psychology: past to present - groby -...

Component 1

Psychology: Past to Present

A Level Psychology – Eduqas

Name: ______________________

TARGETS

Aspirational

Target Grade:

________

The purpose of this component is to give a solid grounding in some of the basic core aspects of psychology. The intention therefore is to allow the learner, through the study of classic research, to

gain an appreciation that psychology continues to develop and evolve. The early ideas should not be

dismissed but rather studied in context with consideration of the advances made in more recent years. Learners will be asked to explore contemporary debates using their knowledge and

understanding of the five approaches (biological, psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive and positive); through these approaches learners will also gain an appreciation of the fields of social and

developmental psychology. For each of the five psychological approaches it will be necessary for learners to:

know and understand the assumptions

apply the assumptions to explain a variety of behaviours (AS Level: know and understand

why a relationship is formed; one type per approach: a different or the same type of

relationship can be used for each approach) know and understand how the approach can be used in therapy (one therapy per approach)

know and understand the main components of the therapy

evaluate the therapy (including its effectiveness and ethical considerations)

evaluate the approach (including strengths, weaknesses and comparison with the four other

approaches)

know, understand and make judgements on a classic piece of evidence (including

methodology, procedures, findings, conclusions, ethical issues and social implications) explore both sides of the contemporary debate from a psychological perspective (including

the ethical, social and economical implications. AS Level: consideration of social and cultural diversity).

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Name: Target Grade:

Use this section to record general strengths and targets in Psychology. These can be set by you, your teacher, or your study buddy

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Assessment over time

Create a graph on the space below to track your progress over time. Grades are placed on the y-axis (A-E). The name of the assessment will be placed on the x-axis.

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How is this component assessed?

A Level

Written examination: 2 hours 15 minutes 33⅓% of the total A Level qualification

100 marks

AS Level Written examination : 1 hour 45 minutes

50% of total AS Level qualification 80 marks

Compulsory questions relating to five psychological approaches, classic pieces of research evidence and a contemporary debate.

Introduction

We will be working through this booklet in lesson time; it can also be used as a revision aid nearer to the exam. Inside this

booklet are resources that have been designed to help you to understand and revise Component 1 – Psychology: Past to Present. Five different approaches are covered;

1. Biological 2. Psychodynamic

3. Behaviourist

4. Cognitive 5. Positive

The booklet also contains a list of the specification requirements which you can use as a checklist to monitor your progress.

Past exam questions have also been included so you know what to expect, some of these will be completed during lesson

time.

These are useful sites which may help you with your revision; some of them have been used within the booklet. http://www.eduqas.co.uk/qualifications/psychology/

http://www.eduqas.co.uk/qualifications/psychology/Summaries%20of%20the%20Studies.zip?language_id=1 http://origins.bps.org.uk/

http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newresources.html

http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/history-of-modern-psychology--2

When preparing resources, the following textbook has been used: Flanagan, C., Hartnoll, L., & Murray, R. (2009) Psychology AS The Complete Companion. Folens (Publishers) Ltd.

Flanagan, C., Hartnoll, L., & Murray, R. (2015) The Complete Companions for Eduqas: Year 1 and AS Psychology Student Book. Oxford University Press.

Aims and Objectives

This WJEC Eduqas A level specification in Psychology is stimulating, distinctive and attractive, providing exciting opportunities for the learners to:

study a variety of historical and current psychological approaches

study classic and contemporary psychological research covering a variety of perspectives and topics

study principles of investigating human and animal behaviour

apply psychological information to everyday situations

explore contemporary issues raised in psychological research

work scientifically through their own psychological research

demonstrate greater emphasis on the skills of psychology.

