’ Moral Guidance for

Players

• Coaches guide players about

ethics

• Coaches explain players about

socialization

• Coaches guide players in right

direction

• Coaches promote mutual

respect and affection

I

I

I

III

Optimizing Coaching

Efficacy for Sportsmanship

• Coaches’ kind behavior

persuade others

• Coaches avoid

discouraging players

• Coaches motivate

players

• Coaches urge

motivating teammates

II

I

III

II

(Table Continued)

170

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

5 Coaches’ Guidance during Match

• Observing senior players

• Seeking guidance from

coaches during match

• Discussing game related issues

with coaches and senior

players

III

I

IV

Discussing Sportsmanship

Threatening Issues

• Coaches’ discussion

with players

• Coaches inquire

personal issues of

players

• Coaches provide

friendly environment

II

IV

IV

6 Coaching Levels Influence

Sportsmanship

• Coaching levels influence

players’ sportsmanship

• Good sportsmanship at

international level

• Domestic coaches don’t train

players professionally

II

II

IV

Observed Sportsmanship

• Sportsmanship is a

process

• Players model coaches

and senior players

• Players learn

professionalism from

social gatherings

II

IV

II

7 Responsibility enhances

sportsmanship

• Responsibility positively

influences players

• Positivity help players in

exceling

• Responsibility leads to

practicality

II

II

I

Teaching Sportsmanship

through Modeling

• Coaches warns players

about ethical mistakes

• Coaches watches

players

• Coaches encourage

players to adopt good

sportsmanship

II

II

III

8 Psycho-social facilitators for

sportsmanship

• Responsibility helps players in

learning

• Responsibility lessens players’

weaknesses

• Disobedience to coaches

frustrate players

II

II

IV

Responsibility as a Morale

Booster

• Players fulfill

responsibility due to

coaches’ strictness

• Players understand

coaches with affection

• Coaches forbid players

from unethical

behaviors

IV

IV

II

Question two was asked from hockey players how their coaches’ coaching

competence influences their sportsmanship, however, hockey coaches were asked how

171

their coaching competence influence sportsmanship of their hockey players. Table 5.2

indicated focused codes along with frequency as depicted by the interviews of hockey

players and hockey coaches. Qualitative analysis of verbatim of hockey players and

hockey coaches about sportsmanship is reported.

Firstly, distant coach-athlete relationship as a threat to sportsmanship is indicated

by hockey players as a major focused code that consisted of coaches impose their will to

players, coaches don’t give importance to players’ opinion and players intentionally forgo

coaches’ opinions and it was supported by the following verbatim:

“Every coach work according to his own will and he compels his players to

follow him. Therefore, plays wish to do as per their own will and don’t prefer their

coaches. Players avoid following coaches as coaches don’t acknowledge their players. If

coach is not appreciating his players’ views, then there is no point for us to follow him”

[Extract 1].

Secondly, ideal coach-athlete relationship was derived as focused code including

friendly coach-athlete relationship guarantee optimal performance and coaches’

appreciation boosts players’ morale. It is also important for sportsmanship of hockey

players influenced by their coaches as stated:

“A players’ relationship with coach develop during training camps. If coach-

athlete relationship is friendly, then the overall camp environment would be friendly. If

this relationship is not friendly, then each player would take his training as physical

fatigue that don’t produce good results. Friendly coach-athlete relationship influences

performance of players and coaches’ appreciation for their players enhance performance

of players” [Extract 2].

Coaches should share their knowledge and coaches must avoid grandiosity

emerged as mutual coach-athlete interaction and supported by the verbatim as revealed:

“I think coach-athlete mutual interaction is necessary in hockey for optimal

performance. Both coaches and players should enhance this interaction as much as they

172

can. Usually, coaches tend to be authoritative and demand players to obey themselves.

Coaches take themselves as a different human being but coaches should also transfer

learning and knowledge towards their players. Similarly, players must share their

knowledge with their teammates as well as coaches” [Extract 3].

Hockey players also pointed out the vital role of coaches’ moral guidance as an

influencer to their sportsmanship. It comprised of coaches guide players about ethics,

coaches explain players about socialization, coaches guide players in right direction and

coaches promote mutual respect and affection. Following is the verbatim that revealed

and reinforced these thoughts:

“Coaches want us to understand them and motivate us. Coaches guide us about

standard life styles, dressing, eating habits and social interaction. Coaches are well-

wisher of their players. Coaches teach us instead of our frequent mistakes and bad habits.

Coaches deal their players with love and affection. They use to guide us different ethics

and moralities that are part and parcel of being a good sportsman. Coaches train us to

obey elders and interact lovingly with our juniors” [Extract 4].

Coaches’ guidance during match is another vital contribution by hockey coaches

for their players that affected their sportsmanship. It involved observing senior players,

seeking guidance from coaches during match and discussing game related issues with

coaches and senior players. One of the hockey players narrated:

“Coaches’ appreciation during match outside the ground and motivation would

automatically increase performance of players. We would definitely try to work hard and

positive message of coaches would encourage us. We would be psychologically peaceful

and try to implement coaches’ instructions during ground. Usually, we alter game plan

and coaches’ instructions according to match situation after mutual discussion with each

other. It is only possible due to confidence and trust of coaches provided us for each

other” [Extract 5].

“Coaching level influences sportsmanship” emerged as major focused code

including coaching levels influence players’ sportsmanship, good sportsmanship at

international level and domestic coaches don’t train players professionally. Following

173

verbatim strengthened the conception of coaching levels as an influencer to

sportsmanship of hockey players.

“National and international level coaches influence sportsmanship of players

differently. We have perceived many times that Europeans are more advanced than that

of our coaches. Their players are attached with advanced coaches who train them not

only physically but also morally and ethically. If umpire declared foul, the opponent

would pay mutual respect and regard for his decision. It is possible only because they are

train in that way. In Pakistan, such instances are very rare to be seen. Domestic coaches

have limited exposure and unfortunately, international level coaches are not willing to

coach at domestic level. Domestic coaches are least bothered about such things, however,

if we get a chance to be trained by an international level coach during our national camps,

he would have practically shown us sportsmanship” [Extract 6].

Another focused code incorporated responsibility positively influences players,

positivity help players in exceling and responsibility leads to practicality and coined as

coaches’ responsibility enhances sportsmanship. It was exposed by the verbatim of a

hockey players as under:

“When a coach assign us any kind of responsibility during match I try my level

best to fulfil it. It influences positively not only me but also my teammates. It would

boost me in my social life too. I have been very responsible and always take it as

challenge. I take it positive and try to implement it. Positivity is increased due to

responsibility that lead to enhanced sportsmanship. Naturally, coaches’ responsibility

make us positive towards game” [Extract 7].

The last focused code from hockey players assimilated psycho-social facilitators

for sportsmanship integrating responsibility helps players in learning, responsibility

lessens players’ weaknesses and disobedience to coaches frustrate players as sub-focused

codes. It was obvious and sustained from the following verbatim:

“Coaches assigned responsibility make us mature and responsible not only for

game but also in other aspects of life. Coaches promote ethics in us and never let down

us. Coaches are just like teachers for us and as a player we tend to respect and oblige our

coaches just like our parents. This notion promote us in our game, teach us different

things and automatically diminish our mistakes. Coaches disobedience cause personal

174

and social distress and mental torture for us and everything go against us during match”

[Extract 8].

As far as hockey coaches are concerned, they also postulated that their coaching

competence is a strong influencer for sportsmanship of their hockey players. They

revealed eight focused codes. Firstly, understanding players appeared as a major focused

code that combined coaches shine players’ game, coaches promote their players and fame

enhances confidence of players as presented by the verbatim as under:

“As a coach, I understand my players psychologically and evaluate his potential

towards game. I comprehend their abilities and chalk out training session for better

playing techniques that optimize his performance later in match. It shines his skills and

improves his playing technique. Players get reputation with broader mental level and

increased confidence. I tackle my player at that time to make him work hard as per his

current condition and let not him deteriorate professionally” [Extract 9].

Coaches’ moral guidance evolved as another major focused code consisting of

coaches forbid players from wrong deeds, coaches promote harmony and coaches

develop patience among players. Coaches highlighted that their moral guidance directly

significant and a predictor of sportsmanship of hockey players as narrated:

“My player is an asset for me. I train him in every dimension of hockey both

physically and mentally. Now-a-days, players’ repute and character is everything. I don’t

let my players to be indulged in any kind of wrong activity. I promote tolerance in them

to avoid bad situations created by others and promote harmony” [Extract 10].

The most important focused code assimilated as professional coaching

competence incorporating friendly coaching environment, understanding players’ actual

condition, coaches guide players about their mistakes and coaches should work

affectionately with players. It was supported by the verbatim of an international hockey

coach as:

175

“I try to be lenient with my players. In my opinion, players can give your more

than their potential if you deal affectionately with them. I know my players’ psyche that

if I shout on my specific player, he would be pressurized and lower his performance.

Hockey is situational and only a player in the field understand actual situation of the

match. Coach should bring out maximum from players. Coaches should understand

players about their mistakes and try to make them affective individual for others”

[Extract 11].

Coaches’ kind behavior persuade others, coaches avoid discouraging players,

coaches motivate players and coaches urge motivating teammates developed as

optimizing coaching efficacy for sportsmanship defining the ultimate goal of coaching

efficacy is solely referred as sportsmanship. The verbatim coined:

“I think if I would be kind then I would require my players to adopt lenient

behavior too. I ask my players not to adopt false method of winning. I promote their

discouraging attitude towards wrong play. I acknowledge motivation and appreciation for

each other. I promote mutual respect. Mutual encouragement would increase performance

of players. Demotivating each other would decrease individual and collective

performance eventually” [Extract 12].

Another important focused code postulated as discussing sportsmanship

threatening issues including coaches’ discussion with players, coaches inquire personal

issues of players and coaches provide friendly environment. The verbatim proposed as

under:

“I think the more I would be close to my player, the more attentively he would

listen me and affect me positively. A good sportsman must understand his coach as well

and I try to promote such things in my players. Coach-athlete communication gap would

destroy players. I discuss social issues and problems along with their personal problems

after training session. Sometimes, players are being distracted by their domestic problems

that is also affecting their studies. Now this is the time when a good coach should take

out that problematic stuff out of it through affection and friendly behavior and provide

mutual solution for players” [Extract 13].

Coaches reported themselves as a good observant of sportsmanship and coined as

observed sportsmanship. Sub-focused codes merged from sportsmanship is a process,

176

players model coaches and senior players and players learn professionalism from social

gatherings. As one of the coaches narrated:

“I think to promote a champion is not a one day task but it is a lifelong process.

When an emerging player plays with his senior players and socialize with them other than

game, he motivates himself. He wants to be like his senior players and try to adopt their

life style. These players observe professionalism, socialization and ethics from them and

try to implement in their lives as well. Players try to be in social gatherings with them and

hangout with establish players. Intentionally or unintentionally, they try to be like them”

[Extract 14].

Coaches also model and display sportsmanship for their players and teach

sportsmanship through modeling. Sub-focused codes comprised of coaches warns players

about ethical mistakes, coaches watch players and coaches encourage players to adopt

good sportsmanship. The verbatim exhibited as under:

“I observe mental level of my players and provide them good learning

environment. I conduct individual and group guidance sessions with them. I highlight

champion players and demand my players to be like them. I ask them to observe them

and discuss their attitudes and game with me. I require my players to adopt good behavior

of such players as it would professionally benefit them. I want to be a role model for my

players and do as I want them to do for me” [Extract 15].

The last focused code coined responsibility as a morale booster that was favored

by three sub-focused codes i.e. players fulfill responsibility due to coaches’ strictness,

players understand coaches with affection and coaches forbid players from unethical

behaviors. Coaches’ views about responsibility preserved as under:

“I think young players are very good observant. They perceive their coaches’

support, dedication and passion as their own and try to be honest during training. We

promote check and balance among players at minor levels. Players feel pride if we assign

any kind of responsibility to them. I have observed that my responsibility sharpens my

players that eventually optimize their performance. These players depict complete code

of ethics in ground as well” [Extract 16].

177

Figure 5.2

Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of Hockey Players

178

Table 5.3

Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Performance Efficacy of Hockey Players

Sr.

No.

