psychology how psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

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PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

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Page 1: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

PSYCHOLOGYHow psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Page 2: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

• Getting a child to eat

• Getting your little sister to do work for you

• “outpsych” your opponent (poker)

• Getting students to behave

*This is how ordinary people use psychology

Page 3: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Psychology

• What does it mean?

Inner sensations- mental processes

Observable behavior

Page 4: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Psychology: A Definition

The science of behavior and mental

processes.

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•The Need for Psychological Science

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98% Certainty w/o going under

1. The area of the US in square miles?2. American battle deaths in Spanish-

American War?3. GM advertising budget in 1999?4. Percentage of officers in the U.S.

army that were female in 2000?5. The population of Afghanistan in

2001?

Page 7: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

1. Area of US:2. Afghan population:3. Battle deaths: 4. GM advertising:5. Female officers:

3.6 million sq. miles26.8 million385$2.9 billion9.953

Page 8: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Why The Need for a Psychological Science?

• Limits of intuition and common sense

• 1. Hindsight bias• 2. OverconfidenceWe will come back to these later.

Page 9: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

What psychologists study

1. Common everyday behaviors

– Eating, bathing, sleeping, speech patterns, ability to remember, etc.

2. Everyday Situations

- interview (role of appearance, gender, age, distance)

-parties (life of party vs. wallflower)

Page 10: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

What psychologists study cont.

3. Abnormal behavior

- Mental disorders (examples?)

- Crime, drugs, etc.- Psychologists first

try to diagnose the problem by determining the cause- Fired, marital

problems, history, etc.

Page 11: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

4 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. DESCRIBE2. EXPLAIN3. PREDICT4. INFLUENCE

* FOCUS IS ALWAYS ON BEHAVIOR *

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Psychology’s Big Issues

Stability v. Change

Continuity v. Discontinuity

Nature v. Nurture

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Continuity v. Discontinuity

• Does growth occur gradually or in stages?– One continuous process or…– marked by significant transitions?– Stage Theorists

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Psychology and other sciences

• Physics: instruments for measuring bodily changes

• Chemistry: how the body’s chemistry relates to mood, performance, and personality disturbance (adrenalin, hormones)– Medications

• Biology: information about sense organs, nervous system, and glands– Brain- basis of human

behavior– Understanding of

heredity

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Focus is always on??????

BEHAVIOR

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• Biology versus Experience• Am I the way I am because I was

born that way or because of my surroundings?

Nature v. Nurture

Can I ever be like these people, or does nature give me limitations?

Page 19: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Psychology’s Perspectives

The Big Seven

Page 20: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Neuroscience Perspective

• Focus on how the physical body and brain creates our emotions, memories and sensory experiences.

If you could not remember the names of your parents and went to a psychologist who adheres to the neuroscience perspective, what might they say?

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Evolutionary Perspective

• Focuses on Darwinism.

• We behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors.

• Thus, those behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors survival.

• Mother nature practicing selective breeding

How could this behavior ensured Homer’s ancestors survival?

Page 22: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Psychodynamic Perspective

• Fathered by Sigmund Freud.

• Our behavior comes from unconscious drives.

• Usually stemming from our childhood.

What might a psychoanalyst say is the reason someone always needs to be chewing gum?

Page 23: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Behavioral Perspective

• Focuses on our OBSERVABLE behaviors.

• Only cares about the behaviors that impair our living, and attempts to change them.

If you bit your fingernails when you were nervous, a behaviorist would not focus on calming you down, but rather focus on how to stop you from biting your nails.

Page 24: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

BEHAVIORISTS

• How people learn• Rewards and

punishment

John B. Watson

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Cognitive Perspective• Focuses on how

we think (or encode information)

• How do we see the world?

• How did we learn to act to sad or happy events?

• Cognitive Therapist attempt to change the way you think.

Meet girl Get Rejected by girl

Did you learn to be depressed

Or get back on the horse

Page 26: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Social-Cultural Perspective

• Focus on how your culture effects your behavior.

Even in the same high school, behaviors can change in accordance to the various subcultures.

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Humanistic Perspective• Focuses on positive growth• Attempt to seek self-actualization• Therapists use active listening and

unconditional positive regard.

Mr. Rogers would have made a great Humanistic Therapist!!!

Page 28: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Approaches cont.• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

– people try to achieve their maximum potential (self actualization)

– Promote health and self-growth• ECLECTIC

– Combination of approaches

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Psychological Research Methods

Excavating Human Behaviors

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Guidelines cont.

• Procedures must be repeatable– Other scientists can

do the same procedure or experiment

• Must use an organized and systematic approach in gathering data

Page 33: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Hindsight Bias• The tendency

to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along.

Only after Kerry won the Iowa Primary, did people begin to say that Dean was too liberal. What would people say about Kerry if Dean won?

Page 34: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Overconfidence• We tend to think we know

more than we do.