This specification encourages learners to:

develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of psychology and how they relate to each other

develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills, knowledge and understanding of scientific methods in

psychology

develop competence and confidence in a variety of practical, mathematical and problem solving skills

develop their interest in and enthusiasm for psychology, including developing an interest in further study and careers

associated with the subject

understand how society makes decisions about psychological issues and how psychology contributes to the success of

the economy and society.

http://www.eduqas.co.uk/qualifications/psychology/

http://www.eduqas.co.uk/qualifications/psychology/Summaries%20of%20the%20Studies.zip?language_id=1

http://origins.bps.org.uk/

http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newresources.html

http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/history-of-modern-psychology--2

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How is your work assessed?

Below are the assessment objectives for this specification. Learners must: AO1 – Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures AO2 – Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures:

in a theoretical context

in a practical context when handling qualitative data when handling quantitative data

AO3 – Analyse, interpret and evaluate a range of scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in relation to issues, to:

make judgements and reach conclusions develop and refine practical design and procedures

The table below shows the weighting of each assessment objective (at A Level) for each component and for the A Level qualification as a whole:

Weighting AO1 AO2 AO3

Component 1 33⅓% 13⅓% 6⅔% 13⅓%

Component 2 33⅓% 6⅔% 16⅔% 10%

Component 3 33⅓% 10% 8⅓% 15%

100% 30% 31⅔% 38⅓%

If you are interested in the weighting of the AS Level qualification, please ask your teacher for more details.

The assessment for learning cycle

Teacher sets task

Student performs task

Teacher / student / peer marks task

Systematised feedback on task

Follow-up work

A key to feedback terms and icons in your booklet and on your work

Whole School Sp- Spelling Homework Strengths Verbal feedback given

Gr- Grammar Pn- Punctuation

Cp- Capital letter ^- Word omitted/incomplete answer Flipped Targets A response is required

NP//- New paragraph learning by you (in purple pen)

The systematised feedback

will:

1. Relate to how your work will be marked in the

external examinations 2. Be a system that you

can understand 3. Provide feedback that is

developmental

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Psychology: Past to Present Timeline Use the information on the next two pages to create a timeline of the major events in Psychology. You only need to include the 5 approaches (Biological,

Psychodynamic, Behaviourist, Cognitive and Positive).

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Psychology: Past to Present 1793 Philippe Pinel released the first mental patients from confinement in the first massive movement for more humane treatment of the mentally ill.

1808 Franz Gall wrote about phrenology (the idea that a person’s skull shape and placement of bumps on the head can reveal personality traits.

1848 Phineas Gage suffered brain damage when an iron pole pierces his brain. His personality was changed but his intellect remained intact suggesting that an area of the brain plays a role in personality.

1859 Charles Darwin published the On the Origin of Species, detailing his view of evolution and expanding on the theory of ‘Survival of the fittest.’

1861 French physician Paul Broca discovered an area in the left frontal lobe that plays a key role in language development.

1874 Carl Wernicke published his work on the frontal lobe, detailing that damage to a specific area damages the ability to understand or produce language.

1879 Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory of Psychology at the University of Leipzig.

1886 Sigmund Freud began performing therapy in Vienna, marking the beginning of personality theory.

1890 William James published ‘Principles of Psychology,’ that later became the foundation for functionalism.

1896 The first psychological clinic was developed at the University of Pennsylvania.

1898 Edward Thorndike developed the ‘Law of Effect,’ arguing that “a stimulus-response chain is strengthened if the outcome of that chain is positive.”

1900 Sigmund Freud published ‘Interpretation of Dreams’ marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic Thought.

1901 The British Psychological Society was founded.

1905 Alfred Binet’s Intelligence Test was published in France.

1906 Ivan Pavlov published the first studies on Classical Conditioning.

1911 Edward Thorndike published first article on animal intelligence leading to the theory of Operant Conditioning.

1913 John E. Watson published ‘Psychology as a Behaviourist Views It’ marking the beginnings of Behavioural Psychology.

1913 Carl G. Jung departed from Freudian views and developed his own theories citing Freud’s inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality. His new school of thought became known as Analytical Psychology.