Cricket Players Cricket Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

1 Coaches’ Influence on players

performance

• Equal relation of coaches for

all players

• Coaches’ desire excellent

performance of players

• Coaches motivate players

• Coaches are inspirations for

their players

II

IV

I

I

Coaching climate for optimal

performance

• Friendly coaching,

coaches are well-

wishers

• Effective coaching

boosts players’

confidence

II

II

2 Optimal performance enhances

mutual relationship

• Players’ failure in

implementing coaches’ plan

offends coaches

• Coaches demand result in any

case

• Players enjoy mutual

communication

• Mutual communication help

players about their mistakes

I

III

I

II

Performance related

coaching competence

• Players understand

coaches

• Coaches

psychologically relax

their players

• Coaches’ appreciation

lessens players’

mistakes

• Coaches’ anger

negatively influences

players

II

II

I

II

3 Performance threatening factors

• Coach-athlete communication

gap influences players’

performance

• Distant coach-athlete

relationship negatively affect

players

• Coaches’ critical analysis

benefits players

IV

II

V

Psycho-competitive coaching

• Players comply their

coaches

• Collective passion for

game

• Coaches concern for

players’ game

• Players aspire from

senior players and

follow their coaches’

instructions

I

III

I

IV

4 Limited freedom and coaching

dependency

• Playing selflessly, playing with

patriotism

II

Coaches’ concerns for

players

• Coaches’ critical

evaluation of players

III

(Table Continued)

179

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

• Coaches’ guidance guarantees

optimal players’ performance

• Lack of professionalism in

Pakistan hockey

I

V

• Coaches’ concern for

players

• Coaches’

understanding for

players

III

II

5 Perceived coaching support

• Coaches’ attitude influences

players performance

• Coaches’ positivity increases

players’ performance

• Coaches’ negativity decreases

performance of players

II

II

II

Psycho-competitive coaching

competence

• Psychologically

fearless

• Passion for game,

coaches produce

skillfulness

• Coaches devotion and

dedication inspire

players

II

III

II

6 Players’ concerns about coaches

• Coaches should understand

players mentally

• Coaches non-professional

attitude

• Coaches’ should employ

professional coaching

I

II

IV

7 Ineffective coaching as a threat to

performance

• Coaches’ biasness influences

players’ performance

• Players hesitate from coaches

• Distant coach-athlete

relationship threatens players’

performance

• Ineffective coaching distract

players

I

I

II

II

8 Perceived coaching competence

• Coaches are players’ well-

wishers

• Coaches handle players

tactically

• Coaches control players

psychologically

II

I

II

(Table Continued)

180

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

9 Performance threatening factors

• Technology is influencing

players’ performance

• Players spend sleepless nights

Players use internet all the

night and avoid their matches

• Excessive use of internet will

decrease performance of

players

• Players don’t do hard work

• Wastage of time because of

internet influences optimal

performance

IV

I

II

III

II

10 Task Orientation

• Task oriented responsibility

• Responsibility influences

performance

• Individual differences in

perception of responsibility

I

I

I

Question three was about performance efficacy (how hockey players perceive that

their coaches’ coaching competence influence their performance efficacy and how

hockey coaches see their coaching competence as an influence to performance efficacy of

their hockey players). Table 5.3 showed ten focused codes for hockey players and five

focused codes for hockey coaches. First of all, hockey players coined coaches’ influence

on players’ performance as a major focused code by uniting equal relation of coaches for

all players, coaches’ desire excellent performance of players, coaches motivate players

and coaches are inspirations for their players as supported by the following verbatim:

“I think coach should treat equally all his players. Coaches usually motivate and

appreciate players on their performance. A coach only can influence my performance if I

would follow his instructions. Coaches only require performance from us and spark

passion in us to perform. Coaches behaves well with that players who perform well. In

my case, I work harder and harder to meet expectations of my coach” [Extract 1].

181

Secondly, players’ failure in implementing coaches’ plan offends coaches,

coaches demand result in any case, players enjoy mutual communication and mutual

communication help players about their mistakes assimilated as optimal performance

strengthens mutual relationship. Players displayed a strong insight about their

performance as a link to relationship with their coaches as narrated:

“Usually, if I perform well my coaches behave well with me. I think my

performance strengthens my relationship with coach. If we communicate well with coach

and coach communicate well with us and we spend quality time, then we enjoy our game

in a friendly environment. My coach tells me about my mistakes. Coaches show concern

towards us and practically correct us our mistake during game” [Extract 2].

Another most important and unique conceptualization exhibited as performance

threatening factors. It incorporated coach-athlete communication gap influences players’

performance, distant coach-athlete relationship negatively affect players and coaches’

critical analysis benefits players. Hockey players revealed different performance

threatening factors as showed by the following verbatim:

“I try to be open with my coach and ask him about my frequent mistakes during

match. I prefer not to have any kind of communication gap with my coach as it would

negatively influence my performance. If I don’t tell my coach about my mistakes then he

would not be able to find out my flaws. I think if my coach try to be open then there is no

point for me to be hesitant. If I wouldn’t be open to my coaches, he would never able to

critically evaluate my playing techniques” [Extract 3].

Limited freedom and coaching dependency constituted by playing selflessly,

playing with patriotism, coaches’ guidance guarantees optimal players’ performance and

lack of professionalism in Pakistan hockey. An international player supported these

focused codes as following:

“I have always tried to work hard for optimal performance. My country and its

pride have always been important for me during match. Unfortunately, destructive

criticism is very frequent in Pakistan. If we put our opinion in front of coaches, they

182

perceive us as disobedient. Coaches usually tell players about life style, dressing sense

and other social norms but as a player I feel that these restrictions limit my freedom and

independence. I have faced many times that whenever I told my coach about my will and

intention, he took it negatively and ultimately, my performance during match decreased”

[Extract 4].

Hockey players shared their views about perceived coaching support as a major

focused code comprising of coaches’ attitude influences players performance, coaches’

positivity increases players’ performance and coaches’ negativity decreases performance

of players. Following verbatim is in the favor of this phenomenon:

“My relationship with coach or our two way interaction and communication

influences my performance and enhances it to next level. It also provide me confidence.

Obviously when I get the idea that my coach likes me then it influences my performance.

My coach also give me confidence and automatically I start thinking positive.

Sometimes, when my coach thinks negative about me, my performance automatically

decreases I use to think negative about myself. My coach’s favor and support for me

enhances my overall performance and attitude towards game” [Extract 5].

Players also revealed and expressed their concerns about their coaches and coined

from coaches should understand players mentally, coaches non-professional attitude and

coaches’ should employ professional coaching. Detailed depiction of this concern is

followed as under:

“Usually, coaches make unnecessary comparisons among players. It is illogical to

compare a twenty five years old player with a forty years old player. Coaches train every

player with one set standard and don’t take individual sessions. Coaches should intervene

at this level to initiate different levels of coaching as per requirement of their players.

Authoritative coaching style irrespective to players’ needs and requirements are the real

reason of demise of hockey in Pakistan” [Extract 6].

Another focused code named as ineffective coaching as a threat to performance

that included coaches’ biasness influences players’ performance, players hesitate from

coaches, distant coach-athlete relationship threatens players’ performance and ineffective

183

coaching distract players. Detailed description of focused codes from the verbatim is as

under:

“Performance vary from person to person. If I am close to my coach or he favors

me then my other teammates would be psychologically low. They would not be able to

show optimal performance. These players hesitate in sharing problems with coaches.

They think that what so ever they would have been doing, their coach is never going to

like me. I think coach is just like father to me just like and I prefer to discuss game

related problems with my coach. If coach is being harsh to players’ questions then they

would face different problems other than game and decreasing performance” [Extract 7].

Coaches are players’ well-wishers and coaches handle players tactically and

coaches control players psychologically organized under perceived coaching competence.

One of the players highlighted and supported this concept as under:

“I think coaches guide players very well. Coaches realize players about the worth of

game. I feel pride when my coach guide me and work hard for me. Coaches’ hard work

psychologically influences me. If I think about myself, dedication of my coach towards

me inspire me to work hard and perform well and I think that is the vital and direct role

of a coach towards his players” [Extract 8].

Players also mentioned different performance threatening factors that are

hindrance and decreasing their performance. It incorporated technology is influencing

players’ performance, players spend sleepless nights Players use internet all the night and

avoid their matches, excessive use of internet will decrease performance of players,

players don’t do hard work and wastage of time because of internet influences optimal

performance. The verbatim is as under:

“Now-a-days, technology is badly affecting people i.e. mobile and internet.

Players use to awake late at night and misuse internet. They don’t get proper sleep and

ultimately their performance in match decreases. Mobile and internet are harmful for a

player’s overall performance in match. Players prefer shortcuts for winning and don’t do

any kind of hard work. Internet is a major distractor for players and is a major threat for

performance” [Extract 9].

184

The last focused code was task orientation that was supported by task oriented

responsibility, responsibility influences performance and individual differences in

perception of responsibility. Players highlighted the importance of game related tasks for

them as followed by the verbatim:

“If a player is designated as captain, then his performance might be decreased

because of pressure of his role. Responsibility before match is assigned by coaches and

during match captain demand different type of roles from us. We discuss with each other

and improve performance. In short, what so ever is being done during match is solely for

the sake of optimal performance and completion of different assigned responsibilities”

[Extract 10].

However, hockey coaches revealed five focused codes regarding the question how

their coaching competence influence performance efficacy of their players. Firstly,

coaching climate for optimal performance resulting from friendly coaching, coaches are

well-wishers and effective coaching boosts players’ confidence, derived from the

following verbatim:

“I try to provide friendly environment for my players. I believe that friendly

environment and my friendly behavior will make players happy. I try to learn players as

much as possible and encourage them to question. I struggle hard for players but if they

don’t give me output then it is natural to be angry for me. My players obey me a lot even

more than their parents. My guidance and concern give confidence to my players”

[Extract 11].

Secondly, coaches mentioned performance related coaching competence by

uniting under players understand coaches, coaches psychologically relax their players,

coaches’ appreciation lessens players’ mistakes and coaches’ anger negatively influences

players. The verbatim of one of the international coaches is as followed:

“I am very lenient with my coaches. I understand my players and discuss their

issues with them. I brief players about solutions of their problems and it increases their

performance. I think a coach should be a very good motivator for his players. Motivation

bring out passion from players towards their game. I ignore players’ minor mistakes and

185

appreciate their minor achievements. It somehow helps me as my player himself tries to

avoid committing mistakes” [Extract 12].

Coaches also coined their role as a mixture of different psychological and

competitive skills enhancer accompanying by players comply their coaches, collective

passion for game, coaches concern for players’ game and players aspire from senior

players and follow their coaches’ instructions. The detailed verbatim is narrated as:

“Players have to give performance and my role as a coach is only to give my

players a plan. On my part, I believe it is my responsibility to chalk out a perfect plan and

enable my players to execute it well. Performance of players is only linked with coaches’

strategic planning for any match. As a coach, I plan according to opponents and make a

solid plan for my players. It is very rare to change match plan as per situation of the

match. I train my players in a certain way that they automatically avoid to commit

mistakes. I give motivation to my players with different methods i.e. following senior

players and application of theory in the field” [Extract 13].

Coaches’ concerns for players included coaches’ critical evaluation of players,

coaches’ concern for players and coaches’ understanding for players. As showed by the

following verbatim:

“As a coach, I try to be aware of personal issues of my players. I try to figure out

any kind of psychological issue that is teasing my player and decreasing his performance.

When I was a player, my coach never asked me about my personal problems. Since I am

a coach, I try to be aware of psychological issues of my players along with physical

fitness and game related concerns. I prefer to consider minor things of my players”

[Extract 14].

The second last focused code displayed as psycho-performance coaching

competence including psychologically fearless, passion for game, coaches produce

skillfulness and coaches devotion and dedication inspire players. The verbatim showed

as:

“I try to be kind with my players and screen them mentally and psychologically. I

motivate them and make them fearless towards their game. I try to improve performance

of my players and don’t let them hesitate in pressure situations. I learn my players in

186

friendly environment and require them to perform as per my input and hard work. A

player should be psychologically broadened. I try to find out hidden talent of my players

that is not discovered even by themselves yet. I make my players skilled and passionate

psychologically that they represent Pakistan at international level” [Extract 15].

187

Figure 5.3

Perceptions of Hockey Players and Hockey Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Performance Efficacy of Hockey Players

188

Table 5.4

Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’ Coaching

Competence on Psychological Skills of Cricketers

Sr.

No.

Cricket Players Cricket Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

1 Players’ requirement from coaches

• Coaches should know players

personally

• Coaches must know players’

requirements

• Coaches should be sincere and

trustworthy

II

II

I

Coaching competence

• Coaches’ work on

mechanics of players

• Coaches make players

mentally strong

• Coaches help players in

struggling for being

mentally strong

III

III

I

2 Perceived coach athlete relationship

• Discussing problems with

coaches

• Sharing mutual experiences

• Meeting each other mental

levels

IV

II

I

Coaches’ insight for players

• Environmental factors

influence performance

• Coaches work on

problematic areas

• Coaches’ enthusiasm and

motivation for players

II

IV

IV

3 Coaches’ role in professional

grooming

• Good coach-athlete

relationship is mutually

helpful

• A good coach can read

player’s mind

• Coaches guide players in

correcting mistakes

III

III

III

Openness to players

• Dealing players elegantly

• Situational treatment for

players

• Players’ responsiveness

to coaches’ instructions

I

I

III

4 Influential playing levels

• Enabling oneself for coaches,

being influenced by coaches

• Coaches understanding for

players

• Freedom for players from

coaches

II

II

I

Coaches’ concerns for coach-

athlete relationship

• Coaches improve

players’ game with their

own will

• Coaches should tackle

threatening factors

• Coaches have to

strengthen their

relationship with players

II

I

V

189

Sr.

No.