82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of their group in

terms of safety

81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of their

businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their peers, the answer was only 39%. (Now that's

overconfidence!!!)

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Types of Research

• Descriptive• Correlational• Experimental

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Descriptive Research• Any research that observes and

records.• Does not talk about relationships,

it just describes.

What is going on in this picture?

We cannot say exactly, but we can describe what we see.

Thus we have…..

Page 37: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Types of Descriptive Research

• The Case Study

• The Survey

• Naturalistic Observation

• Tests

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The Case Study• Where one person (or situation) is

observed in depth.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a tragedy like the Columbine School Shootings as a case study?

Page 39: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

The Survey Method

• Used in both descriptional and correlational research.

• Use Interview, mail, phone, internet etc…

• The Good- cheap, anonymous, diverse population, and easy to get random sampling (a sampling that represents your population you want to study).

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Random Sampling

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Why do we sample?

• One reason is the False Consensus Effect: the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

• Demonstration (Heads down)

Page 42: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Survey Method: The Bad

• Wording Effects

• Low Response Rate

• People Lie or just misinterpret themselves.

How accurate would a survey be about the frequency of diarrhea?

Page 43: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

• 72% interested in “plants and trees”• 39% interested in “botany”

• 62% whites agree “problems faced by blacks brought on by blacks themselves” (white interviewer)

• 46% whites agree with black interviewer

• A majority oppose an amendment “prohibiting abortions”

• A majority support “protecting the life of an unborn child”

Page 44: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Naturalistic Observation

• Observing and recording behavior in natural environment.

• No control- just an observer.

What are the benefits and detriments of Naturalistic Observation?

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METHODS cont.• DIRECTED

OBSERVATION:– Involves observing

behavior under controlled conditions in an experimental or a laboratory setting

– ADVANTAGE:• Allows for control of

events and behaviors

– DISADVANTAGE:• Taking an organism

from its natural environment may change its behavior

Page 47: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Correlational Research• Detects relationships between

variables.• Does NOT say that one variable

causes another.

There is a positive correlation between ice cream and murder rates. Does that mean that ice cream causes murder?

Page 48: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Measured using a correlation coefficient.

• A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors relate to one another

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How to Read a Correlation Coefficient

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Do you think there is a correlation between

t.v. watching and G.P.A?

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Experimental Research

• Explores cause and effect relationships.

Eating too many bananas causes Constipation

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Steps in Designing an Experiment

1. Hypothesis2. Pick Population: Random Selection then

Random Assignment.3. Operationalize the Variables4. Identify Independent and Dependent

Variables.5. Look for Extraneous Variables6. Type of Experiment: Blind, Double Blind

etc..7. Gather Data8. Analyze Results

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Experimental Vocabulary

• Independent Variable: factor that is manipulated

• Dependent Variable: factor that is measured

• Extraneous Variables: factors that effect DV, that are not IV.

• Experimental Group: Group exposed to IV

• Control Group: Group not exposed to IV

• Placebo: inert substance that is in place of IV in Control Group

Page 59: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Experimentation

Purpose of an expt: Establish cause / effect relationship

General hypothesis: food effects learning

Specific (operationalized) hypothesis: students who eat an oatmeal raisin cookie before class each day will have higher average scores on the semester final than students who don’t eat a cookie.

Page 60: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Eating cookies before class each day will lead to higher average

scores.Variables:

Independent (IV)Controlled by experimenterThe “cause” variable- cookies

Dependent (DV)Predicted by experimenterThe “effect” variable- scores

Page 61: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Eating cookies before class each day will lead to higher

average scores.What if kids get cookies and A’s?Groups (conditions): to establish

different levels of the IVExperimental group

Exposed to IVGet cookie

Control groupNot exposed to IVNo cookie

Page 62: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Eating cookies before class each day will lead to higher

average scores.• Experimental

Group– Cookie– 95%

• Control Group– No cookie– 82%

• Confounding Variables– Environmental

– Expectations

– Individual differences

Page 63: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Random SamplingTo select participants from

populationAllows you to generalize results

Random AssignmentTo divide participants into

groupsControls confounding

variables

Demonstration

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Eating cookies before class each day will lead to higher

average scores.• Experimental

Group– Cookie– 95%

• Control Group– No cookie– 82%– 85%– 93%

Page 65: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Statistical Significance

p valuelikelihood a result is caused by chancecan be no greater than 5%p ≤ .05

Page 66: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Replication

Non-replicated results are preliminary.

Linus Pauling (1970). Vitamin C prevents colds.

• Experimental Group– Vitamin C

• Control Group– Placebo

• Experimental Group experienced 45% fewer colds

Page 67: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Experimental Design Terms

• Hypothesis• Operational definitions• Participant selection• IV & DV• Experimental & control groups• Confounding variables• Random assignment• Placebo control• Double blind procedure• Statistical significance (p value)• Replication

Page 68: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD cont.