1916 Stanford-Binet intelligence test was published in the United States.

1920 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner published the Little Albert experiments, demonstrating that fear could be classically conditioned.

1927 Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, published her first book expanding her father’s ideas in the treatment of children.

1929 Wolfgang Kohler criticizes behaviourism in his publication on Gestalt psychology.

1932 Jean Piaget published ‘The Moral Judgment of Children’ beginning his popularity as the leading theorist in cognitive development.

1932 Walter B. Cannon coined the term homeostasis and began research on the fight or flight phenomenon.

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1936 Egas Moniz published his work on frontal lobotomies as a treatment for mental illness.

1938 Electroshock therapy was first used on a human patient.

1942 Carl Rogers published ‘Counselling and Psychotherapy’ suggesting that respect and a non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.

1942 Jean Piaget published ‘Psychology of Intelligence’ discussing his theories of cognitive development.

1942 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed and fast became the most widely researched and widely accepted psychological assessment device.

1945 Karen Horney published her feministic views of psychoanalytic theory, marking the beginning of feminism.

1952 A study on psychotherapy efficacy was published by Hans Eysenck suggesting that therapy is no more effective that no treatment at all. This prompted an onslaught of outcome studies which have since shown psychotherapy to be an effective treatment for mental illness.

1952 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American Psychiatric Association marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification.

1952 Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) first used in the treatment of schizophrenia.

1953 B.F. Skinner outlined behavioural therapy, lending support for behavioural psychology via research in the literature.

1953 Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association.

1954 Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic Psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs.

1957 Leon Festinger proposed his theory of ‘Cognitive Dissonance’ and later became an influence figure in Social Psychology.

1961 John Berry introduced the importance of cross-cultural research bringing diversity into the forefront of psychological research and application.

1961 Carl Rogers published ‘On Becoming a Person,’ marking a powerful change in how treatment for mental health issues is conducted.

1963 Alfred Bandura introduced the idea of Observational Learning on the development of personality.

1963 Lawrence Kolberg introduced his ideas for the sequencing of morality development.

1967 Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.

1983 Howard Gardner (professor at Harvard University) introduced his theory of multiple intelligence, arguing that intelligence is something to be used to improve lives not to measure and quantify human beings.

1984 Ed Diener coins the term subjective well-being.

1988 American Psychological Society established.

1994 DSM IV published by the American Psychiatric Association.

1997 Deep Blue, the supercomputer at the time, beats the World’s best chess player, Kasparov, marking a milestone in the development of artificial intelligence.

1998 Psychology advances to the technological age with the emergence of e-therapy.

1999 The first positive psychology conference is held in Akumal, Mexico.

http://www.livehappy.com/science/profiles/profile-ed-diener

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The Biological Approach

Sample exam questions for this section:

1. Describe two assumptions of the biological approach. [8] 2. Explain the biological assumption ‘localisation of brain function’.

[4] 3. Describe the formation of one relationship using one assumption

of the biological approach. [3] 4. Describe how the assumptions of the biological approach are

applied in one therapy. [6] 5. Describe two components (principles) of drug therapy. [8] 6. Evaluate the ethical issues raised in drug therapy. [8] 7. Evaluate the effectiveness of drug therapy. [8] 8. ‘The value of research such as Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse is

undermined by weaknesses in the methodology of the research’. Evaluate the methodology used by Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse’s (1997) research ‘Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography’. [12]

9. Outline the findings and conclusions of Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse’s (1997) research ‘Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography’. [8]

10. Ethical issues involved within neuroscience only really arise because neuroscientists are trying to apply their knowledge to address sensitive issues in society. Using your psychological knowledge, discuss the extent to which you agree with this

statement. [24] 11. ‘Neuroscience findings need to be treated with caution’. Discuss

evidence which supports the above view. [24] Discuss two or more weaknesses of the biological approach. [8]