Cricket Players Cricket Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

5 Perceived psychological support

• Coaches psychologically relief

players

• Coaches’ pre-match

motivation, friendly coach-

athlete relationship

• Lessening communication gap

through interaction

IV

II

II

Psychological tactics for

coaching

• Players are responsive

to positivity

• Self-belief leads to

confidence

• Coaches concern for

players’ progress

III

I

I

6 Co-operation for learning

• Players’ face problems while

initially applying following

players

• Mutual plan to execute better

results

• Mutual understanding

II

III

I

Coach-athlete

communication

• Good cricketers quench

for cricket

• Cricketers need

progression in their

game

I

III

7 Professional coaching for career

excellence

• Natural spark to shine

• Coaches polish talented

players

• Coaches produce champions

I

I

I

Self-independence

• Coaches promote self-

analysis in players

• Coaches make their

players independent

IV

IV

8 Mutual co-operation for goal setting

• Coaches’ role change with

playing levels

• Coaches and players prefer

video analysis

• Coach-player co-operation set

game strategy

• Coaches’ trust encourage their

players

II

II

III

I

Easing learning through

effective coaching

• Players work on their

basic techniques

• Body reacts to mind

messages

• Coaches must give a

clear message to their

players

III

I

V

9 Responsibility threatening factors

• Players groom from stressful

environment

• Players face problems at club

level

• Club cricket system hinder

players’ grooming

III

I

III

Environmental influencing

factors

• Working on weaker

areas with fear

• Fear influences

players’ performance

• Players fear internally

II

IV

I

(Table Continued)

190

Sr.

No.

Cricket Players Cricket Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

10

Coaches as responsibility

facilitators

• Coaches explore

optimal performance

factors

• Coaches promote

clarity and

understanding among

players

• Coaches motivate

players for

performance

• Coaches adjust players’

mind set for

performance

III

III

I

II

11

Psychological training for

players

• Coaches enable players

for taking

responsibility

• Coaches promote game

wining tactics

• Coaches consider

psychological

preparation of players

IV

I

IV

For cricket players and cricket coaches, it was asked from cricketers how their

coaches’ coaching competence influences their psychological skills and cricket coaches

were asked how their coaching competence influences psychological skills of their

cricketers? Table 5.4 revealed nine focused codes for cricketers. First of all, players

mentioned their requirements from coaches by mentioning coaches should know players

personally, coaches must know players’ requirements and coaches should be sincere and

trustworthy as sub-focused codes. The verbatim specified as:

191

“As a player I believe that I should be sincere with my coach and every coach

demands it from his player. I must have trust in him and if I don’t trust my coach, he

wouldn’t be able to understand me. I cannot build strong coach-athlete relationship until I

am not open up with my coach and have regard for him. Then, my coach would be able to

know my thoroughly and understand my personality. My coach should understand me

psychologically when I am under pressure and if he does so then I would share my

problems with him” [Extract 1].

Discussing problems with coaches, sharing mutual experiences and meeting each

other mental level claimed as perceived coach-athlete relationship. The verbatim in

support of this focused code is mentioned as under:

“A coach-athlete relationship requires mutual understanding and problem

solution approach but this phenomenon is being influential by several different directions.

Players usually feel hesitation in discussing their issues with coaches. They feel as

sharing with coaches would be harmful for them. I believe a players is his own personal

coach. He should get maximum help from coaches and learn from their experience but

mutual sharing is a long term process and demand mutual efforts and concerns” [Extract

2].

Coaches’ role in professional grooming was highlighted including good coach-

athlete relationship is mutually helpful and a good coach can read player’s mind. An

international player sustained this concept as followed by the verbatim:

“Coaches play an important role in a cricketer’s life. Only a coach can understand

your inner feelings. A coach can evaluate good and bad phases of one’s performance. He

backs his player and points out your mistakes. I think a coach is directly influential on a

cricketer’s life. If you have good relation with your coach and you are not performing

well, only then a coach can observe his player’s mistakes. Good coach-athlete

relationship is important both for players and coaches. Coaches give confidence to

players and can understand you psychologically and make them a good player” [Extract

3].

Cricketers declared that playing levels i.e. domestic, national and international

have also been influential on their psychological skills. It encompassed enabling oneself

192

for coaches, being influenced by coaches, coaches understanding for players and freedom

for players from coaches. As a cricketer narrated:

“Cricket is linked with playing level. Every playing level in cricket has different

mindset. Every playing level has different coaching panel and players have to adjust with

them. In the end, it is players’ responsibility to psychologically adjust with different

coaches. These levels ultimately enable players to be their own coach and have to

implement playing techniques learnt from coaches themselves. Ultimately, it depends on

players when and how they play in critical situations during match. Coaches should also

understand their players and give them a free hand” [Extract 4].

Cricketers described perceived psychological support by their coaches that is

helpful in uplifting their psychological skills including coaches psychologically relief

players, coaches’ pre-match motivation, friendly coach-athlete relationship and lessening

communication gap through interaction. It was obvious from the following verbatim:

“To have one mentor and coach is very important in cricket. You only have one

mentor in cricket though you work with different coaches but your role model must be a

specific coach. My coach work hard for me and motivate me by realizing me that my

whole team is dependent upon me. It is possible as my coach actually knows how to

diminish mutual communication gap and my fair interaction with my coach shows my

real and true involvement in match” [Extract 5].

Players’ face problems while initially applying following players, mutual plan to

execute better results and mutual understanding gathered under co-operation for learning

as a cricketer revealed:

“A good coach directly observes his players in cricket and tries to be with you

every time. He guides you as a teacher and improves your cricket. He point out your

weaknesses and let you know where you have to work hard. Players perceive their

coaches differently. If a coach ask a player to change his playing technique, he might face

some problem and will lose his confidence. But if a player modifies his coach’s technique

after mutual discussion then they both can have better results. It is only possible when

they both understand each other” [Extract 6].

193

Professional coaching for career excellence incorporated by three sub-focused

codes i.e. natural spark to shine, coaches polish talented players and coaches produce

champions. Following is the verbatim:

“Obviously, guidance of coach affect playing techniques of players as he can

guide you better after close observation. The role of coaches is very important for me. He

works as a teacher for me and psychologically help me. A professional cricketer has to go

through from many ups and downs and he feels a dying need of a good coach at every

stage. A good coach can guide him well in such crisis situations as coach himself has

gone through from such situations. Pakistan is full of talent and if a sincere coach work

on such talented raise ordinary players as champions” [Extract 7].

The second last focused code from cricketers’ point of view emerged as mutual

co-operation for goal setting including coaches’ role change with playing levels, coaches

and players prefer video analysis, coach-player co-operation set game strategy and

coaches’ trust encourage their players. The verbatim coined as:

“It is the responsibility of a coach to let his player go through a good learning

process. A good coach make momentum of his players and channelize him in right

direction. An experienced coach plays a crucial role in uplifting lowering performance of

players, bring players back into performance zone and it is totally a psychological

process. Coaches work step by step on playing techniques of players by setting different

short term performance related tasks for them. The role of coaches differ as per their

coaching levels. Coaches start analyzing players through video sessions and devise a

mutual playing strategy for optimal performance” [Extract 8].

The last focused code evolved as responsibility threatening factors including

players groom from stressful environment, players face problems at club level and club

cricket system hinder players’ grooming. Explanation from verbatim of an international

cricketer is as under:

“It varies from player to player how does he perceives responsibility assigned by

coaches. A few player are very responsive and perform well, whereas, a few players

underperform due to extra responsibility during match. Education plays an important role

in this regard. There is a lot of need to work on our club cricketing system as it is very

stressful. Players have to work hard and develop themselves from different pressure

194

situations. Many players never perform well and unable to groom themselves as a mature

player to meet any kind of responsibility to perform well” [Extract 9].

On the other hand, it was asked from cricket coaches how their coaching

competence influence their psychological skills? Total eleven focused codes were figured

out. Firstly, coaching competence was mentioned involving coaches’ work on mechanics

of players, coaches make players mentally strong and coaches help players in struggling

for being mentally strong. The verbatim described as under:

“As far as my relationship with my player is concern, first of all I foresee

uniqueness of my players that is his strength. I find out positive cricket in my players and

work on it to develop them as their unique quality. Later, I also realize my players about

their weaknesses and ask them to work on them along their skills. I try to develop their

techniques that gives them extra benefit in their game. Mentally strong players take this

pattern well, however, weaker players have to struggle in this regard” [Extract 10].

Coaches also mentioned their insight for players as a major focused code that

incorporated environmental factors influence performance, coaches’ work on problematic

areas and coaches’ enthusiasm and motivation for players. This claim is supported by the

verbatim as under:

“Firstly, we judge confidence level of any player then practically learn them

different playing skills along with pressure handling. Dealing with pressure is very

important in the life of a professional cricketer. As a coach, we motivate our players to

handle pressure during critical situations of matches. It is very much possible that a

player have any kind of domestic issue and his performance is being affected. These kind

of conditions disturbs players mentally that is not only harmful for a player but also

negatively influential for other teammates. I try to develop mutual harmony and

understanding that eventually lead players to release their stress and enhances dedication

for game” [Extract 11].

Cricket coaches defined themselves as having openness for their players. Dealing

players elegantly, situational treatment for players and players’ responsiveness to

coaches’ instructions were mentioned as sub-focused codes. As the verbatim followed:

195

“We try to maintain academy environment just like our homes. When we try to be

frank with players, they tend to hesitate and reluctant but as we are on the giving end,

therefore, promote confidence and clarify them our situations. We try to not let them

reluctant and assure co-operation for them by broadening their mental level. We

encourage frequent questioning for any problematic issue and try to lessen their fear for

us. We have to be strict as players use to take us for granted but after a bit strictness they

get them back to the track of learning and interest for game” [Extract 12].

There are different concerns for coach-athlete relationship mentioned by cricket

coaches. These concerns were divided as coaches improve players’ game with their own

will, coaches should tackle threatening factors and coaches have to strengthen their

relationship with players. The verbatim suggested as under:

“Coach-athlete relationship needs to be built. We analyze players in five different

dimensions that include technique, tactics, mental aspect, physical and life style. We

thoroughly look into these domains and monitor them. We try to convince our players

and guarantee them about their wellbeing and betterment in cricket. We try to bring out

best out of players by helping them in different weaker areas. On the other hand, if our

player doesn’t have trust and confidence in us or he is doubtful about us then it is our

responsibility to give our players trust and confidence for us” [Extract 13].

Psychological tactics for coaching included players are responsive to positivity,

self-belief leads to confidence and coaches concern for players’ progress. The use of

different psychological techniques during coaching process for players is defined as:

“I make my players comfortable with me that promote self-belief in them. When

we discuss someone strengths with them, they listen us attentively. We realize players

that they have to work on their weaker areas so that they can easily perform. After

hearing positivity from me, my player responds me well. It also give self-belief to them

and be fearless. Results don’t matter for me but progress matters a lot. If I demand results

then players get pressure” [Extract 14].

Good cricketers quench for cricket and cricketers need progression in their game

emerged as coach-athlete communication. The kind of mutual communication is shared

by one of the coaches as under:

196

“I think as a coach if I don’t trust my players then my player would be very

formal with me. I try to look into my player and bring best out of it. It is solely my duty

to convince my player about his strengths and weaknesses. It is the crucial time when a

complete team of coaches work with a player and he gains self-confidence. When players

feel improvement in themselves then it becomes a two way relationship. Player also take

his coaches as his huge benefactors and show commitment with his coaches” [Extract

15].

Self-independence devised from interaction of coaches promote self-analysis in

players and coaches make their players independent as sub-focused codes. Self-

independence for a cricketer by his coach is narrated as:

“Mind and body co-ordination is very important for progressing in cricket. If

player is unable to build such co-ordination then he would never get improved. First of

all, I try to build this co-ordination then my player automatically start following my

instructions. Self-improvement leads him to self-independence. He starts understanding

himself. He doesn’t ask his coach about what to do and what not to do. I try to develop

my player independent and feel happy for him” [Extract 16].

Another focused emerged as easing Learning through effective coaching that

included players work on their basic techniques, body reacts to mind messages and

coaches must give a clear message to their players. Following verbatim explained it as

under:

“Initially, we start to tackle players psychologically and try to work on mental

aspects. But as a coach, I can only tell them but cannot guarantee results. Feedback from

players matters a lot in this regard. We mutually plan systematic problem solving

strategies. We develop communication so that they may groom as champions and

represent Pakistan at international level. The demise of champions start when they forget

their basic techniques and skills. Our role as a coach in a player’s life is very precise and

clear. I try not to involve so many things for my players” [Extract 17].

Working on weaker areas with fear, fear influences players’ performance and

players fear internally combined under environmental influencing factors as described:

“Unfortunately, there are many drawbacks in development of a player that involve

fearful environment. As a professional coach, we try to eliminate fear factor from the

197

minds of our players. We have to be over protective for our players. If we eliminate fear

factor from our players, they mentally and physically establish as a champion. Players are

being brought up from gross root level that influences them throughout their career and

have fear in minds. To prepare our players for international level, we also try to change

our coaching styles” [Extract 18].

