INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Presented to:

Madam Azeema Talib

Presented by:

Aisha Kalsoom

Maryam Khalid

Muhammad Ahmad

Faiza Tariq

Aqsa Khalid

THE TOPIC IS:

MOTIVATIONS AND EMOTIONS

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MOTIVATIONS AND EMOTIONS

Motivation• Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or

achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior.• The factors that direct and energize the behavior of

humans and other organisms.

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PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION

Instincts Drive Reduction Approaches Arousal Approaches Incentive Approaches Cognitive Approaches

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INSTINCTS

Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species

Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because Most important human behavior is learned Human behavior is rarely inflexible

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DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY

DriveA state of tension or arousal caused by

bodily needs Theories suggested that a lack of a

basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement.

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DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY

Primary driveUnlearned drive, such as hunger, based on

a physiological state Secondary drive

Learned drive, such as ambition

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AROUSAL THEORY

People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment

Yerkes-Dodson law States that there is an optimal level or arousal

for best performance on any task The more complex the task, the lower the level

of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance

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YERKES-DODSON LAW

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INCENTIVE APPROACHES

External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior

We are often unaware of the incentive Examples

Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry

Advertisements can lead us to buy a product

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COGNITIVE APPROACHES

Theories suggesting that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts and expectations.

Cognitive approaches of motivation draw a key distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

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INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Intrinsic motivation Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself Children playing is an example

Extrinsic motivation Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward

or to avoid punishment A bonus program is an example

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Fig. 12.7 Monkeys happily open locks that are placed in their cage. Since no reward is given for this activity, it provides evidence for the existence of stimulus needs. (Photo courtesy of Harry F. Harlow.)

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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Self-actualization - according to Maslow, the

point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential.

Peak experiences- according to Maslow, times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved.

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Fig. 12.12 Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for self-actualization are reflected in various meta-needs.

HUMAN NEEDS AND MOTIVATIONEat, Drink and be Daring.

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MOTIVATION BEHIND HUNGER AND EATING

Brain control of hunger Biological control of hunger External control of hunger

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BRAIN CONTROL OF HUNGER

Eating is modulated by the hypothalamus Under eating occurs

after destruction of the LH

Overeating occurs after destruction of the VMH

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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF HUNGER

One important factor is changes in the chemical composition of the blood.

Changes in levels of glucose regulate feelings of hunger.

Metabolism The rate at which food is converted to energy

and expended by the body.

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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF HUNGER

Leptin - a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full. Role of leptin in obesity. Genetics and obesity.

Genetics may play a part in anorexia and bulimia, as well as insensitivity to leptin.

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EXTERNAL CONTROL OF HUNGER

Culture is a key factor in the control of eating When we eat (dinner at 6 pm or 10 pm) What we eat (red meat versus vegetarian)

Group size: amount consumed increases as the size of the dinner party increases

External cues of food may produce greater internal impact (salivation, insulin secretion) in some people

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EATING DISORDERS: OBESITY

A condition in which the body weight of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height (actual percents vary across definitions).

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EATING DISORDERS: ANOREXIA NERVOSA

Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins Control issues seem to be involved Very difficult to effectively treat Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

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EATING DISORDERS: BULIMIA NERVOSA (BINGE-PURGE SYNDROME)

Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives Difficult to treat Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa

Affects females overwhelmingly

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CAUSES OF ANOREXIA NERVOSA AND BULIMIA NERVOSA Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated

fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true!

Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control

Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight

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SOME PROBLEMS IN EATING BEHAVIOR

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BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY

There is an easy route to weight control. Keep track of what you eat and what you

weigh. Eat “big” foods. Exercise. Decrease the influence of external, social

stimulus on your eating behaviour. Avoid fad diets. Maintain good eating habits. Set reasonable goals. Don’t feel guilty.