12. Evaluate one strength and one weakness of the biological approach. [6]

13. ‘At first you might think that the biological and behaviourist approaches are very different, but there are quite a few similarities.’ Compare and contrast the biological and behaviourist approaches. [8]

14. ‘The biological approach offers both strengths and weaknesses.’ Evaluate the biological approach in psychology. [16]

Make sure that you can: Outline the assumptions of the approach. Use at least one assumption to explain the

formation of relationships. Describe how the assumptions of the approach are

applied in the therapy. Describe the main components (principles) of drug

therapy. Evaluate drug therapy in terms of its effectiveness

and ethical considerations. Describe the methodology of Raine, Buchsbaum

and LaCasse (1997) (describe and justify, includes characteristics of the sample but not the sampling technique).

Describe the procedures, findings and conclusions of the study.

Evaluate the methodology, procedures, findings (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) and conclusions (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) of the study.

Discuss the argument and evidence against and in favour of neuroscience being ethical.

Present a conclusion about the debate. Include discussion of the ethical, social and

economical implications of this debate. Consider social and cultural diversity in this debate.

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Biological Approach: The Assumptions

Approach Assumptions (including) Therapy Classic Research Contemporary

Debate

Biological

evolutionary influences localisation of brain function neurotransmitters AS Level: formation of

relationships (e.g. siblings)

Drug therapy or

Psychosurgery

Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. and LaCasse, L. (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers

indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry, 42(6), 495-508

The ethics of neuroscience

Evolutionary Influences To evolve means to change with time. In psychology the theory of evolution has been used to explain how the human

mind and behaviour have changed over millions of years so that they are adapted to the demands of our individual

environments. Natural Selection:

EEA:

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Neurotransmitters

Make some notes about how behaviour can be explained in terms of neurotransmitters:

Localisation of Brain Function

Behaviour can be explained in terms of different areas of the brain. Many different areas of the brain have

certain functions. The cerebral cortex covers the

surface of the brain (a bit like a tea cosy!) and is folded and grey in colour – this region is responsible for

higher cognitive functions.

The cerebral cortex is divided into four areas. The most important is the

frontal lobes deal with thinking and creativity. The parietal lobe receives sensory information such as temperature, touch and pain. The temporal

lobes are responsible for memory processing, as well as processing auditory information. The final lobe is the occipital lobe which deals with vision and

receives information directly from the eyes.

There are specific areas of the brain linked to the processing of language. In the middle of the 19th century, French neurosurgeon Paul

Broca studied eight patients with language problems. He examined their brains after death and found that they had damage to a specific

area of their left hemispheres. This area has been named ‘Broca’s area’; it is associated with speech production and found in the posterior

portion of the frontal lobe. Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist,

discovered another area of the brain that was involved in understanding language. This area, named ‘Wernicke’s area’, is in the

posterior portion of the left temporal lobe. His patients could speak but were unable to understand language.

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Biological explanation for the formation of relationships (e.g. siblings) Evolutionary theory Neurotransmitters

1. Create a flashcard on the assumptions of the biological approach.

2. Answer this practice question: Describe two assumptions of the biological approach. [8] Use the space below to plan your answer.

AS

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Applying the biological assumptions to a variety of behaviours You need to be able to apply the assumptions of the biological approach to unknown and previously unseen behaviours.

In each of the boxes below try to explain the causes of each behaviour.

Researchers asked 20 undergraduate

students to fill out a questionnaire that gauged addiction-type symptoms associated

with Facebook, including withdrawal, anxiety, and conflict over the site. Then,

researchers used brain imaging to study

participants’ brains while they looked at a series of computer images, such as Facebook logos and neutral

traffic signs, and pressed (or didn't press) a button. The higher participants scored on the questionnaire, the more

likely they were to hit the button (sometimes mistakenly)

for Facebook when compared to the neutral images.