Coaches also demonstrated themselves as a facilitator for players regarding

responsibility during match. It involved four sub-focused codes i.e. coaches explore

optimal performance factors, coaches promote clarity and understanding among players,

coaches motivate players for performance and coaches adjust players’ mind set for

performance. As described by one of the coaches as under:

“When I assign any kind of responsibility to my players, their performance

improves. Players progress slowly and it also varies from person to person. Expectations

from players create fear in them and make them nervous. If we give them trust, they

progress and become self-independent. I ask my players about reason of their excellent

performance. Their feedback makes me happy. Their understanding develops and I ask

them to be consistent on it. I adjust mind set of my players according to their

performance” [Extract 19].

The last focused code postulated as psychological training for players. Coaches

elaborated and defined by evolving coaches enable players for taking responsibility,

coaches promote game wining tactics and coaches consider psychological preparation of

players. One of the coaches described this phenomenon as followed:

“The main hindrance in psychological development our players is not command

following due to fear factor. We try to boost them psychologically for optimal

performance. I check performance of my players according to their mental level. The

grooming of a professional players require psychological endurance. We gradually try to

enhance our players’ mental ability so that they perform well under pressure situations.

We guide our players and enable them in taking responsibility. We handle them in case of

having any kind of problem. We promote mental strength and give them self-confidence

and self-belief” [Extract 20].

198

Figure 5.4

Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’ Coaching

Competence on Psychological Skills of Cricketers

199

Table 5.5

Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’ Coaching

Competence on Sportsmanship of Cricketers

Sr.

No.

Cricket Players Cricket Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

1 Active coaching roles

• Coaches observations for

players

• Coaches enable players to

deliver their game

• Players must work on their

grooming

II

I

I

Professional cricket

• Mental aspect

• Physical fitness

• Game techniques

• Life style

III

II

III

I

2 Coach-athlete mutual sharing

• Mutual Trust

• Fear distort coach-athlete

relationship

• Mutual sharing

II

II

III

Psychological preparation

• Coaches rehearse

match situations during

match practices

• Coaches train players

according to matches

• Coaches teach pressure

handling to their

players

III

II

IV

3 Professional coaching attitude

• Coaches make players

independent

• Players themselves have to

work on them

• Players implement coaches’

plan during game

IV

I

III

Coaches' role in

enhancement of

sportsmanship

• Code of conduct is

necessary to follow

• Players bear fines on

not following rules

• Coaches monitor

players psychologically

• Coaches diminish

negativity among

players

II

II

I

IV

4 Trustworthiness

• Trust and sharing with coach

• Being truthful to coach

• Being fake with coaches

decreases performance

I

III

I

Coaches promoting morality

and ethics

• Coaches ask players to

obey parents

• Coaches require

freshness of mind

• Peace of mind promote

optimal performance

II

II

II

(Table Continued)

200

Sr.

No.

Cricket Players Cricket Coaches

Focused Codes F Focused Codes F

5 Perceived coaching competence

• Mutual understanding and

sharing

• Coaching flaws,

unprofessional coaching

• Coaching is just a time pass

II

IV

I

Coach-athlete co-operation

for sportsmanship

• Coach-athlete co-

operation is necessary

• Coaches’ active role

• Players’ sharing with

coaches

IV

II

III

6 Individual differences in coaching

methods

• Positive environment

• Informal observation of

coaches

• Different teaching and

learning methods of coaches

I

III

IV

Mutual Discussion for Better

Learning

• Appreciation of

coaches

• Qualified cricket

coaches

• Coaches should change

their attitude

• Players regard

professional coaches

III

III

IV

V

7 Moral behavior in and out the field

• Sports require mannerism

• Sportsmen as role model

• Depiction of ethics and

morality

• Good sportsmanship

II

IV

II

III

Enhancement of

Sportsmanship by coaches

• Responsibility provide

desired results

• Good response

encourage players to

follow rules

• Realization for game

rules by coaches

III

II

I

8 Healthy competitive tactics

• Coaches’ confidence for

responsibility

• Coaches expectations from

players

• Coaches assistance for better

results

III

IV

II

Competitive threats for

sportsmanship

• Ethical players are

being encouraged

• Sledging is a situational

factor

• Sledging is competitive

technique

• Different tactics to

disturb opponents

• Bad behavior is

difficult to fix

IV

I

II

II

I

9 Competitiveness

• Game commitment

• Unpredictability for

performance

• Learning attitude

III

II

III

201

The second question was about how cricketers' coaches' competence influence

their sportsmanship and how coaching competence of cricket coaches influence

sportsmanship of their cricketers. Table 5.4 showed nine focused codes for cricketers.

Active coaching roles incorporated coaches observations for players, coaches enable

players to deliver their game and players must work on their grooming. The verbatim is

as under:

“Subjectivity plays a crucial role in this regard. Coaches’ grooming as a coach

strongly influences players. Coaches’ handling players affect personality of players.

Coach-athlete mutual interaction help players in delivering performance and

understanding pressure situations. The relationship of coaches vary from player to player

and he deals every players differently. Coaches enable players in delivering performance

after keenly observing them. The rest is dependent upon coaches how they work on

themselves” [Extract 1].

Coach-athlete mutual sharing was marked as second focused code that included

mutual trust, fear distort coach-athlete relationship and mutual sharing. One of the

cricketers narrated:

“As a player I think my coach has to take ownership for me. He has to monitor

personal and social life of me and that is my fundamental requirement from my coach. He

should take interest in my family life and social settings. All these things emerge good

co-operation and relationship between a player and a coach. I should also show interest

towards his coach. If I would be fearful from my coach then my relationship with my

coach will affect. Players should develop comfort zone with their coaches and share

personal issues with them” [Extract 2].

Professional coaching attitude signified itself as a major influencer to

sportsmanship of cricketers by their coaches. It included sub-codes as coaches make

players independent, players themselves have to work on them and players implement

coaches’ plan during game. It was supported by the following verbatim:

“I believe every coach must understand his players and ultimately a players is his

own coach at the end of the day. Coach can only guide me but I have to take decisions

202

during match at my own responsibility. Confidence and encouragement of my coach

optimize my performance. On the other hand, if he is being harsh with me, being biased

and give undue favors to other teammates then I can never develop myself as a champion

player. Coaches only give us a plan before match and it is only we who have to

implement it by ourselves” [Extract 3].

Trust and sharing with coaches, being fake with coaches decrease performance

and being truthful to coach emerged as trustworthiness. The verbatim is as under:

“It is natural when we share our problems with someone, we feel relax. In cricket,

our coach is our most sincere friend and I try to be very close to him. Whenever I have

any kind of personal or professional problem, I tend to discuss it with my coach. My

coach provides me solutions of my problems that give me excellent results. My pressure

lessens because of sharing with my coach and I can fully concentrate on my game.

Trusting coach give me self-confidence. If I would not be open with my coach, I might

face problems towards performing well and my coach will also be angry with me”

[Extract 4].

Another focused code was coined as perceived coaching competence. Mutual

understanding and sharing, coaching flaws, unprofessional coaching and coaching is just

a time pass were emerged under this focused code as stated:

“I have seen many ups and downs in my international career but one thing that I

have observed many times is that coach-athlete relationship directly influences

sportsmanship of a player. First of all, we as a player have to draw a distinguished line

that determines progressive coaching and performance based coaching for us.

Unfortunately, our coaches have been unable to draw this line. On the field and off the

field mutual understanding are strongly linked with each other and increases performance

of a player. Mutual sharing and understanding is very important” [Extract 5].

Individual differences in coaching methods were also postulated as being

affective to sportsmanship of cricketers by their coaches. It included positive

environment, informal observation of coaches and different teaching and learning

methods of coaches. As the verbatim showed:

“A good coach would definitely have good code of conduct and teaching method.

He influences development of his players. A good coach should listen his players

attentively. He should treat equally all players and comprehend positivity and negativity

203

in his players. He should have known how to make his players perform. Mutual respect

and gathering promote understanding for each other. We also observe our coaches and

ask them different things related to our game and discuss our mistakes. Some coaches

friendly guide individually, however, a few direct us in front of others” [Extract 6].

Moral behavior in and out the field incorporated sports require mannerism,

sportsmen as role model, depiction of ethics and morality and good sportsmanship as

emerged by the following verbatim:

“I think players use to be non-social now-a-days that is badly need to be changed.

Low bonding with coach will cause lower match performance and promote bad

relationships with teammates as well. Coaches and players share everything and guide

you well upon having any kind of problem. Coach feels happy if I show interest towards

game and he feels satisfied towards me. He also promotes sportsmanship and sportsman

spirit in me. I believe a good sportsman should always show good sportsmanship and be a

role model for his juniors. A sportsman should be role model and show ethics in every

matter of life and must influence people with his mannerism” [Extract 7]

Second last theme ended up as healthy competitive tactics that was formulated by

coaches’ confidence for responsibility, coaches' expectations from players and coaches

assistance for better results. Healthy competitive tactics found to be crucial in promoting

sportsmanship in cricketers as stated by one of the cricketers:

“Positivity promotes commitment. A good coach monitors his players and enables

them in fulfilling all kinds of responsibility at any cost. I try to fulfill expectations of my

coach towards me without be fearful. I try to control my anger and make my team win.

My coach give me confidence before match and give me a game plan to apply during

competition. Coach expects results from me and if I fail in delivering performance during

competition, my coach help me out in problematic areas” [Extract 8].

Lastly, competitiveness was highlighted as one of the major factors to be

influenced on sportsmanship of cricketers by their coaches. Game commitment,

unpredictability for performance and learning attitude were extracted from following

verbatim:

204

“I think pressure and critical situations determine how deep and excellent player

you are. Every time it is not the responsibility of the coach to point out and correct my

mistakes. Coaches appreciate efforts and commitment of their players. Coaches observe

your attitude towards your opponents. If we talk about international level, winning and

losing matters a lot for each of us but overall winning and losing just a part of game. As a

player, I try my level best to be committed towards my game. I try to learn from my

mistakes and my attitude towards learning enhances” [Extract 9].

Similarly, cricket coaches were asked how their coaching competence influences

sportsmanship of their player. Eight focused codes were postulated from the verbatim of

cricket coaches. First of all, professional cricket was exhibited that included mental

aspect, physical fitness, game techniques and life style. These factors found to be a major

factor in influencing sportsmanship of cricketers by their coaches as stated:

“As a coach, I am very influential on my players morally and change their

personality by controlling different things. It improves their personality on the field and

off the field after self-analysis. I think mental aspect of a player have always been

ignored. I comprehend different aspects of my players where they are weak and where

they need to develop themselves” [Extract 10].

Another focused coded mentioned as a major factor in influencing sportsmanship

of cricketers by their coaches was named as psychological preparation. It incorporated

coaches rehearse match situations during match practices, coaches train players according

to matches and coaches teach pressure handling to their players. As the verbatim showed:

“Coach-athlete relationship must be very friendly but it lacks in our culture. Our

coaching philosophy is just like being see ourselves as an elder in this relationship. I ask

my player to be at front as it is only him who would eventually perform. We mentally

strengthen them and train them psychologically by involving them in different pressure

situations. We prepare our players during practice sessions as actual match and promote

unity and harmony with each other as a team member” [Extract 11].

Coaches’ role in sportsmanship enhancement included code of conduct is

necessary to follow, players bear fines on not following rules, coaches monitor players

205

psychologically and coaches diminish negativity among players. These focused codes

were supported by the following verbatim:

“Coach is just like a guardian for players who help them in emerging as a

professional. Coaches have the ability to understand their players psychologically. I ask

my players to follow champion players and have a look at attitude and behavior other

than game other than game. Legend players have really worked hard on their character.

Now-a-days, players have to follow code of conduct and ethics to be on top at

international level. I psychologically monitor players and try not to let them develop any

kind of negativity towards their game and general life” [Extract 12].

Coaches also marked themselves as a moral instructor for their players as focused

code was coined as coaches promoting morality and ethics. Coaches ask players to obey

parents, coaches require freshness of mind and peace of mind promote optimal

performance extracted from the verbatim as under:

“Firstly, I talk on discipline whenever any new player is being admitted in our

academy. Discipline is our foremost priority that’s why my players are well trained. They

don’t like to me and talk to me openly. I try to build a relationship with them just like

their family. I ask my players to obey their parents and be courteous with them. I only

demand my players to be mentally fresh so that I can work on your mental ability and get

maximum performance from you” [Extract 13].

Coach-athlete co-operation is necessary, coaches’ active role and players’ sharing

with coaches formulated as coach-athlete co-operation for sportsmanship. It was taken

out from the following verbatim of one of the international level cricket coach:

“As a coach, we have indirect role in promoting sportsmanship in cricketers at

international level. There are set rules and regulations that every player has to follow and

they players who don’t follow them ultimately are being fined. There are also

demographic differences in players’ family background, upbringing and education. We

discuss these things with them and that is only possible due to mutual co-operation and

understanding with them. Coach-athlete co-operation is very necessary and if it is being

low that would always be by players, not by coaches. I can only guide and train players

mentally before match and can only get follow up after match. I try to be attach with my

players other than game so that they may share their personal problems with me” [Extract

14].

