psychology in the caliphates

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Psychology in the Caliphates

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A medical work byIbn al-Nafis, who corrected some of the erroneous theories ofGalen andAvicenna on the anatomy of the brain.

Islamic psychology

[1]

translates the term Ilm-al Nafsiat[2]

(Arabic,

) the science of theNafs ("self" or "psyche")[3] and refers to the medical and philosophical study of the psyche as itflowered during the Islamic Golden Age (8th13th centuries).

Concepts from medieval Islamic thought have been reexamined by Muslimpsychologistsandscholars in the 20th and 21st centuries.[4]

Contents

[hide]

1 Terminology 2 Ethics and theology 3 Philosophical approach

o 3.1 Intellect and consciousness studieso 3.2 Sensory perceptiono 3.3 Sufi psychologyo 3.4 Other philosophical theories of the mind

4 Clinical and medical approach
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o 4.1 Al-tibb al-ruhani and diseases of the mindo 4.2 Mental hospitalso 4.3 Ilaj al-nafs and tibb al-qalbo 4.4 Music therapyo 4.5 Cognitive therapy

o 4.6 Physical and psychological disorderso 4.7 Nosology and psychopathologyo 4.8 Anatomy and physiologyo 4.9 Neurosurgeryo 4.10 Neuropsychiatric conditionso 4.11 Neurology and neuropharmacology

5 Sociological approacho 5.1 Animal psychology and musicology

6 See also 7 Notes

8 References

[edit] Terminology

Modern attempts at reviving the medieval Islamic study of the mind have referred to it as "Islamicpsychology",.[1] In the writings of Muslim scholars, the termNafs (self or soul) was used to denoteindividual personality and the termfitrah for human nature.Nafs encompassed a broad range offaculties including the qalb (heart), the ruh (spirit), the aql(intellect) and irada (will). Muslimscholarship was strongly influenced by Greek and Indian philosophy as well as by the study ofscripture.

In medieval Islamic medicine in particular, the study of "mental illness was a speciality of itsown",[5] and was variously known as "diseases of the mind," al-ilaj al-nafs (approximately"curing/treatment of the ideas/soul/vegetative mind," also translated more simply as"psychotherapy"),[6]al-tibb al-ruhani ("the healing of the spirit," or "spiritual health") and tibb al-qalb ("healing of the heart/self," or "mental medicine").[3]

[edit] Ethics and theology

Most ancient and medieval societies believed that mental illness was caused by eitherdemonicpossession or as punishment from agod, which led to a negative attitude towards mental illness in

Judeo-Christian andGreco-Roman societies. On the other hand, Islamic ethics andtheology held amore sympathetic attitude towards the mentally ill, as exemplified in Sura 4:5 of the Qur'an:[7]

"Do not give your property which God assigned you to manage to the insane: but feed and cloththe insane with this property and tell splendid words to him."[8]

This Quranic verse summarized Islam's attitudes towards the mentally ill, who were consideredunfit to manage property but must be treated humanely and be kept under care by a guardian,
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according toIslamic law.[7] This positive neuroethical understanding ofmental health consequentlyled to the establishment of the first mental hospitals in the medieval Islamic world from the 8thcentury,[9] and an early scientific understanding ofneuroscienceandpsychologyby medievalMuslim physiciansand psychological thinkers, who discovered that mental disorders are caused bydysfunctions in thebrain.[10]

[edit] Philosophical approach

[edit] Intellect and consciousness studies

Further information:Avicennism - Thought experiments on self-consciousness

In thephilosophy of mind, certain hadiths indicate that dreams consist of three parts, and earlyMuslim scholars also recognized three different kinds of dreams: false dreams, patho-geneticdreams, and true dreams.[6]

One of the earliest Muslim psychological thinkers was Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Sirin (654728),who was renowned for his Tabir al-Ruya and Muntakhab al-Kalam fi Tabir al-Ahlam, a book ondreams. The work is divided into 25 sections on dream interpretation, from the etiquette ofinterpreting dreams to the interpretation of reciting certain Surahs of the Qur'an in one's dream. Hewrites that it is important for a layperson to seek assistance from anAlim (Muslim scholar) whocould guide in the interpretation of dreams with a proper understanding of the cultural context andother such causes and interpretations.[11]Al-Kindi (Alkindus) (801873) also wrote a treatise ondream interpretation entitled On Sleep and Dreams.[12]

Al-Farabi (Alpharabius) was a pioneer ofsocial psychology and a pioneer in music therapy anddream interpretation.