The brain scans showed that high-scoring participants experienced greater activation of their amygdala and

striatum, the two brain regions involved in impulsive

behaviour. These patterns are on par with those who are addicted to cocaine. However, unlike drug addicts, “the

brain regions that inhibit this behaviour seem to work just fine.”

Causes of autism spectrum disorder

The exact causes of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are unknown, although it is thought that several complex genetic and environmental factors are involved. The causes of ASD can be described in two ways:

Primary ASD (also known as idiopathic ASD) – where no underlying factors can be identified to explain why ASD has developed.

Secondary ASD – where an underlying medical condition or environmental factor thought to increase the risk of ASD is identified.

About 90% of cases of ASD are primary, and about 10% are secondary. Factors thought to increase the risk of developing ASD, known as ‘risk factors’, can usually be divided into five main categories:

Genetic factors – certain genetic mutations may make a child more likely to develop ASD.

Environmental factors – during pregnancy, a child may be exposed to certain environmental factors that could increase the risk of developing ASD.

Psychological factors – people with ASD may think in certain ways that contribute towards their symptoms.

Neurological factors – specific problems with the development of the brain and nervous system could contribute to the symptoms of ASD.

Other health conditions – certain health conditions associated with higher rates of ASD.

The brain in schizophrenia

By scanning the QR code below you will see an image of a brain; it shows the effects schizophrenia can have for individuals.

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Watch these videos before your lesson to learn about schizophrenia and depression:

Biological Therapy: Drug Therapy

Chemotherapy is a term used to describe the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. The word psychoactive

means to treat a psychological instead of a physical condition. In 2009 a ¼ of all drugs prescribed by the NHS were

psychoactive drugs. The aim of drugs to return the body to a normal level of functioning caused by a disorder like depression, schizophrenia or anxiety which had made an imbalance. Another assumption of the biological approach is that

changes in the brain’s neurotransmitter systems will affect our mood, feelings, perceptions and behaviour. Therefore, psychotherapeutic drugs can be used to alter the action of neurotransmitters and treat mental disorder. In general, drug

therapy operates by increasing or blocking the action of neurotransmitters in the brain. Drugs also work by targeting

regions of the brain associated with mental disorder. For example, the limbic system regulates emotions, and disturbances in this part of the brain may affect mood.

Antipsychotic Drugs

Antidepressant Drugs

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Anti-anxiety drugs The most common drugs to treat anxiety and

stress are benzodiazepines (BZs). BZs slow the activity of the central nervous system. They do this

by enhancing the action of GABA (a

neurotransmitter which is the body’s natural form of anxiety relief). GABA gives relief from anxiety by

altering other neurotransmitters; it reduces serotonin (which reduces arousal and anxiety).

Drugs interfere with this process; benzodiazepines

increase the activity of GABA in order to decrease serotonin activity, which in turn reduces arousal.

Beta-Blockers (BBs) reduce the activity of

adrenaline and noradrenaline which are part of the sympathetic nervous system’s response to stress.

These do not enter the brain, instead BBs bind to

the receptors in the heart and other parts of the body that are stimulated during arousal; this

reduces the activity of the autonomic nervous system associated with arousal, i.e. reducing

heart-rate, blood pressure and cortisol levels.

There is therefore less stress on the heart and the person feels calmer and less anxious.

Use the space to draw a diagram of the action of anti-anxiety drugs.

Mid-topic self review

How am I progressing?

My target grade: _____ The grade I am working at now is: _____ What do I do, or where do I look, to find out how well I am progressing? Two targets to improve my work are: 1.

2. I want to have achieved these targets by: I will know if I have achieved these targets because: Two words to describe how I feel about my learning are:

o

o

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Evaluating Biological Therapy

Strengths of Drug Therapy Weaknesses of Drug Therapy Ethical Considerations

There is considerable evidence for the effectiveness of drug treatments. Typically a randomised control trial is used to compare the effectiveness of the drug versus a placebo (a substance that has no pharmacological value but controls for the belief that the pill you are taking will affect you). Soomro et al. (2008) reviewed 17 studies of the use of SSRIs with OCD (which has a component of depression) patients and found them to be more effective than placebos in reducing the symptoms of OCD up to three months after treatment, i.e. in the short-term.