206

Another focused code highlighted as mutual discussions for better learning.

Appreciation of coaches, qualified cricket coaches, coaches should change their attitude

and players regard professional coaches were pointed out as major contributors for

promoting sportsmanship in cricket players by cricket coaches. As stated:

“I deliver lecture and discus cricket with my players. I brief junior players how to

player practically in the field. Certified coaches are beneficial for players as they teach

them how to only perform but behave during match. We discourage false language and

sledging in them. We boost players and encourage them. I think it’s a two way process

and players can only get benefit from us if we provide appreciation to question for

learning” [Extract 15].

Coaches mentioned their roles as a constructive contributor for enhancement of

morality including responsibility provide desired results, good response encourage

players to follow rules and realization for game rules by coaches as highlighted from the

verbatim as below:

“Responsibility promotes better sportsmanship among players and they start

showing regard for us. It makes them feel if they are also capable of doing something.

Majority of players take it positive, however, a few players take it as for granted. I think

players only expect respect from their coaches and it is only we who can work on their

behavior other than game. When a player get good results after execution our assigned

task, he eventually get motivation and start following rules. He realizes that following

rules is helpful for not only himself but also for his team” [Extract 16].

Lastly, a few threats were mentioned by coaches that can be marked as

competitive threats for sportsmanship. They included ethical players are being

encouraged, sledging is a situational factor, sledging is competitive technique, different

tactics to disturb opponents and bad behavior is difficult to fix. Coaches highlighted these

threats in detail as:

“I encourage players to show ethics and morality but sometimes they do sledge

according to the situation of the match but that is only used as a tool to disturb opponents

mentally. It is situational and not being meant badly at all. Following rules is subjective

207

and vary from individual to individual but a good player is not influential by any kind of

situation and only show respectful attitude for opponents” [Extract 17].

208

Figure 5.5

Perceptions of Cricket Players and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Sportsmanship of Cricket Players

209

Table 5.6

Perceptions of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’ Coaching

Competence on Performance Efficacy of Cricketers and Cricket Coaches

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Coding f Focused Coding f

1 Performance based coaching

competence

• Quality practice by good

coaches

• Practice for progressive results

• Coaches’ excellent training

depict in the field

II

IV

III

Fearless Learning

Environment

• Practical decision

making

• Pressure handling

during practice matches

• Freedom from coaches

produce positive results

II

III

IV

2 Coach as a psychological facilitator

• Coaches insight for players’

problems

• Coaching effectiveness for

long term performance

IV

II

Psycho-social support from

coaches

• Players’ insecurities

coaches’ support for

players

• Coaches helping

players in dealing fear

of failure

III

III

3 Mutual co-operation for

performance

• Fulfillment of responsibility

requires experience

• Coaches’ plan helpful for

better results

• Coaches’ guidance leads to

win

II

I

III

Affectionate teaching

methods

• Players being under

pressure due to

strictness

• Affection leads to

optimal performance

IV

II

4 Coaches’ support for optimal

performance

• Coaches require commitment,

coaches appreciate players’

efforts

• Coaches optimistic for better

results

a

II

d

II

Practical learning

• Practical exposure

better for learning

• Coaches encourage

players’ feedback

• Practicality encourage

self-belief

III

II

IV

5 Determination for hard work

• Players’ concerns for

themselves

• Coaches cannot train players

whole season

• Players’ own efforts for

improving game

II

III

I

Skilled training for players

• Coaches realize players

important things

• Coaches promote self-

analysis in players

• Coaches strengthen

players mentally

I

I

III

(Table Continued)

210

Sr.

No.

Hockey Players Hockey Coaches

Focused Codes f Focused Codes f

6 Performance enhancing factors

• Support form coaches and

captain

• Self-belief

• Self-confidence

III

II

II

Motivational coaching

• Mentally free for

optimal performance

• Strictness hinders

players psychologically

• Professional coaches

gets performance from

players

III

III

IV

7 Professionalism for performance

• Seriousness for competition,

being more focused

• Basic techniques guarantee

triumph

I

IV

Performance Distractors

• External distractors for

players

• Technology as

performance distractor

IV

II

8

Coaching threats to performance

• Low attention from coaches’

let down bad performers

• Coaching for those who

actually need it

• Coaches only appreciate higher

performer

III

II

I

Coaches’ Indirect

psychological analysis for

players

• Coaches’ enhance

players’ mental

strength

• Players’ performance

decrease due to

pressure

• Short temperament

distract players’

attention

III

II

II

9

Psychological tactics for

performance enhancement

• Coaches try to get

players’ performance

back

• Coaches lift players to

their own levels

• Coaches prefer

experienced players

• Experienced players

psychologically benefit

players

I

III

II

IV

211

The third question was asked from cricketers about how their coaches' coaching

competence influences their performance efficacy and coaches were asked how their

coaching competence influence performance efficacy of their players. Table 5.6 showed

eight focused codes for cricketers. First of all, performance based coaching competence

was postulated consisting of quality practice by good coaches, practice for progressive

results coaches’ excellent training depict in the field as manifested from the following

verbatim:

“As far as I am concerned, whenever I realize that my coach is showing interest

towards my game, I get confidence and after getting confidence from my coach, there is

no option left other than performing well without fear of failure. A good coach get his

player out of failure and let their players to be focused on their performance. Pre-match

comments by my coach boost up my morale. Quality training and practice by coaches

assure optimal performance by players during match” [Extract 1].

Coach as a psychological facilitator conceptualized coach's insight for players’

problems and coaching effectiveness for long term performance that collectively worked

as performance enhancement factors from coaches highlighted by cricketers. As one of

the cricketers narrated:

“Coaches influences out performance a lot as they provide confidence to us and

their confidence matters a lot in lowering or enhancing our performance. If a coach

doesn’t motivate and don’t fulfill pros and cons for getting optimal performance by his

players will defiantly wouldn’t be a good coach. If my coach would trust my abilities and

would provide solutions to my game related problems then I would try my level best to

perform well for my coach. His concern for my game mentally relaxes me and

encourages me to be psychologically prepare for the game” [Extract 2].

Performance was also found to be influential by cricket coaches as elaborated by

the cricketers postulating mutual co-operation for performance. It encompassed sub-

codes as fulfillment of responsibility requires experience, coaches’ plan helpful for better

212

results and coaches’ guidance leads to win. The following verbatim is detail elaboration

of these codes:

“Performance is linked with hard work. Coaches’ advices are only beneficial after

our own hard work for game and that increases performance. When we are not

performing, then our mutual co-operation with captain and coach plays a vital role. We

support each other and ultimately that helps the whole team. As I am playing under

different coaches since a long time and I have played many matches where I executed

game plan of my coaches during game and achieved success. Seeking help from coaches

and their experience have made us win many matches at international level” [Extract 3].

Coaches require commitment and coaches appreciate players’ efforts and coaches

optimistic for better results lead to focused coding as coaches’ support for optimal

performance as mentioned in the following verbatim:

“Usually, harsh and demotivating comments of our coaches before match

negatively influence our performance during match. Unfortunately, there are a few

coaches who stand by us and support us by showing confidence in us. Confidence from

coach and captain creates comfort zone for us. These shared confidences eliminate even

merely shaky confidence in ourselves. Coaches only require commitment from us

irrespective of results. They tend to be satisfied that their players have at least tried and

show unsaid acceptance for us” [Extract 4].

Another focused code was extracted as determination for hard work that included

players’ concerns for themselves, coaches cannot train players' whole season and players’

own efforts for improving game. These codes can be seen in the verbatim as below:

“Dedication and hard work for game vary from individual to individual.

Professional players maintain balance in their personal and professional life and those

who don’t tend to face many problems. Some players are quick learners and a few learns

slowly. At the end of the day, only players have to be determined for themselves and

overcome their mistakes. Coaches only supervise their players at international level and

mostly players have to be dedicated towards their game for career excellence” [Extract

5].

Support from coaches and captain, self-belief and self-confidence were also

emerged as performance enhancing factors as the following verbatim showed:

213

“Professional cricketers have constantly been observed by expert coaches and

management; therefore, they try their best to perform at their level best. Being an

international player, one work hard to perform to be an integral part of the team.

Moreover, captain also plays a vital role to lead his players and bring best performance

out of them for optimal performance. It also requires self-confidence and self-belief.

Coach and captain can negatively and positively influence players” [Extract 6].

Second lastly, professionalism for optimal performance was coined as a vital

component perceived by cricketers about their coaches. Seriousness for competition,

being more focused and basic techniques guarantee triumph were demonstrated by one of

the cricketers as under:

“The most important thing in cricket is to move forward. Learn anything new

daily and differentiate success and failure comprehensively. A professional player

foresees his coach as his well-wisher. Good and bad phases are part and parcel of a

professional cricketer but one should always maintain his work ethics and have control

on his basics. Without taking for granted the match, he should enjoy and be ready for

next match being focused and consistent to his basic playing techniques” [Extract 7].

Finally, coaching threats to performance included low attention from coaches’ let

down bad performers, coaching for those who actually need it and coaches only

appreciate higher performer as extracted by the verbatim as under:

“I use to perform well if I am assigned any responsibility by my coach and feel

myself very important to fulfil that responsibility. I realize my self-worth in such

situations. Coaches also evaluate their each and every player for such tasks. Good and

bad performance are not always permanent but coaches should behave well in every

situations. If a player ignore bad performer of any match then he would feel himself let

down psychologically. These players need support of their coaches in such situations.

Unfortunately, coaches avoid those players and only praise good performers and try to

get credit of their success” [Extract 8].

On the other hand, cricket coaches were required to answer how their coaching

competence influence performance efficacy of their players and following focused codes

from verbatim of cricket coaches were taken out.

214

Coaches coined fearless learning environment as first performance influential

factor for their players. It included practical decision making, pressure handling during

practice matches and freedom from coaches produce positive results. As one of the

coaches stated:

“I have seen many players playing fearlessly and taking decisions at their own.

Thought these decisions are helpful and harmful according to situation but they show

fighting spirit that makes me happy. Therefore, I have always required my players for a

fighting match and asked them to be independent in decision making and match planning.

They tend to pressurize initially but later they get advantage in such situations and make

me proud at international level” [Extract 9].

Secondly, psycho-social support from coaches was emerged as viewed by

players’ insecurities coaches’ support for players and coaches helping players in dealing

fear of failure. Different psychological and social factors facilitating performance

efficacy of cricketers by cricket coaches were mentioned verbatim as mentioned below:

“A good coach professionally grooms and shines his players by providing them

self-belief. I give game plan for match after having discussion with my players before

match and play accordingly, however, in post-match team meetings, I discuss winning

and losing factors of the match and reasons that tend to increase or decrease their

performance. Sometimes, my player tells me that he is having pressure of not performing

then as a coach I work on him. I support him and provide him consistent chances in team.

I encourage him to play efficiently and mentally boosts him. I try to bring him out of

pessimism and make him learn how to tackle failure” [Extract 10].

Players being under pressure due to strictness and affection leads to optimal

performance established the phenomenon of affectionate teaching methods. As one of the

coaches shared his views as under:

“As a coach I can only guide my players about match from the pavilion. I make

them realize that if they would follow me, their performance would be positively

affected. I require their attention and concentration towards learning and warn them to

avoid mistakes. I mostly tend to be affectionate with players but have to be harsh

sometimes as per situation of the match. I avoid being strict in my coaching methods

that’s why my players show their optimal performance in pressure situation” [Extract 11].

215

Practical learning involved practical exposure better for learning, coaches

encourage players’ feedback and practicality encourages self-belief. Following is the

verbatim of a coach in support to this focused code:

“I try to make my players say what they actually desire from me as a player. I

foresee their hidden confidence and ask them to perform for me. Consequently, they

performed and brought their team out of critical situation. When they fail, I discuss with

them and assure not to repeat previous mistakes. I practically make my players learn by

involving them in practical competitive scenarios. Practical learning leads to quick

learning as I get feedback from them. I ask them to be open with me and promote self-

belief in them” [Extract 12].

Skilled training for players incorporated coaches realize players important things,

coaches promote self-analysis in players and coaches strengthen players mentally.

Training needs were elaborated in detail in the verbatim as under:

“Firstly, I inquire about family background of my player and always take it under

consideration. It is very difficult for a coach to transform every boy as a player. Players

who work on their basics groom as champions and establish themselves mentally and

physically. I cannot comprehend what my player will follow or not but I try to make him

realize on which weakness he needs to work frequently. I try to mentally strong my

players” [Extract 13].

Mentally free for optimal performance, strictness hinders players psychologically

and professional coaches get performance from players directed as focused code naming

motivational coaching. Motivational coaching from coaches influence performance

efficacy of cricketers was sustained by one of the coaches as:

“I promote freshness of mind and discourage distractors during ground in my

players. I ask them to study well and co-operate with them to be a professional cricketer.

Pre-match mental relaxation enable players to perform well. If I would be authoritative

with them, they would never perform well. Our players gradually emerge as mature

cricketer by playing regional cricket. On the other hand, we also know how to get optimal

performance out of my players” [Extract 14].