In consciousness studies, al-Farabi (Alpharabius) (872-951) wrote the On the Cause of Dreams,which appeared as chapter 24 of hisBook of Opinions of the people of the Ideal City, was a treatiseon dreams, in which he was the first to distinguish between dream interpretation and the nature and

causes of dreams.[13]

Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037), while he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan nearHamadhan, wrote his famous "Floating Man" thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and self-consciousness and the substantiality of the soul. He referred to the livinghuman intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis bywhich God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature.His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the
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air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. Heargues that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. He thus concludes that theidea of theselfis not logically dependent on any physicalthing, and that the soul should not beseen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance.[14] Avicenna also wrote about thepotential intellect (within man) and active intellect (outside man) and that cognition cannot be

produced mechanically but involves intuition at every stage. As ananalogy, he compares theordinary human mind to a mirrorupon which a succession of ideas reflects from the activeintellect. He writes that a mirror can be rusty at first (i.e. before acquiring knowledge from theactive intellect), but when the mirror is polished (i.e. when one thinks), the mirror can then readilyreflect light from the Sun (i.e. the active intellect).[15]

H. Chad Hillier writes the following on the contributions made byAverroes (Ibn Rushd) (11261198) to the field of psychology:[16]

"There is evidence of some evolution in Ibn Rushd's thought on the intellect, notably in his MiddleCommentary onDe Anima where he combines the positions ofAlexanderandThemistius for his

doctrine on the material intellect and in his Long Commentary and the Tahafutwhere Ibn Rushdrejected Alexander and endorsed Themistius position that "material intellect is a singleincorporeal eternal substance that becomes attached to the imaginative faculties of individualhumans." Thus, the human soul is a separate substance ontologically identical with the activeintellect; and when this active intellect is embodied in an individual human it is the materialintellect. The material intellect is analogous to prime matter, in that it is pure potentiality able toreceive universal forms. As such, the human mind is a composite of the material intellect and thepassive intellect, which is the third element of the intellect. The passive intellect is identified withthe imagination, which, as noted above, is the sense-connected finite and passive faculty thatreceives particular sensual forms. When the material intellect is actualized by informationreceived, it is described as the speculative (habitual) intellect. As the speculative intellect moves

towards perfection, having the active intellect as an object of thought, it becomes the acquiredintellect. In that, it is aided by the active intellect, perceived in the way Aristotle had taught, toacquire intelligible thoughts. The idea of the soul's perfection occurring through having the activeintellect as a greater object of thought is introduced elsewhere, and its application to religiousdoctrine is seen. In the Tahafut, Ibn Rushd speaks of the soul as a faculty that comes to resemblethe focus of its intention, and when its attention focuses more upon eternal and universalknowledge, it become more like the eternal and universal. As such, when the soul perfects itself, itbecomes like our intellect."

"Ibn Rushd succeeded in providing an explanation of the human soul and intellect that did notinvolve an immediate transcendent agent. This opposed the explanations found among theNeoplatonists, allowing a further argument for rejecting of Neoplatonic emanation theories. Even

so, notes Davidson, Ibn Rushds theory of the material intellect was something foreign toAristotle."

Ibn Khaldun'sMuqaddimah (1377) states the following on dream interpretation:

"Often, we may deduce (the existence of) that high spiritual world and the essences it contains,from visions and things we had not been aware of while awake but which we find in our sleep andwhich are brought to our attention in it and which, if they are true (dreams), conform with
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actuality. We thus know that they are true and come from the world of truth. "Confused dreams,"on the other hand, are pictures of the imagination that are stored inside byperception and to whichthe ability to think is applied, after (man) has retired fromsense perception."[17]

[edit] Sensory perception

Ibn al-Haytham's psychology in hisBook of Optics (1021) may have also possibly been influencedby Buddhist philosophy, echoes of which can be in some of his views onpain and sensation. Hewrites that every sensation is a form of 'suffering' and that what people call pain is only anexaggeratedperception; that there is no qualitative difference but only a quantitative differencebetween pain and ordinary sensation.[18]

