psychology - henderson state universityfac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 courses/1 general psychology/1...

Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Module 3 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 1

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PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition, in Modules)

David Myers

PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad

Henderson State University

Worth Publishers, © 2007

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Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

Module 3

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DescriptionThe Case Study

The Survey

Naturalistic Observation

CorrelationCorrelation and CausationIllusory CorrelationPerceiving Order in Random Events

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ExperimentationExploring Cause and Effect

Evaluating Therapies

Independent and Dependent Variables

Statistical ReasoningDescribing Data

Making Inferences

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Description

Case Study

A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.

Is language uniquely human?

Susan Kuklin/ Photo R

esearchers

OBJECTIVE 3‐1| Identify the advantages and

disadvantages of case studies in studying

behavior and mental processes.

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Case Study

A clinical study is a form of case study where the therapist investigates the

problems associated with a client.

http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com

Clinical Study

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Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people

usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people.

http://ww

w.lynnefeatherstone.org


disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior

and mental processes, and explain the

importance of wording effects and random

sampling.

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Survey

Wording can change the results of a survey.

Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

Wording Effect

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Survey

A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and

behaviors.

False Consensus Effect

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Survey

Random Sampling

From a population, if each member has an

equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample

(unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are spurious. The fastest way to know about the

marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and

count them.

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Naturalistic ObservationObserving and recording behavior of animals in

the wild, to recording self‐seating patterns in lunch rooms in a multiracial school constitute

naturalistic observation.C

ourtesy of Gilda M

orelli


disadvantages of naturalistic observation in

studying behavior and mental processes.

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Descriptive Methods

Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation all describe behaviors.

Summary

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Correlation

When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates directionof relationship

(positive or negative)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37+

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship

between two variables.

OBJECTIVE 3‐4| Describe positive and

negative correlations and explain how

correlational measures can aid the process of

prediction.

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Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)

Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, and the amount of

scatter the strength of relationship.

Scatterplots___________________________________

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No relationship (0.00)Perfect negativecorrelation (‐1.00)

Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the

two variables.

Scatterplots___________________________________

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DataData showing height and temperament in people.

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Scatterplot

Scatterplot showing relationship between height and temperament in people with a moderate

positive correlation of +0.63.

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or

Correlation and CausationOBJECTIVE 3‐5| Explain why correlational

research fails to provide evidence of cause‐

effect relationships.

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Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.

Confirming evidence

Disconfirming evidence

Do notadopt

Disconfirming evidence

Confirming evidenceAdopt

Do not conceiveConceive

Michael N

ewm

an Jr./ Photo Edit

OBJECTIVE 3‐6| Describe how people form

illusory correlations.

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Given random data we look for order, for meaningful patterns.

Order in Random Events

Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

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Order in Random Events

Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.

Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.

Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle

OBJECTIVE 3‐7| Explain the human tendency

to perceive order in random events.

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Experimentation

Like other sciences, experimentation forms the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments

isolate causes and their effects.

Exploring Cause and Effect

OBJECTIVE 3‐8| Explain how experiments

help researchers isolate cause and effect.

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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us while keeping other factors under (2) control.

Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

Exploring Cause & Effect___________________________________

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Independent Variable is a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is being

studied.

For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Breast feeding is the independent

variable.

Independent VariableOBJECTIVE 3‐9| Explain the difference

between an independent variable and a

dependent variable.

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Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it

is usually a behavior or a mental process.

For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Intelligence is the

dependent variable.

Dependent Variable___________________________________

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In evaluating drug therapies it is important to keep the patients and experimenter’s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and

which placebo.


Double‐blind Procedure

OBJECTIVE 3‐10| Explain why random

assignment and double‐blind procedure build

confidence in research findings.

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Assigning participants to experimental (Breast‐fed) and control (formula‐fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre‐existing

differences between the two groups.


Random Assignment

Sometime research participants out of

enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out

come of an experiment. To control for such

affects, a double‐blind procedure is used, in

which the participants and the experimenter’s

assistants are not aware of which participants

got real treatment and who got placebo.

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ExperimentationA summary of steps during experimentation.

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ComparisonBelow is a comparison of different research

methods.

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Statistical Reasoning

Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data and let us see what the unaided eye misses.

White63%

Black16%Hispanic

10%Asian

7%Others

4%

Composition of ethnicity in urban locales

OBJECTIVE 3‐11| Explain the importance of

statistical principles, and give an example of

their use in daily life.

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Describing DataMeaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation can lead to incorrect

conclusions.

OBJECTIVE 3‐12| Explain how graphs can

misrepresent data.

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Measures of Central Tendency

Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number.

Median: The middle score in a rank‐ordered distribution.

OBJECTIVE 3‐13| Describe three measures of

central tendency and tell which is most

affected by extreme scores.

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Measures of Central Tendency

A Skewed Distribution

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Measures of Variation

Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

OBJECTIVE 3‐14| Explain two measures of

variation.

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Standard Deviation___________________________________

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Making Inferences

A statistical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or

by chance.

OBJECTIVE 3‐15| Identify three principles for

making generalizations from samples.

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Making Inferences

1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.

2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.

3. More cases are better than fewer cases.

When is an Observed Difference Reliable?

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Making Inferences

When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say

the difference has statistical significance.

For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.

When is a Difference Significant?

OBJECTIVE 3‐16| Explain how psychologists

decide whether differences are meaningful.

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