216

Coaches also mentioned performance distracting factors including external

distractors for players and technology as performance distractor. These factors are

mentioned in detail as under:

“Players’ performance is disturbed by several reasons. Sometimes they have any

domestic problem and mentally disturb during practice. The most important thing for a

coach is to make his players stress free and happy. Secondly, mobile phones and internet

have been a negative influence on performance of players. If a player receives any kind

of bad news related to his family or friends disturb his game. He disturbs mentally but as

a coach we try to be co-operative with them in dealing with such distractors” [Extract

15].

Coaches’ indirect psychological analysis for players was emerged from coaches’

enhance players’ mental strength, players’ performance decrease due to pressure and

short temperament distract players’ attention. Coaches' analytical reasoning towards their

players improves performance efficacy of their players as one of the coaches postulated

that:

“I observe body language of my players during practice sessions and analyze how

they are playing mentally. I promote critical analysis for opponents in my players. I

provide him confidence in such situations. It is very important to increase mental strength

of my players. It is natural that if my player is being under pressure then automatically

his performance will be decreased. I try to be aware of psychological fitness and

temperament of my players along with their physical and cricketing abilities” [Extract

16].

Lastly, psychological tactics for performance enhancement were described by

sub-codes: coaches try to get players’ performance back, coaches lift players to their own

levels, coaches prefer experienced players and experienced players psychologically

benefit players. It was emphasized by the following verbatim:

“Luck plays a vital role in cricket despite of struggle and hard work of a player. In

such situations, I alter playing positions of my players and try to safeguard him from

being waste. I work extra hard on my player who has good match reading ability. If a

217

player is having bad phase in performance, I also work hard on him. I require my players

to meet my playing standards. The presence of my champion player in ground

psychologically disturbs my players. These experienced players make fellow players

smile and motivate them” [Extract 17].

218

Figure 5.6

Perceptions of Cricket Players and Cricket Coaches towards Influence of Coaches’

Coaching Competence on Performance Efficacy of Cricket Players

219

5.7 Summary of Findings

Summary of the findings is as under:

1. For hockey players, focused codes for psychological skills emerged as ideal

coaching competence, concerns for coaching standards, perceived psychological

support, mutual coach-athlete understanding, perceived confidence and

motivation, players' professional learning attitude, perceived coaches' dedication,

players' critical evaluation by coaches and psycho-performance facilitation. On

the other hand, for hockey coaches, focused codes for psychological skills named

as coaching efficacy, coaching climate, moral training, coaches' professional

competence, coach as a psychological facilitator, coaches as competitive skills

trainer, coaches' social support for players, coaches' commitment and dedication,

coaches' comprehension for players and players' professional grooming.

2. For hockey players, focused codes emerged for sportsmanship as distant coach-

athlete relationship as a threat to sportsmanship, idea coach-athlete relationship,

mutual coach-athlete interaction, coaches' moral guidance for players, coaches'

guidance during match, coaching levels influence sportsmanship, responsibility

enhances sportsmanship, psycho-social facilitation for sportsmanship. However,

for hockey coaches, focused codes for sportsmanship postulated as understanding

players, coaches' moral guidance for players, professional coaching climate,

optimizing coaching efficacy for sportsmanship, discussing sportsmanship

threatening issues, observed sportsmanship, teaching sportsmanship through

modeling and responsibility as a morale booster.

3. For hockey players, focused codes for psychological skills emerged as coaches'

influence on players' performance, optimal performance enhances mutual

220

relationship, performance threatening factors, limited freedom and coaching

dependency, perceived coaching support, players' concerns about coaches,

ineffective coaching as a threat to performance and perceived coaching

competence. For hockey coaches, coaching climate for optimal performance,

performance related coaching competence, psycho-competitive coaching, coaches'

concerns for players and psycho-competitive coaching competence were coined

as focused codes.

4. For cricketers, focused codes related to psychological skills ended up as players'

requirement from coaches, perceived coach-athlete relationship, coaches' role in

professional grooming, influential playing levels, perceived psychological

support, co-operation for learning, professional coaching for career excellence,

mutual co-operation for goal setting and responsibility threatening factors.

However, for cricket coaches, focused codes for psychological skills emerged as

coaching competence, coaches' insight for players, openness to players, coaches'

concerns for coach-athlete relationship, psychological tactics for coaching coach-

athlete communication, self-independent, easing learning through effective

coaching, environmental influencing factors, coaches as responsibility facilitators

and psychological training for players.

5. For cricketers, focused codes for sportsmanship appeared as active coaching roles,

coach-athlete mutual sharing, professional coaching attitude, trustworthiness,

perceived coaching competence, individual differences in coaching methods,

moral behavior in and out the field, healthy competitive tactics and

competitiveness, whereas, for cricket coaches, focused codes were professional

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cricket, psychological preparation, coaches' role in enhancement of

sportsmanship, coaches promoting morality and ethics, coach-athlete co-operation

for sportsmanship, mutual discussion for better learning, enhancement of

sportsmanship by coaches and competitive threats for sportsmanship.

6. For cricketers, focused codes related to performance efficacy coined as

performance based coaching competence, coach as a psychological facilitator,

mutual co-operation for performance, coaches' support for optimal performance,

determination for hard work, performance enhancement factors, professionalism

for performance and coaching threats for performance. On the other hand, for

cricket coaches, fearless learning environment, psycho-social support from

coaches, affectionate teaching methods, practical learning, skilled training for

players, motivational coaching, performance distractors, coaches' indirect

psychological analysis for players and psychological tactics for performance

enhancement were postulated as focused codes.

5.8 Discussion

First of all, hockey players were asked how hockey players' coaches' coaching

competence influences their psychological skills and coaches were asked how coaching

competence influence psychological skills of their hockey players? For hockey players,

focused codes for psychological skills emerged as ideal coaching competence, concerns

for coaching standards, perceived psychological support, mutual coach-athlete

understanding, perceived confidence and motivation, players' professional learning

attitude, perceived coaches' dedication, players' critical evaluation by coaches and

psycho-performance facilitation. On the other hand, for hockey coaches, focused codes

222

for psychological skills named as coaching efficacy, coaching climate, moral training,

coaches' professional competence, coach as a psychological facilitator, coaches as

competitive skills trainer, coaches' social support for players, coaches' commitment and

dedication, coaches' comprehension for players and players' professional grooming. In

this regard, a study can be quoted by Kavussanu et al, (2008) on the conceptual model of

coaching efficacy (Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan, 1999) has increased dramatically

over the past few years. Utilizing this model as the guiding framework as it examined

coaching experience and sex as predictors of coaches’ coaching efficacy, sport

experience, sex, and the match/mismatch in sex between coach and athlete as predictors

of athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s effectiveness on the four coaching efficacy

domains and whether coaches’ reports of coaching efficacy and athletes’ perceptions of

coaching effectiveness differed on the sample of twenty six coaches and two hundred and

ninety one athletes of individual and team sports. Results showed that in coaches, years

of coaching experience positively predicted technique coaching efficacy, and males

reported higher game strategy efficacy than females. In athletes, sport experience

negatively predicted all perceived coaching effectiveness dimensions, and the mismatch

in sex between athletes and their coach negatively predicted perceived motivation and

character building coaching effectiveness.

Heuzé, Raimbault & Fontayne (2006) examined female college basketball

players’ and their coach’s views of effective coaching behaviors that might occur when

playing against a top team in their league, and found that the coach rated some of his

behaviors substantially more positively than did his athletes. Vargas-Tonsing, Myers &

Feltz (2004) also investigated coaches’ and athletes’ perceptions of the frequency and

223

effectiveness of techniques used by coaches to enhance their athletes’ efficacy. They

classified perceptions as congruent for fifteen percent of the techniques in terms of how

frequently they were used, and for only eight percent in terms of how effective they were

considered by coaches and athletes. Thus, some evidence suggests that coaches’ and

athletes’ perceptions differ, with coaches rating themselves more positively than their

athletes do. Myers, Feltz and Short (2004) asked nine intercollegiate male football

coaches to complete the Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES), and using the same items, they

asked athletes to rate how confident they perceived their coach to be. Seven coaches gave

themselves higher ratings than their athletes gave them. Although this study reported

interesting findings, it employed a small sample size of only male football players and

coaches limiting the generalizability of the findings. Research is needed to examine

differences between coaches’ reports and athletes’ perceptions of coaching behaviors

related to the four coaching efficacy domains using larger and more diverse samples of

athletes and coaches.

Secondly, hockey players were asked how hockey players' coaches' coaching

competence influences their sportsmanship and coaches were asked how their coaching

competence influences sportsmanship of their hockey players? For hockey players,

focused codes emerged for sportsmanship as distant coach-athlete relationship as a threat

to sportsmanship, idea coach-athlete relationship, mutual coach-athlete interaction,

coaches' moral guidance for players, coaches' guidance during match, coaching levels

influence sportsmanship, responsibility enhances sportsmanship, psycho-social

facilitation for sportsmanship. However, for hockey coaches, focused codes for

sportsmanship postulated as understanding players, coaches' moral guidance for players,

224

professional coaching climate, optimizing coaching efficacy for sportsmanship,

discussing sportsmanship threatening issues, observed sportsmanship, teaching

sportsmanship through modeling and responsibility as a morale booster. Thelwell,

Wagstaff, Champan and Kentta (2017) conducted a study to analyze the value attributed

to given working competences, by Portuguese handball coaches according to their

coaching background, certification level, coaching experience, and level of education on

the sample of two hundred handball coaches. A six factor solution was found where three

major domains of competences were highlighted; the first one related to training and

competition, the second one related to social and cultural issues and management and the

third one related to the cognitive background. The importance ascribed to some working

competences was influenced by their coaching experience and certification level. Highly

experienced and qualified coaches perceived competences of everyday practice, social,

cultural and management issues related to training and competition as more important

than the other coaches. This study suggests the need to consider some working

competences, until now not explicitly present in the Portuguese coaching education

curriculum which could enable coaches to choose the best way to practice/work in a

manner that will foster and support their professional development.

Furthermore, coaches' perceptions about the value attributed to given working

competences could vary according to their coaching background which includes among

other aspects their coaching qualifications, experience and level of education. Particularly

the academic background in the fields related to sport sciences and Physical Education

can provide a richer understanding about the whole coaching process (Santos et al, 2010).

In the same line of thought, coaching experience (Santos et al., 2010) and coach

225

educational level i.e. recreational, developmental or elite level coaching. Gaining insight

into actual could have influence on the value attributed to working competences as

coaches bring rich information to coach education, and development (Myers, Wolfe,

Maier, Feltz & Reckase, 2006). Beyond their coaching background, the specificity of the

sport in which they have coached could differentiate their perceptions about the issues

related to the working competences. For this reason it is important to identify the

coaches’ perceptions taking in consideration the sport they coach or have coached in

order to obtain a more contextualized knowledge, bringing new insights for coaching

education in this particular setting. The analysis of coaches’ perceptions about the value

attributed to the working competences was applied in handball, a sport with a high impact

and it was evident that coach education is somewhat under-developed leaving each

specific sport federation to decide to have or not to have a coaching education structure

handball is one of the sports with a higher developed framework of coach education

(Jowett, 2003). An extensive domain of competences related to social and cultural issues,

sport management and coaching education was proclaimed by coaches from this study

that emerged through the third and fourth factors.

Wilcox and Trudel (1998) using verbal cueing stimulated recall interviews, found

that youth ice hockey coaches ascribed importance to the planning and management of

the players’ sport careers where the personal and social issues are mostly emphasized.

Nowadays, the implementation of youth sport programs is considered as the main factor

to foster positive development, in sport and life in general, while decreasing the risk of

behavioral problems where coaches develop an important role alongside the parents

(Cassidy, Jones & Potrac, 2009). Therefore, the recognition and the understanding of the

226

social aspects of the coaching process is a necessary step toward understanding coaching

practice and valuable to support coaches in their daily tasks more effectively. Thirdly,

hockey players were asked how hockey players' coaches' coaching competence

influences their performance efficacy and coaches were asked how their coaching

competence influence performance efficacy of their hockey players? For hockey players,

focused codes for psychological skills emerged as coaches' influence on players'

performance, optimal performance enhances mutual relationship, performance

threatening factors, limited freedom and coaching dependency, perceived coaching

support, players' concerns about coaches, ineffective coaching as a threat to performance

and perceived coaching competence.

For hockey coaches, coaching climate for optimal performance, performance

related coaching competence, psycho-competitive coaching, coaches' concerns for

players and psycho-competitive coaching competence were coined as focused codes.

Coaching experience seems to accentuate the importance of some working competences.

Indeed, coaching experience has been perceived by coaches as a main source of coaching

knowledge (Bloom, Durand-Bush, Schinke & Salmela, 1998) since it comprises learning

by doing, develops skills of reflection in and on action and could allow coaches to decide

about the appropriateness of their decisions and behaviours, facing the difficulties placed

by the environment. The results of this study showed that high experienced coaches

perceived the competences related with the training and competition, joined to the daily

practice, as more important than less experienced ones. The major importance ascribed

by high experienced coaches could be explained by the fact that experienced coaches are

more diligent planners, taking more time to plan and expressing far more confidence in

227

the efficiency of their plans than inexperienced ones. Indeed, the skills to plan proactively

by preparing training and competition facing the dilemmas of the daily practice and

preparing the athletes for unexpected situations is built continuously throughout the

development of the coach’s career (Côté and Sedgwick, 2003).