Avicenna was the first to divide human perception into five external senses (the classical senses ofhearing,sight, smell,taste and touch known since antiquity) and five internal senses which hediscovered himself: thesensus communis (seat of all senses) which integrates sense data intopercepts; the imaginative faculty which conserves the perceptual images; the sense ofimagination

which acts upon these images by combining and separating them, serving as the seat of thepracticalintellect; Wahm (instinct) which perceives qualities (such as good and bad, love and hate,etc.) and forms the basis of a person's character whether or not influenced by reason; and intentions(ma'ni) which conserve all these notions in memory.[19]

Al-Ghazali(Algazel) (10581111) stated that theselfhas motorand sensorymotivesfor fulfillingits bodily needs. He wrote that the motor motives comprise ofpropensities and impulses, andfurther divided the propensities into two types: appetiteand anger. He wrote that appetite urgeshunger,thirst, andsexual craving, while anger takes the form ofrage, indignation andrevenge. Hefurther wrote that impulse resides in themuscles,nerves, and tissues, and moves the organsto"fulfill the propensities."[20]

Al-Ghazali was also one of the first to divide the sensory motives (apprehension) into five externalsenses (the classical senses ofhearing, sight, smell,taste andtouch) and five internal senses, whichhe was able to describe more accurately than Avicenna. The five internal senses discovered by al-Ghazali were:common sense(Hiss Mushtarik) which synthesizes sensuous impressions carried tothebrain while giving meaning to them; imagination (Takhayyul) which enables someone to retainmental imagesfrom experience; reflection (Tafakkur) which brings together relevantthoughts andassociates ordissociates them as it considers fit but has no power to create anything new which isnot already present in the mind; recollection (Tadhakkur) which remembers the outer form ofobjects in memory and recollects the meaning; and thememory (Hafiza) where impressionsreceived through the senses are stored. He wrote that, while the external senses occur through

specific organs, the internal senses are located in different regions of the brain, and discovered thatthe memory is located in the hinderlobe, imagination is located in the frontal lobe, and reflectionis located in the middle folds of the brain. He stated that these inner senses allow people to predictfuture situations based on what they learn from past experiences. [21]

In The Revival of Religious Sciences, al-Ghazali also writes that the five internal senses are foundin both humans andanimals. InMizan al Amal, however, he later states that animals "do notpossess a well-developed reflective power" and argues that animals mostly think in terms of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_Caliphates&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufferinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_(sense)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_(sense)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instincthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-365-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_addictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_addictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_(emotion)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revengehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revengehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-366-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprehension_(understanding)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_(sense)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_self-reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobe_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobe_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-367-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_Caliphates&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufferinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_(sense)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instincthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-365-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_addictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_(emotion)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revengehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-366-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprehension_(understanding)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_(sense)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_self-reflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobe_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-367-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal


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"pictorial ideas in a simple way and are incapable of complex association and dissociation ofabstract ideas involved in reflection." He writes that "the self carries two additional qualities,which distinguishes man from animals enabling man to attain spiritual perfection", which are 'Aql(intellect) and Irada (will). He argues that the intellect is "the fundamental rational faculty, whichenables man to generalize and form concepts and gain knowledge." He also argues that human will

and animal will are both different. He writes that human will is "conditioned by the intellect" whileanimal will is "conditioned by anger and appetite" and that "all these powers control and regulatethe body." He further writes that the Qalb (heart) "controls and rules over them" and that it has sixpowers: appetite, anger, impulse,apprehension, intellect, and will. He states that humans have allsix of these traits, while animals only have three (appetite, anger, and impulse). [21]This was incontrast to other ancient and medieval thinkers such asAristotle,Avicenna,Roger Bacon andThomas Aquinas who all believed that animals cannot become angry.[22]