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THIRST

Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body

Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell Best satisfied by drinking water

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PAIN

Pain Avoidance: An episodic driveOccurs in distinct episodes when bodily

damage takes place or is about to occur

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SEX DRIVE

Estrus: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat

Estrogen: A female sex hormone Androgens: Male hormones Non-homeostatic: Independent of bodily need

states

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THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT: STRIVING FOR SUCCESS

A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence.

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MEASURING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

TAT—Thematic Apperception Test Developed by Henry Murray, personality theorist Projective device consisting of 20 drawings

(black and white) of various situations People must make up stories about the people in

it Central themes are examined and interpreted Good at revealing feelings about a person’s

social relationships

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THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION: STRIVING FOR FRIENDSHIP An interest in establishing and maintaining

relationships with other people. Individuals with a high need for affiliation

write TAT stories that emphasize the desire to maintain or reinstate friendships and show concern over being rejected by friends.

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THE NEED FOR POWER: STRIVING FOR IMPACT ON OTHERS

A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to seen as a powerful individual.

EMOTIONS

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ELEMENTS OF EMOTION Emotion

- the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings.

Components of emotion include Cognitive: thoughts, beliefs and expectations Physiological: Internal physical changes related to

arousal Behavioral: Outward signs of an emotional state

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THE FUNCTION OF EMOTIONS

Psychologists have identified several important functions that emotions play in our lives: Preparing us for action. Shaping our future behaviour. Helping us interact more effectively with others.

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BRAIN AND EMOTION

AmygdalaPart of limbic system that produces fear

responses Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands

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BRAIN AND EMOTION

Sympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that activates body for

emergency action Parasympathetic Branch:

Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy

Parasympathetic Rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

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Fig. 12.15 An amygdala can be found buried within the temporal lobes on each side of the brain. The amygdala appears to provide “quick and dirty” processing of emotional stimuli that allows us to act involuntarily to danger

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LIE DETECTORS

Polygraph: Device that records heart rate, blood pressure,

respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector

GSR: Measures sweating

Irrelevant Questions: Neutral, nonthreatening, non-emotional

questions in a polygraph test

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LIE DETECTORS

Relevant Questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should

react Control Questions:

Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

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Fig. 12.17 A typical polygraph includes devices for measuring heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response. Pens mounted on the top of the machine make a record of bodily responses on a moving strip of paper. (right) Changes in the area marked by the arrow indicate emotional arousal. If such responses appear when a person answers a question, he or she may be lying, but other causes of arousal are also possible.

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DETECTING LIES

Illustrators: Gestures people use to illustrate what they are

saying Emblems:

Gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture

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PRIMARY EMOTIONS AND MOOD

Eight primary emotions (Plutchik, 2001) Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust Anger Anticipation Joy Trust

Mood: Low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

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BODY LANGUAGE (KINESICS)

Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions

Emotional Tone: Underlying emotional state

Facial Blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

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Fig. 12.18 When shown groups of simplified faces (without labels) the angry and scheming faces “jumped out” at people faster than sad, happy, or neutral faces.

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COMMON SENSE THEORY OF EMOTION Common Sense Theory of Emotion

A stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal.

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JAMES-LANGE THEORY OF EMOTION James-Lange theory of Emotion:

Theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion.

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CANNON-BARD THEORY OF EMOTION Cannon-Bard theory of Emotion:

Theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time.

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SCHACTER AND SINGER’S STUDY OF EMOTION Participants who were exposed to the

“angry” man interpreted their physical arousal as anger

Participants who were exposed to the “happy” man interpreted their physical arousal as happiness.

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NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION OF EMOTION

Voice quality Facial expression Body language

Posture and the way we move communicates information

Personal space Explicit acts

For example, slamming doors

GENDER, CULTURE AND EMOTION

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GENDER AND EMOTION Men and women feel emotions equally, but

express them differently Men and women may experience different

emotions in the same situation Anger

Men tend to direct their anger outward Women tend to direct their anger inward

Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

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CULTURE AND EMOTION

Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms

Some emotional displays are universal Display rules

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