Moreover, the competences related to the coaching knowledge background,

coaching methodology, team leadership and coaching education, which are particularly

essential on the highest levels of the practice, were more valued by the highly

experienced coaches than the intermediate and less experienced ones. This profile was

also confirmed according to coaches’ certification level which is comprehensive as the

most experienced coaches usually coached on the higher levels of the practice which is

only accessible to coaches with the highest level of certification (Delamillieure et al, 2010).

The great awareness of the coaches with more experience and from the highest

certification level could be explained, into certain extent, due to the sport-specific

coaching context of Portuguese handball, where a strong competitive environment

especially in more advanced levels of practice, like the professional league, demands

higher levels of performance. Therefore, on this level of practice refining, deepening

coaching competences to reach athletes’ performance and being a team leader are

fundamental for their athletes’ success (Thelwell et al, 2017).

Similarly, cricketers were asked how their coaches' coaching competence

influences their psychological skills and coaches were asked how their coaching

competence influences psychological skills of their cricketers? For cricketers, focused

codes related to psychological skills ended up as players' requirement from coaches,

228

perceived coach-athlete relationship, coaches' role in professional grooming, influential

playing levels, perceived psychological support, co-operation for learning, professional

coaching for career excellence, mutual co-operation for goal setting and responsibility

threatening factors. However, for cricket coaches, focused codes for psychological skills

emerged as coaching competence, coaches' insight for players, openness to players,

coaches' concerns for coach-athlete relationship, psychological tactics for coaching

coach-athlete communication, self-independent, easing learning through effective

coaching, environmental influencing factors, coaches as responsibility facilitators and

psychological training for players. These results can be explained by Phillips and

Jubenville (2009) who conducted a study to measure the perceptions of student-athletes

concerning the coaching competency of fifteen head men’s basketball coaches. Results

indicate that player-related factors of starter, non-starter, captain, non-team captain, and

academic level were not significant predictors of the combination of coaching

competency. On the other hand, Côté and Gilbert (2009) assessment of the coach-athlete

relationship has evolved into a focal issue for modern athletes due to the growing concern

over changes in the way they perceive the authority of coaches and the role of athlete’s

progress in small college athletics. In past years, coaches have not been less interested in

their athletes’ perceptions of them; however, as player morale has become an ever-

increasing factor in team performance, the evaluation of coaches and interest in athletes’

perceptions of coaches have become prerequisites for determining maximum coaching

effectiveness and achievement. If coaches better understand the opinions of their athletes

concerning their coaching roles, they are then positioned to adapt their coaching styles to

improve team unity and elicit from their athletes a more competitive spirit.

229

Secondly, cricketers were asked how their coaches' coaching competence

influences their sportsmanship and coaches were asked how their coaching competence

influences sportsmanship of their cricketers? For cricketers, focused codes for

sportsmanship appeared as active coaching roles, coach-athlete mutual sharing,

professional coaching attitude, trustworthiness, perceived coaching competence,

individual differences in coaching methods, moral behavior in and out the field, healthy

competitive tactics and competitiveness, whereas, for cricket coaches, focused codes

were professional cricket, psychological preparation, coaches' role in enhancement of

sportsmanship, coaches promoting morality and ethics, coach-athlete co-operation for

sportsmanship, mutual discussion for better learning, enhancement of sportsmanship by

coaches and competitive threats for sportsmanship. Demers, Woodburn and Savard

(2006) emphasized that learning to develop annual and multiannual plans are a major

importance for coaching and should be considered on the coach educational programs

under real training settings. Moreover, values and principles related to inclusion through

sport were underpinned by coaches of this study which corroborate other studies.

McCallister, Jones and Potrac (2000) found that volunteer youth coaches espoused a wide

range of values for sport such as sportsmanship, respect and support for team-mates,

sport skill development, equal treatment of all participants, and fun. Potrac, Jones and

Cushion (2007) claim that sport is a human activity that involves interaction between

people of different ethnicity, gender, class, philosophies, values and experiences making

the social issues of coaching practice of vital importance. Notwithstanding it has been

increasingly recognized that coaching is vulnerable to social pressures and constraints

(for instance, athletes interaction; competition effects; coach leadership acceptance, etc.)

230

the sociological analysis has remained a largely under- developed and under-researched

area.

Thirdly, cricketers were asked how their coaches' coaching competence influences

their psychological skills and coaches were asked how their coaching competence

influences performance efficacy of their cricketers? For cricketers, focused codes related

to performance efficacy coined as performance based coaching competence, coach as a

psychological facilitator, mutual co-operation for performance, coaches' support for

optimal performance, determination for hard work, performance enhancement factors,

professionalism for performance and coaching threats for performance. On the other

hand, for cricket coaches, fearless learning environment, psycho-social support from

coaches, affectionate teaching methods, practical learning, skilled training for players,

motivational coaching, performance distractors, coaches' indirect psychological analysis

for players and psychological tactics for performance enhancement were postulated as

focused codes. In relation to coaches’ leadership behavior, Feltz and Lirgg (1998)

reported that team sport athletes preference for training and instruction leadership style

was significantly greater than that of individual sport athletes. Closed-sport (low-

variability tasks) athletes also preferred significantly more training and instruction than

did the open-sport athletes (high variability tasks).

Smith and Holmes (2004) found that athletes in independence sports (team sports)

preferred more democratic and less autocratic behavior than did the athletes in

interdependent sports. In another study by Terry (1984) reported that team sport athletes

preferred significantly more training and instruction, autocratic behavior, and positive

feedback, but less democratic behavior and social support than individual sport athletes.

231

Hardy, Hall and Carron (2003) has done a study on coaching leadership in individual

sports. The purpose was to determine leadership behavior in sports and establishing the

relationship between satisfaction and leadership among athletes. It was found that both

democratic behavior and social support has a significant relationship. The higher the

democratic behavior shown by coaches, the more social support the athletes will acquire.

Chow, Murray and Feltz (2009) examined coach‐perceived coaching efficacy and athlete‐

perceived coaching competency, perceptions of coaches' endorsement of unfair play, and

team norm for aggression on athlete‐level moral variables in Botswana youth soccer.

Participants were youth soccer players and their coaches. Results revealed that team norm

for aggression, athletes' perceptions of their coaches' endorsement of aggression/cheating

and game strategy coaching competency were significant predictors of athletes'

likelihood to aggress and perceptions of peer cheating. The findings contribute to

previous research demonstrating the influence of the coach on athletes' antisocial

behaviors.

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Chapter VI

Discussion

Psychological issues in sports have never been discussed in Pakistan and have

always been an ignorant part of the team sports, whereas, physical characteristics have

always been a hot topic for Pakistan Hockey Federation and Pakistan Cricket Board,

therefore, three studies were carried to develop an indigenous scale for assessing

psychological skills for team sports i.e. hockey and cricket, to find out relationship

between psychological skills, coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy in team sports and to explore investigate how team sports players perceive

coaching competence of coaches helps in development of psychological skills,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy and how coaches’ coaching competence help in

teaching psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy of team sports

players?

6.1 Integrated Discussion

This research comprised of three studies. First study was designed on the

limitation of already developed Cricketers Psychological Skills Scale (CPSS) (Solomon

&Kausar, 2015). The limitation of this study was that this scale was only meant to be for

cricketers, therefore, an extension was required on the basis of preliminary work done by

Solomon and Kausar (2015) as it has been discussed many times that players tend to be

choked during pressure situations in many important international events. Therefore, an

indigenous scale based on four C’s of sports psychology will help to assess psychological

skills of both hockey players and cricketers (Hodge, 2007). For this purpose, initial item

pool generated from the interview verbatim of hockey players and cricketers of Pakistan

international hockey and cricket teams was administered on the sample of 261 hockey

233

players and 257 cricketers of different cities of Punjab, Pakistan. Factor analysis

emerged three factors as Psycho-performance skills (38 items), perceived psychological

support (24 items) and psycho-competitiveness (22 items).

The second study was based on co-relational research design. This study found

that psychological skills were significantly positively correlated with psycho-

performance skills, perceived psychological support, psycho-competitiveness, coaching

competence, creating the relationships, communication influencing skills, communication

attending skills, facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear,

sportsmanship, moral values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy,

ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity. However, for cricketers, psychological

skills were significantly positively correlated with psycho-performance skills, perceived

psychological support, psycho-competitiveness, coaching competence, creating the

relationships, communication influencing skills, communication attending skills,

facilitating for learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral

values, competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence

preparation and unity.

However, no correlation was found between psychological skills and status

values. Psycho-performance skills were significantly positively correlated with perceived

psychological support and psycho-competitiveness. Whereas, no co-relation of psycho-

performance was reported with coaching competence, creating the relationship,

communication attending skills, communication influencing skills, facilitating for

learning and results, making the responsibility clear, sportsmanship, moral values,

competence values, status values, performance efficacy, ability, effort, persistence,

234

preparation and unity. Results of mediation revealed that sportsmanship found to be non-

significant mediator between psycho-performance skills and ability, effort, persistence,

preparation and unity, however, sportsmanship acted as a positive and significant

mediator between psycho-performance skills and ability, effort, persistence, preparation

and unity. Sportsmanship also turned to be as a mediator between perceived

psychological support and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity both for

hockey players and cricketers. Moreover, psycho-competitiveness and ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity were not mediated by sportsmanship for hockey

players, whereas, sportsmanship was a positive and significant mediator between psycho-

competitiveness and ability, effort, persistence, preparation and unity for cricketers. On a

broader spectrum, the importance of sportsmanship can be highlighted with variables and

it can be claimed that there is a significant role of sportsmanship in the lives of team

sports players. The results also revealed that hockey players tend to have higher

perceived psychological support than that of cricketers. It was also coined that there were

likely to be differences in psychological skills, coaching competence, sportsmanship and

performance efficacy in married and unmarried team sports players. The results revealed

that married team sports players reported greater performance efficacy, ability, effort and

preparation.

The third study was qualitative based on grounded theory. First of all, hockey

players were asked how hockey players' coaches' coaching competence influences their

psychological skills and coaches were asked how coaching competence influence

psychological skills of their hockey players? For hockey players, focused codes for

psychological skills emerged as ideal coaching competence, concerns for coaching

235

standards, perceived psychological support, mutual coach-athlete understanding,

perceived confidence and motivation, players' professional learning attitude, perceived

coaches' dedication, players' critical evaluation by coaches and psycho-performance

facilitation. On the other hand, for hockey coaches, focused codes for psychological skills

named as coaching efficacy, coaching climate, moral training, coaches' professional

competence, coach as a psychological facilitator, coaches as competitive skills trainer,

coaches' social support for players, coaches' commitment and dedication, coaches'

comprehension for players and players' professional grooming.

Secondly, hockey players were asked how hockey players' coaches' coaching

competence influences their sportsmanship and coaches were asked how their coaching

competence influences sportsmanship of their hockey players? For hockey players,

focused codes emerged for sportsmanship as distant coach-athlete relationship as a threat

to sportsmanship, idea coach-athlete relationship, mutual coach-athlete interaction,

coaches' moral guidance for players, coaches' guidance during match, coaching levels

influence sportsmanship, responsibility enhances sportsmanship, psycho-social

facilitation for sportsmanship. However, for hockey coaches, focused codes for

sportsmanship postulated as understanding players, coaches' moral guidance for players,

professional coaching climate, optimizing coaching efficacy for sportsmanship,

discussing sportsmanship threatening issues, observed sportsmanship, teaching

sportsmanship through modeling and responsibility as a morale booster.

Furthermore, coaches' perceptions about the value attributed to given working

competences could vary according to their coaching background which includes among

other aspects their coaching qualifications, experience and level of education. Thirdly,

236

hockey players were asked how hockey players' coaches' coaching competence

influences their performance efficacy and coaches were asked how their coaching

competence influence performance efficacy of their hockey players? For hockey players,

focused codes for psychological skills emerged as coaches' influence on players'

performance, optimal performance enhances mutual relationship, performance

threatening factors, limited freedom and coaching dependency, perceived coaching

support, players' concerns about coaches, ineffective coaching as a threat to performance

and perceived coaching competence. For hockey coaches, coaching climate for optimal

performance, performance related coaching competence, psycho-competitive coaching,

coaches' concerns for players and psycho-competitive coaching competence were coined

as focused codes.