[edit] Sufi psychology

Main article: Sufi psychology

In Sufi psychology,Nafs is considered to be the lowest principle of man. Higher than the nafs isthe Qalb (heart), and theRuh(spirit). This tripartition forms the foundation of later, morecomplicated systems; it is found as early as the Koranic commentary by Ja'far al-Sadiq. He holdsthat the nafs is peculiar to the zalim (tyrant), the qalb to the muqtasid(moderate), and the rh to thesbiq(preceding one, winner); the zlim loves God for his own sake, the muqtasid loves Him forHimself, and the sbiq annihilates his own will in God's will. Bayezid Bistami, Hakm at-Tirmidh,and Junayd have followed this tripartition. Kharrz, however, inserts between nafs and qalb theelement tab', "nature," the natural functions of man

At almost the same time in history, Nr saw in man four different aspects of the heart, which he

derived in an ingenious way from the Koran:

Sadr (breast) is connected with Islam (Sra 39:23); qalb (heart) is the seat of mn (faith) (Sra

49:7; 16:106); fuad (heart) is connected with marifa (gnosis) ( Sra 53:11); and lubb (innermostheart) is the seat of tauhd ( Sra 3:190).

The Sufis often add the element of sirr, the innermost part of the heart in which the divinerevelation is experienced. Jafar introduced, in an interesting comparison, reason, aql, as the barrierbetween nafs and qalb -- "the barrier which they both cannot transcend" ( Sra 55:20), so that thedark lower instincts cannot jeopardize the heart's purity .Each of these spiritual centers has its ownfunctions, and Amr al-Makk has summed up some of the early Sufi ideas in a lovely myth:

God created the hearts seven thousand years before the bodies and kept them in the station of

proximity to Himself and He created the spirits seven thousand years before the hearts and keptthem in the garden of intimate fellowship (uns) with Himself, and the consciencesthe innermost

partHe created seven thousand years before the spirits and kept them in the degree of union

(wa l) with Himself. Then he imprisoned the conscience in the spirit and the spirit in the heart and the heart in the body. Then He tested them and sent prophets, and then each began to seek its own
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/'Aqlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprehension_(understanding)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprehension_(understanding)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-367-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-367-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_Caliphates&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ja'far_al-Sadiqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/'Aqlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprehension_(understanding)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-367-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_Caliphates&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ja'far_al-Sadiq


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station. The body occupied itself with prayer, the heart attained to love, the spirit arrived at

proximity to its Lord, and the innermost part found rest in union with Him[23]

[edit] Other philosophical theories of the mind

Al-Kindi dealt with psychology in hisFirst Philosophy, andEradication of Sorrow. In the latter,he described sorrow as "a spiritual (Nafsani) grief caused by loss of loved ones or personalbelongings, or by failure in obtaining what one lusts after" and then added: "If causes of pain arediscernible, the cures can be found." He recommended that "if we do not tolerate losing or dislikebeing deprived of what is dear to us, then we should seek after riches in the world of theintellect.In it we should treasure our precious and cherished gains where they can never be dispossessedfor that which is owned by our senses could easily be taken away from us." He also stated that"sorrow is not within us we bring it upon ourselves."[12]

In theEncyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (10th century), the Brethren of Puritydiscussed thesoul,brain, and process ofthought. They divided the soul into three parts: the vegetative, animal

and rational human souls. The vegetative soul is concerned with nutrition, growth andreproduction; the animal soul is concerned with movement, sensation,perception and emotion; andthe rational human soul is concerned with thinking and talking. Contrary to theAristotelian viewof the heart being the most important organ, the Brethren of Purity considered the brain as the mostimportant organ of the body, due to it being responsible for higher functions such as perceptionand thought.[24]

The Arab Muslim physician An-Naysaburi (d. 1016) wrote theKitab al-Uquala al-Majanin, inwhich he used the termMahwus for patients with delusionsand hallucinations. He attempted toexplain the phenomenon of madness and insanity inphilosophicalterms, rather than thepsychopathological methods used by his contemporaries. He considered life as a blending of

opposites such as health and disease, and wrote thatreason is mixed with madness so that even thesane are never free from madness.[25]

Ibn Miskawayh (9411030) wrote the books Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (Cultivation of Morals) andAl-Fauz al-Asgar(The Lesser Victory),[24] in which he gives psychological advice on certain issues,such as thefearofdeath, the need to develop traits to restrain oneself from faults, and the conceptofmorality. He also introduced the concepts of "self reinforcement" and response cost, where headvises Muslims who feel guilt to learn to punish themselves physically or psychologicallythrough charity, fasting, etc.[19]