• Subjects in an experiment– Organism, human or animal, participating in

an experiment• Responses are the dependent variable• Random: each individual has an equal chance of

being selected (random selection)• Experimental group:

– The group in which the condition under study is present

• Control group:– The group in which the condition is not present

(random assignment)

Page 70: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD cont.

• American Psychological Association (APA): sets guidelines for the treatment of subjects– Keep personal information confidential,

protect from harm, inform of the nature of the experiment

Page 71: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD cont.

• PROBLEMS WITH THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

1. If a subject knows he/she is in an experiment, they may change their ordinary behavior

2. Selection of individuals to participate in studies

3. Generalizing from results – Students/public rats/people

4. Opinions of the experimenter may affect the results– Selection and treatment of subjects

5. Protection of the privacy of subjects- Names and individual results must be kept

confidential

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longitudinal studies

• A psychologist studies the same group of people at regular intervals over a period of years to determine whether their behavior and/or feelings have changed and if so, how.

Page 73: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

cross-sectional studies.

• In this study, psychologists organize individuals into groups based on age.

• Then, these groups are randomly sampled, and the members of each group are surveyed, tested, or observed simultaneously.

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Analyze Results

• Use measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode).

• Use measures of variation (range and standard deviation).

Page 75: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Statistical Reasoning• Measures of central tendency• Mode

– most common– 4

• Mean– arithmetic average– 20/5 = 4

• Median– middle score– 4

• 4 3 5 4 4

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SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS?

• When a few extreme scores significantly affect the mean.

Page 77: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Central Tendency 1968 TOPPS Baseball CardsNolan Ryan $1500Billy Williams $8Luis Aparicio $5Harmon Killebrew $5Orlando Cepeda $3.50Maury Wills $3.50Jim Bunning $3Tony Conigliaro $3Tony Oliva $3Lou Pinella $3Mickey Lolich $2.50

- With Ryan:- Median = $2.50- Mean = $74.14

Elston Howard $2.25Jim Bouton $2Rocky Colavito $2Boog Powell $2Luis Tiant $2Tim McCarver $1.75Tug McGraw $1.75Joe Torre $1.5Rusty Staub $1.25Curt Flood$1

- W/O Ryan:- Median = $2.38- Mean $2.85

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Statistical Reasoning

• Measures of variation– Range– Variance and Standard Deviation

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Standard DeviationPunt

DistanceDeviation

From Mean

Deviation Squared

36

38

41

45

-4

-2

+1

+5

16

4

1

2546

Mean =160/4=40 yds.

46/4=11.5=Variance

Std. dev.=

variance=

11.5=3.4 yds

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Statistical Reasoning

A. Describing dataB. Measures of central tendencyC. Measures of variationD. Characteristics of the normal curve

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Statistical Reasoning

Inference 1. Does the sample represent the

pop.? a. Non-biased sample-good b. Low variability-good c. Larger samples-good

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Statistical Reasoning

2. Are differences between groups statistically significant?

a. Big differences-good b. Low variability-good c. Big groups-good

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F.A.Q.’s

• A. Can lab expts illuminate real life?

• B. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?

• C. Does behavior vary with gender?• D. Why do psychologists study

animals?• E. Is it ethical to experiment on

animals?• F. Is it ethical to experiment on

people?• G. Is psychology free of value

judgments?• H. Is psychology potentially

dangerous?

Page 85: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

F.A.Q.s

F. Is it ethical to experiment on people?

Yes, if the APA’s ethical guidelines are followed.

1. Informed consent 2. Protection from harm 3. Confidentiality 4. Debriefing

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How should participants be chosen?

• Good answers use and make clear your understanding of the terms “sample” and “population.”

• Good answers explain how to draw a random sample.

• Ex. “All the assembly line workers for a company could be the population. I would draw a random sample of 40 of them by picking names from a hat.”

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Create operationalized hypothesis

• Good answers make an educated guess (“Workers who are complimented will work harder”)

• Good answers develop specific, measurable ways to define compliments and hard work.

• Ex. “10 compliments will be given at 4 specific times.” “Supervisors will give compliments from a pre-developed list.” “Hard work will be measured by using the number of items produced each hour.”

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Identify IV and DV

• IV=compliments• DV=work effort• Do not propose a direction when

stating the variable (“the DV is an increase in work.”)

• People are never the variables (“the IV is the people who get complimented.”)

Page 89: PSYCHOLOGY How psychology is used every day to get desired behaviors

Describe the Groups

• Experimental group gets compliments.

• Control group doesn’t get compliments.

• Use the terms!

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Confounding Variables

• Do not confuse random assignment with random sampling.

• Be reasonable!!!• “The company policy will be to have

people sleep in a hotel with no TV or radio.”

• “I will provide a seminar on the importance of sleep.”

• “All workers must be paid the same.”

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