Moreover, the competences related to the coaching knowledge background,

coaching methodology, team leadership and coaching education, which are particularly

essential on the highest levels of the practice, were more valued by the highly

experienced coaches than the intermediate and less experienced ones. Similarly,

cricketers were asked how their coaches' coaching competence influences their

psychological skills and coaches were asked how their coaching competence influences

psychological skills of their cricketers? For cricketers, focused codes related to

psychological skills ended up as players' requirement from coaches, perceived coach-

athlete relationship, coaches' role in professional grooming, influential playing levels,

perceived psychological support, co-operation for learning, professional coaching for

career excellence, mutual co-operation for goal setting and responsibility threatening

factors. However, for cricket coaches, focused codes for psychological skills emerged as

237

coaching competence, coaches' insight for players, openness to players, coaches' concerns

for coach-athlete relationship, psychological tactics for coaching coach-athlete

communication, self-independent, easing learning through effective coaching,

environmental influencing factors, coaches as responsibility facilitators and

psychological training for players.

6.2 Conclusions

The current study was designed to investigate the impact of psychological skills

and sportsmanship of players on their performance efficacy. It also highlighted the role of

coaching competence as perceived by players and coaches between psychological skills

and sportsmanship of hockey players and cricketers. This research comprised of three

studies. Study I was conducted to construct and validate an indigenous Psychological

Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS). Psycho-performance skills, perceived

psychological support and psycho-competitiveness were emerged after employing

principal component factor analysis. Study II was a correlational research with cross

sectional research in which the sample of 518 team sports players (261 hockey players

and 257 cricketers) was recruited via purposive sampling. Results showed a significant

relationship between psychological skills, coaching competence, sportsmanship and

performance efficacy in hockey players and cricketers. Sportsmanship acted as a positive

and significant mediator between psycho-performance skills and ability, effort,

persistence, preparation and unity. Coaching competence significantly negatively

moderated the relationship between psycho-performance and performance efficacy in

cricketers, however, coaching competence acted as a moderator for perceived

psychological support performance efficacy and psycho-competitiveness and

238

performance efficacy. Study III explored how team sports players perceive their coaches'

coaching competence helpful for development of their psychological skills,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy and how coaches perceive their coaching

competence helpful in teaching psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy to their team sports players? Open ended, semi-structured and detailed

interviews were conducted with twelve team sports players and twelve coaches. Results

analyzed using Grounded Theory Analysis and revealed perceptions of hockey players

and cricketers how their coaches' coaching competence influence their psychological

skills, sportsmanship and performance efficacy, whereas, perceptions of hockey and

cricket coaches how their coaching competence influence psychological skills,

sportsmanship and performance efficacy of their players.

6.3 Limitations

There are several limitations encountered while conducting this study

1. The major limitation was the inclusion of only hockey players and cricketers as

team sports players and others team sports players didn’t take part in this study.

2. The sample was collected only from different cities of Punjab and others hockey

players and cricketers from other provinces were not approached.

3. Only male hockey players and cricketers within the age range of 15 to 50 years

participated, thus limited the generalizability of current study.

4. In qualitative study, foreign coaches working with Pakistan international hockey

and cricket teams were not approached and only Pakistani coaches coaching at

international level were approached.

239

5. Use of self-report measures without considering the behavioral observations for

the operationalization of various constructs of this research might have introduced

common method variance which might lead to certain compromises in the validity

of measurement of these constructs.

6.4 Strengths

The strengths of the current study were:

1. Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports (PSSTS) would be helpful for

assessing players psychologically on different domains.

2. Hockey players and cricketers were approached from only registered clubs and

academies under the platform of Pakistan Hockey Federation (PCB) and Pakistan

Cricket Board (PHF).

3. Results from qualitative study can be used for mutually understanding perceptions

regarding coaching competence of hockey players and cricketers and hockey and

cricket coaches related to psychological skills, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy of hockey players and cricketers.

4. These results can be helpful for initiating awareness in hockey players and

cricketers on psychological skills training programs.

240

6.5 Recommendations

Some useful suggestions to make the study more better are as followed:

1. Alternative sampling and data collection strategies might be needed to avoid

sampling bias which effect the results of the study and random multi-stage

sampling is suggested to use in further study to avoid sampling bias.

2. Future research must be conducted for assessing psychological skills, coaching

competence, sportsmanship and performance efficacy including players other than

hockey and cricket.

3. Future researches should inquire family related demographics i.e. family system,

number of siblings, socioeconomic status etc. as they might have a significant

influence on overall performance efficacy of team sports players related to

psychological skill, coaching competence and sportsmanship.

4. This dissertation mainly works on the simple proposition that players tend to

improve the performance. Future research should considering searching for the

moderating variables that may change the magnitude of performance efficacy. For

example, a review of Festinger’s dissonance theory (1957) and its subsequent

revision (Aronson, 1969) indicates that individuals who have high self-esteem

may try to reduce dissonance in order to maintain high self-esteem. Other scholars

counter-argue this proposition that individuals who have high self-esteem may not

try to reduce the dissonance because not performing the behavior will not hurt

their self-esteem (Steele, 1988). These propositions indicate that the effects of

psychological skills, coaching competence and sportsmanship of players on their

performance are likely to be dependent on their self-esteem. These propositions

241

need to be empirically tested and may enhance the internal validity psychological

skills, coaching competence and sportsmanship of players with performance

efficacy.

5. The study only measured performance efficacy and did not deal with behavior

maintenance of the participants. Psychological skills are found to be the direct and

indirect predictor of performance efficacy with moderating effect of coaching

competence and mediating effect of sportsmanship of players but as Pakistani

hockey players and cricketers have always been lacking consistency in their

performance, therefore behavioral maintenance must be an integral objective of

the future researchers.

1. Most importantly, hockey and cricket management and high officials may also be

approached in future for obtaining maximum information regarding psychological

skills of players along with coaching competence, sportsmanship and performance

efficacy.

6.6 Implications

The implications of the current study are as under:

1. Psychological assessment of hockey players and cricketers can be conducted

using Psychological Skills Scale for Team Sports that can be helpful in better

understating players psychologically.

2. Psychological skills training programs can be initiated in the light of results of

current study and there can be interactive panel discussion including hockey and

cricket players and coaches for better mutual understanding.

242

3. Awareness seminars might be conducted for increasing the knowledge of players

on coaching competence and both players and coaches can interact about the

impact of their psychological skills and sportsmanship of on their performance

efficacy.

4. This study lays the groundwork for more research to be conducted on

performance efficacy of team sports players in relation to different unique and

significant factors other than psychological skills, coaching competence,

sportsmanship, however, current study variables can be explored in different ways

as well.

243

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Appendices

281

Appendix A

Approval from Advance Studies and Review Board (AS&RB)

282

283

Appendix B

Permission from Authors

284

285

286

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Appendix C

Permission Letters for Data Collection

288

289

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Appendix D

Consent Form

291

تی شی تحقی شرکت کنندگان کیلئے معلوما

میں ادارہ اطلاقی نفسیات ، پنجاب یونیورسٹی لاہور میں اطلاقی نفسیات کی تربیت لے رہا

جس کا عنوان Thesisرہی ہوں۔ یہ ریسرچ میرے تحقیقی مقالہ )/ کھلاڑیوں ( کا حصہ ہے

کارکردگی کی ور مین شپ ا تی مہارتوں، کھلاڑیوں کے کوچ کی قابلیت، سپورٹ کی نفسیا

یہ جاننا ضروری ہے کہ یہ تحقی س ہے۔ اپ کا اصلاحیت تحقی میں حصہ لینے سے پہلے

کرنا ہوگا۔برائے مہربانی ذیل میں دی گئی معلومات کو غور سے پڑھیں۔ ور اس میں اپ کو کیا کیوں کی جا رہی ہے ا

کا مقصد تحقی

کہ ۔ 1 ننا ہے تی مہارتوں، اس تحقی کا مقصد یہ جا رٹ مین کھلاڑیوں کی نفسیا کھلاڑیوں کے کوچ کی قابلیت، سپو

میں کیا تعلق ہے؟ کارکردگی کی صلاحیت کا اپس ور شپ ا

اس مقصد کو پورا کرنے کے لیے کچھ سوالنامے ترتیب دئیے گئے ہیں جو اپ کو دئیے جائیں گے اپ نے ان کی مدد سے کچھ ۔2

معلوما ت فراہم کرنی ہیں۔

کنندگان کی معلومات کے ساتھ ملاکر استعمال کیا جائے گا۔ حاصل کردہ معلومات کو باقی شرکت۔ 3

بھی شرکت کنندہ کی ۔4 م کی مدد سے کیا جائے گا جس میں کسی گرا ان معلومات کا تجزیہ شماریاتی کمپیوٹر کے پرو

شناخت ظاہر نہیں ہو گی۔

ور علیحدہ علیحدہ بھی تجز ۔5 یہ کیاجاسکتا ہے لیکن اس تمام شرکت کنندگان کی فراہم کردہ معلومات کا اکٹھے ا

کرنا پڑے گا۔ سے اپ کو کسی قسم کی پریشانی کا سامنا نہیں

حقوق

کہ اپ یہ اپ کی مرضی پر منحصر ہے

اس تحقی میں شامل ہوں۔ 1

ل کا جواب نہ دیں ۔2 سوالنامہ میں موجود کسی سوا

ہمیں بغیر وجہ بتائے اس تحقی سے کسی بھی وقت دستبردار ہوجا ئیں ۔3

میں رکھنے کے پابند ہیں مگر اپ کی بہتری یا کسی قسم کی ۔4 ہم اپ سے حاصل کی جانے والی معلوما ت کو صیغہ راز

تحقی کنندہ سے رابطہ کر سکتے ہیں۔ ئی کے لیے اگر یہ معلومات اپ کو درکار ہوں تو اپ رہنما

کہ اپ کو اس تحقی کی وجہ سے کسی بھی 5 کرنا پڑے اگر ایسا ہوتا ہے تو ۔ ہماری پوری کوشش ہوگی ذہنی دباؤ یا پریشانی کا سامنا نہ

جس کے لیے ور مشاورت فراہم کی جائے ہنمائی ا پیشہ ورانہ ر اپ ہمیں فورا مطلع کریں تاکہ اپ کو مناسب

فیس ادا نہیں کرنی پڑے گی۔ اپ کو کوئی

رابطہ کے لیے ایڈری

پروفیسر ڈاکٹر فرح ملک سپروائزر کا نام:

سٹی ، لاہور ایڈری: ادارہ اطلاقی نفسیات ، پنجاب یونیور

میل : ی drfarahmalik@gmail.comا

99231235-42-92+فون نمبر :

: ایچ۔ ڈی سکالر( سٹوڈنٹ وقار سلمان ) پی۔

اطلاقی نفسیات ، پنجاب یونیورسٹی، لاہور ادارہ ایڈری:

میل : ی vicarsolomon5@gmail.comا

7791677-345-92+فون نمبر :

292

شمولیت کے فیصلے کا اختیار اپ کو ہے اگر اپ اس معلوماتی ان تمام معلومات کو سمجھنے کے بعد اس تحقی میں

شی کو سمجھتے ہوئے اس تحقی میں حصہ لینا چاہتے ہیں تو برائے مہربانی اجازت نامہ کو پر کر کےاپنے دستخط کر دیجئے

۔

ر ہیں۔ ور تعاون کے لیے ہم اپ بے حدشکرگزا اپکے قیمتی وقت ا

293

اجازت نامہ

کا نام: وقار سلمان تحقی کنندہ

اکٹر فرح ملک پروفیسر ڈسپروائزر کا نام:

کہ مجھے موجودہ ریسرچ تی مہارتوں، ا ن کے کوچ کی قابلیت، سپورٹ تحقی بعنوان /میں تصدیق کرتا۔ کرتی ہوں نفسیا کھلاڑیوں کی

ور کارکردگی کی صلاحیت کر دیا گیا ہے۔ مین شپ ا ور نوعیت سے اگاہ کے مقاصد ا

نہیں ہاں

میں شمولیت کے لیے مجھے اس بات کا بھی علم ہے کہ تحقی .1

میرا کچھ وقت صرف ہوگا۔

میں .2 کر دیا گیا ہے کہ حاصل کردہ معلومات کو صیغہ راز مجھے اگا ہ

یسرچ میں ہر گز شامل نہیں ور میرا نام اس ر رکھا جائے گا ا

ہوگا۔

کردیا گیا ہے کہ مجھ سے حاصل کردہ معلومات صرف .3 مجھے اگاہ

جس میں میری تحقیقی مقاصد کے لیے استعمال ہوں گی

شناخت ظاہر نہیں ہو گی ۔

یہ میری صوابدید پر ہے کہ میں اپنے متعلق ضروری معلومات .4

کرنا چاہوں تو تحقی کنندہ کی ذمہ داری ہوگی کہ وہ مجھے اس حاصل

کے متعلق اگاہ کریں۔

شمولیت سے .5 تحقی میں میں جس وقت چاہوں اس

ہو سکتا سکتی ہوں۔ /دست بردار

ور مکمل معلومات فراہم میری کوشش .6 ہوگی کہ میں درست ا

کروں ۔

تمام فراہم کردہ معلومات کو سمجھتے ہوئے میں اس تحقی .7

ضامند ہوں۔ میں شامل ہونے کے لیے ر

کت کنندہ کا نام: __________________________تاری ___________________دستخط: __________________شر

کا نام: تاری: ____________________ دستخط: _____________________تحقی کنندہ

__________________________

294

Appendix E

Plagiarism Report

295