Al-Ghazali(Algazel) (10581111) discussed the concept of the selfand the causes of its misery

and happiness. He described the self using four terms:Qalb(heart),Ruh (spirit),Nafs (soul) and'Aql (intellect). He stated that "the self has an inherent yearning for an ideal, which it strives torealize and it is endowed with qualities to help realize it."[20] He also stated that there are two typesofdiseases: physical and spiritual. He considered the latter to be more dangerous, resulting from"ignorance and deviation from God", and listed the spiritual diseases as: self-centeredness;addiction to wealth, fame andsocial status; and ignorance, cowardice,cruelty, lust,waswas(doubt),malevolence, calumny,envy, deception, and greed. To overcome these spiritualweaknesses, al-Ghazali suggested the therapy of opposites ("use of imagination in pursuing the
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wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-365-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happinesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/'Aqlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_in_medieval_Islam#cite_note-Amber-366-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_addictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_statushttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ignorancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowardicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crueltyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waswashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malice_(legal_term)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defamationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy


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opposite"), such as ignorance & learning, or hate & love. He described thepersonalityas an"integration of spiritual and bodily forces" and believed that "closeness to God is equivalent tonormality whereas distance from God leads to abnormality."[26]

Ibn Bajjah(Avempace) (d. 1138) "based hispsychological studies on physics." In hisessay,

Recognition of the Active Intelligence, he wrote that active intelligence is the most importantability ofhuman beings, and he wrote many other essays on sensations and imaginations. Heconcluded that "knowledgecannot be acquired by senses alone but by Active Intelligence, which isthe governing intelligence of nature." He begins his discussion of thesoulwith the definition that"bodies are composed of matter and form and intelligence is the most important part of mansound knowledge is obtained through intelligence, which alone enables one to attain prosperity andbuild character." He viewed the unity of the rational soul as the principle of the individual identity,and that by its contact with the Active Intelligence, it "becomes one of those lights that gives gloryto God." His definition offreedom is "that when one can think and act rationally". He also writesthat "the aim of life should be to seekspiritual knowledge and make contact with ActiveIntelligence and thus with the Divine."[26]

Fakhr al-Din al-Razi(11491209) wrote theKitab al Nafs Wal Ruh, which deals with both humanpsychologyand animal psychologyalong the same lines. In this work, he analyzed the differenttypes ofpleasuresas sensuous andintellectual, and explained theircomparative relations with oneanother. He asserted that "a careful scrutiny of pleasure would reveal that it consists essentially inthe elimination ofpain." He then gives the following example: "the hungrier a man is, the greater ishis enjoyment of pleasure of eating." He also argues that "the gratification of pleasure isproportionate to the need or desire of the animal" and that when "these needs are satisfied ordesires fulfilled, the pleasure actually turns into revulsion," as "excess of food or sex results not inmore pleasure, but in pain."[27] He argued that human needs and desires are endless, and "theirsatisfaction is by definition impossible." He concludes that mental pleasure is more "noble and

perfect than the sensual pleasure" and suggests that "the excellence and perfection" of a human isonly realized by means of science, knowledge and "excellent manners," rather than "eating,drinking, and mating."[28]

Ibn al-Nafis (12131288) dealt with psychology in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna'sCanon. He developed his own theories on hylomorphic psychology and philosophy, mostly on atheologicalbasis.[29] In particular, he made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and hedeveloped his own theory on the soul. He also crtiticized the ideas of Avicenna and Aristotle onthe soul originating from theheart. Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul"is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs." He further criticized Aristotle's idea thatevery unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafisconcluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to theentire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul asnothing other than "what a human indicates by saying I."[30]

[edit] Clinical and medical approach

Unlike medieval Christian physicians who relied ondemonologicalexplanations for mental illness,medieval Muslim physiciansrelied mostly onclinical psychiatry and clinical psychology, and
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ychology_in_the_Caliphates&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology


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clinical observations on mentally ill patients. They made significant advances to psychiatry andwere the first to providepsychotherapy andmoral treatment for mentally ill patients, in addition toother new forms of treatment such asbaths, drugmedication, music therapy and occupationaltherapy.[31]