Kahn et al. (1986) Real-world applications:

Easy to use:

Addiction Ashton (1997) found BZs should

only be used for four weeks.

Side effects include

Ferguson et al. (2005) found people taking SSRIs are twice as likely to commit suicide.

Drugs treat

the symptoms of stress but not the cause. As soon as you stop the treatment the signs of stress return. It could be suggested that psychological methods are better.

Comparison with other treatments:

Use of placebos:

Patient information

Make sure that you can give: a brief outline of the role of chemotherapy and how these link to the main assumptions of the biological

approach examples of different kinds of chemotherapy examples of how chemotherapy has been used strengths, limitations and ethical considerations of chemotherapy Task: Create a flashcard on drug therapy, and the evaluation of drug therapy.

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Classic Evidence: Raine, Buchsbaum, and LaCasse (1997)

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Classic Evidence: Raine, Buchsbaum, and LaCasse (1997)

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Task: This link will take you to an interesting video on the topic

Brain Abnormalities in Murderers Indicated by Positron Emission Tomography

by Adrian Raine, Monte Buchsbaum, and Lori LaCasse

Murderers who plead not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI) are thought to have brain dysfunction however, there have been no previous studies reporting direct measures of both cortical and subcortical brain functioning in this specific group. Positron emission tomography (PET) brain imaging was conducted on 41 murderers pleading NGRI and 41 control subjects. Murderers were characterised by reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, superior parietal gyrus, left angular gyrus, and the corpus callosum. There were also abnormal asymmetries of activity (left hemisphere lower than right) in the amygdala, thalamus and medial temporal lobe. These findings provide initial indications of a network of abnormal cortical and subcortical brain processes that may cause a predisposition to violence in murderers pleading NGRI.

Introduction It has long been suspected that brain dysfunction can predispose someone to violent behaviour. Whilst previous studies have shown that violent offenders have poorer brain functioning than normal control subjects, it has not yet been possible to localise which specific brain areas are dysfunctional. However, past research which looks at criminals with brain injuries does provide clues as to which areas of the brain are associated with violence and so we can expect the following areas to be dysfunctional in murderers; the prefrontal cortex, the left angular gyrus, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the hypothalamus and the corpus callosum (which is responsible for coherence between the two hemispheres, and dysfunction of which can cause hemispheric asymmetries of function. Conversely, no dysfunction is expected in other brain areas (e.g. the midbrain, the cerebellum) which have been implicated in other psychiatric condition but have not been related to violence. One particularly important group of violent offenders consists of those who commit murder and plead not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). Although it is thought that such individuals have localised brain impairments, there has been no previous brain imaging research on this important population.

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Methods Subjects The experimental group consisted of 41 subjects tried in the state of California (39 men, 2 women) with a mean age of 34.3 years who had been charged with either murder or manslaughter. Subjects were referred to the University of California to obtain evidence using PET scanning for a NGRI defence or they had been found guilty and were referred to obtain information that may reduce their sentence. Reasons for referral included history of head injury or brain damage. A control group was formed by matching each murderer with a normal subject of the same sex and age who was tested using identical PET imaging procedures in the same laboratory. The mean age of the 41 controls (39 men, 2 women) was 31.7. They had been screened for health with a physical exam, a psychiatric interview and their medical history was checked. PET Task Procedure The radioactive tracer (fluorodeoxyglucose) was injected into the subject and taken up by the brain for a 32 minute period during which the subject completed a continuous performance task (CPT). The subject was then transferred to a PET scanner where the brain was scanned in 10 mm horizontal slices as shown in Figure 1.