[edit]Al-tibb al-ruhaniand diseases of the mind

The concepts ofal-tibb al-ruhani (translated as "spiritual health" in Arabic) and "mental hygiene"were introduced in Islamic medicine by the Persian physician Abu ZaydAhmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi(850-934), who often related it to spiritual health. In hisMasalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus(Sustenance for Body and Soul), he was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both thebody and the soul. He used the term al-Tibb al-Ruhani to describe spiritual and psychologicalhealth, and the term Tibb al-Qalb to describe mental medicine. He criticized many medical doctorsin his time for placing too much emphasis on physical illnesses and neglecting the mental illnessesof patients, and argued that "since mans construction is from both his soul and his body, therefore,human existence cannot be healthy without the ishtibak[interweaving or entangling] of soul and

body." He further argued that "if the body gets sick, the nafs [psyche] loses much of itscognitiveand comprehensiveability and fails to enjoy the desirous aspects of life" and that "if the nafs getssick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness." Al-Balkhi traced back his ideas on mental health to verses of the Qur'an and hadiths attributed toMuhammad, such as:[3]

"In their hearts is a disease."Qur'an 2:10

"Truly, in the body there is a morsel of flesh, and when it is corrupt the body is corrupt, and whenit

is sound the body is sound. Truly, it is the qalb [heart]."

Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Iman

"Verily Allah does not consider your appearances or your wealth in (appraising you) but Heconsiders your hearts and your deeds."Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, no. 8707

[edit] Mental hospitals

As a result of the new positive Islamic understanding of mental illness, the first mental hospitalsand insane asylums were built in the Islamic world as early as the 8th century. The first mentalhospitals were built by Arab Muslims inBaghdadin 705, Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in800. Other famous mental hospitals were built in Damascusand Aleppo in 1270.[9][32]

[edit] Ilaj al-nafs and tibb al-qalb

Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari'sFirdous al-Hikmah written in the 9th century was the first work tostudy 'al-ilaj al-nafs (translated as "psychotherapy" from Arabic)[6] in the treatment of patients.
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His ideas were primarily influenced by earlyIslamic thought and ancient Indian physicians such asSushruta and Charaka. Unlike earlier physicians, however, al-Tabari emphasized strong tiesbetween psychology and medicine, and the need foral-ilaj al-nafs andcounseling in thetherapeutic treatment of patients. He wrote that patients frequently feel sick due to delusionsorimagination, and that these can be treated through "wise counselling" by smart and witty

physicians who could win the rapport and confidence of their patients, leading to a positivetherapeutic outcome.[12] In his chapter on mental illness, al-Tabari first described thirteen types ofmental disorders, includingmadness, delirium, andFasad Al-Khayal Wal-Aql("damage to theimagination, intelligence and thought").[5]He also clearly highlighted mental illness as a specialityof its own.

The TunisianArab Muslim physician,[33] Ishaq ibn Imran (d. 908),[34] known as "Isaac" in the West,[35] wrote an essay entitledMaqala fil-L-Malikhuliya, in which he first describedpsychosis, andalso described a type ofmelancholia: the "cerebral type" or "phrenitis". He described the diagnosisof this mental disorder, reporting its varied symptoms. The main clinical features he identifiedwere sudden movement, foolish acts,fear,delusions, and hallucinations ofblack people.[34] This

work was later translated into Latin asDe Oblivione (On Forgetfulness) by Constantine theAfrican.[33]

The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakarya Rzi (Rhazes) (865-925) wrote the landmark textsEl-Mansuri andAl-Hawi in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms, andtreatments for many illnesses related tomental health and mental illness. Razi's texts madesignificant advances in psychiatry. Razi also managed the mental ward of a Baghdad hospital.Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time, because of European fears ofdemonicpossession.[31]

In the centuries to come, Islam would serve as a critical waystation of knowledge forRenaissance

Europe, through the Latin translations of many scientific Islamic texts. Razi, al-Tabari andAhmedibn Sahl al-Balkhi were the first known physicians to study al-ilaj al-nafs.

Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. 982) discussed mental illness in his medical text,Kitab al-Malaki,where he discovered and observed a type ofmelancholia: clinical lycanthropy, associated withcertainpersonality disorders. He wrote the following on this particular mental illness:[34]

"Its victim behaves like a rooster and cries like a dog, the patient wanders among the tombs atnight, his eyes are dark, his mouth is dry, the patient hardly ever recovers and the disease ishereditary."

Avicenna (980-1037) often used psychological methods to treat his patients.

[20]

One such exampleinvolved a prince of Persia who had melancholia and suffered from the delusion that he was a cow.He would low like a cow, crying "Kill me so that a good stew may be made of my flesh," andwould not eat anything. Avicenna was persuaded to undertake the case, and sent a message to thepatient, asking him to be happy, as the butcher was coming to slaughter him, and the sick manrejoiced. When Avicenna approached the prince with a knife in his hand, he asked, "Where is thecow so I may kill it." The patient then lowed like a cow to indicate where he was. By order ofAvicenna in his role as the butcher, the patient was also laid on the ground for slaughter. When
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Avicenna approached the patient, pretending to slaughter him, he said, "The cow is too lean andnot ready to be killed. He must be fed properly and I will kill it when it becomes healthy and fat."The patient was then offered food, which he ate eagerly and gradually "gained strength, got rid ofhis delusion, and was completely cured."[6]

[edit] Music therapy

Al-Kindi (801873) wrote on the therapeutic value ofmusic. He experimented with music therapy,and he attempted to cure a quadriplegic boy using this method.[citation needed]

Later in the 9th century, al-Farabi also dealt with music therapy in his treatiseMeanings of theIntellect, where he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul.[13]

[edit] Cognitive therapy

Al-Kindi developed cognitive methods to combat depression and discussed the intellectual

operations ofhuman beings.[12]

According to the psychologist Amber Haque, the medieval Islamic scholar Abu ZaydAhmed ibnSahl al-Balkhi (850-934) was "probably the firstcognitiveand medical psychologist to clearlydifferentiate betweenneuroses andpsychoses, to classify neurotic disorders, and to show in detailhow rational and spiritualcognitive therapies can be used to treat each one of his classifieddisorders."[36]

Al-Balkhi classified neuroses into fouremotionaldisorders:fearand anxiety,angerandaggression,sadness and depression, and obsession. According to Haque, al-Balkhi furtherclassified three types of depression: normal sadness (huzn) which is "today known as normal

depression", "endogenous depression" which "originated within the body", and "reactivedepression" which "originated outside the body".[36]

Al-Balkhi also wrote that a healthy individual should always keep healthy thoughts and feelings inhis mind in the case of unexpected emotional outbursts in the same way drugs and First Aidmedicine are kept nearby for unexpected physical emergencies. He stated that a balance betweenthe mind andbody is required for good health and that an imbalance between the two can causesickness. Al-Balkhi also introduced the concept ofreciprocal inhibition (al-ilaj bi al-did), whichwas re-introduced over a thousand years later by Joseph Wolpe in 1969.[36]

[edit] Physical and psychological disorders

The Muslim physician Abu Zayd Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi(850-934) was a pioneer ofal-ilaj al-nafs, and the first to compare "physical and psychological disorders" and show "their interaction incausingpsychosomatic disorders." He recognized that thebody and the soul can be healthy or sick,or "balanced or imbalanced", and that mental illness can have bothpsychological and/orphysiological causes. He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and otherphysical illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger,anxiety, sadness and othermental symptoms. He recognized two types of depression: one caused by known reasons such as
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lossorfailure, which can be treated psychologically through both external methods (such aspersuasive talking, preaching and advising) and internal methods (such as the "development ofinner thoughts and cognitions which help the person get rid of his depressive condition"); and theother caused by unknown reasons such as a "sudden affliction of sorrow and distress, whichpersists all the time, preventing the afflicted person from any physical activity or from showing

any happiness or enjoying any of the pleasures" which may be caused by physiological reasons(such as impurity of the blood) and can can be treated through physical medicine.[3]He also wrotecomparisons betweenphysical disorders withmental disorders, and showed how psychosomaticdisorders can be caused by certain interactions between them.[36]

In the early 10th century,Muhammad ib

psychology in the caliphates

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