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Results

Cortical Regions As anticipated, the group of 41 murderers had significantly lower glucose metabolism relative to controls in both the lateral and medial prefrontal cortex in both hemispheres (see Figure 2).

Murderers had significantly lower parietal glucose metabolism than controls, especially in the left angular gyrus. As indicated in Figure 3, murderers had significantly lower glucose especially in the left and right superior parietal gyri. Murderers were identical to controls on temporal lobe glucose metabolism. Murderers were found to show significantly higher occipital lobe glucose metabolism than controls. Subcortical Regions Murderers have bilaterally lower glucose metabolism in the corpus callosum than controls. Murderers showed an abnormal asymmetry of activity with reduced left and increased right amygdala activity relative to controls. Murderers showed an abnormal asymmetry of activity with reduced left and increased right activity in the hippocampus. Murderers showed an abnormal asymmetry consisting of relatively greater right thalamic activity. As predicted, there were no significant differences for the amount of midbrain and cerebellum activity between murderers and controls. Groups did not differ on any aspect of behavioural performance on the CPT.

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Discussion The key findings from this study are that murderers pleading NGRI are characterised by:

• reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, the parietal cortex, and the corpus callosum.

• abnormal asymmetries of activity (left hemisphere lower than right) in the amygdala, thalamus, and the hippocampus.

Biosocial Pathways from Brain Deficits to Violence A key question is how these multisite deficits can translate into violence via neuropsychological, cognitive and social pathways. Regarding prefrontal deficits, damage to this brain region can result in impulsivity, loss of self-control, immaturity, and the inability to modify behaviour, which in turn facilitates aggressive behaviour. The amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex make up part of the limbic system which governs the expression of emotion, while the thalamus relays inputs from subcortical structures to the prefrontal cortex. The hippocampal formation is thought to modulate aggression through its action on the lateral hypothalamus and together with the prefrontal cortex, forms the neurobiological basis of Gray’s Behavioural Inhibition System, which is theorised to be dysfunctional in violent and psychopathic individuals. The hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus are also important for learning, memory and attention; abnormalities in their functioning may relate to deficits in forming conditioned emotional responses and a failure to learn from experience, a trait which is often displayed by violent offenders. The amygdala additionally plays a role in the recognition of emotional and socially significant stimuli, with destruction of the amygdala in animals resulting in a lack of fear and in humans in a reduction in autonomic arousal; thus abnormalities in the amygdala could be relevant to a fearlessness theory of violence based on psychophysiological findings of reduced autonomic arousal in offenders. The parietal cortex is involved in the integration of sensory input and the formation of abstract concepts and may contribute to the deficits in cognitive and social information processing observed in violent offenders. If the angular gyrus is damaged or experiences a reduction in glucose metabolism, the individual may experience reduced verbal, arithmetic and reading ability. Such cognitive dysfunctions could predispose to educational and occupational failure, which in turn could predispose to crime and violence. Learning deficits have been found to be common in violent offenders who also have low verbal IQs. This study provides the first direct evidence supporting the long-held notion that dysfunction in the corpus callosum may cause a predisposition to violence. Callosal dysfunction and the resulting lack of inter hemispheric integration could contribute to the abnormal asymmetries of function and reduced integration previously observed in antisocial and violent groups. Another potential implication of poor inter-hemispheric transfer is that the right hemisphere, which is involved in the generation of negative emotions, may experience less regulation and control by the inhibitory processes of the left hemisphere, a factor that may contribute to the expression of violence in predisposed individuals. Rats who are stressed during their early life show increased activity in the right hemisphere when killing mice. Severing the corpus callosum in rats leads to an increase in mice-killing, indicating that the left hemisphere acts to inhibit the right hemisphere-mediated killing via an intact corpus callosum. It has been observed that split-brain patients experience poor emotional expression and an inability to grasp the long-term implications of a situation. These traits are commonly found in violent

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offenders, further implicating the role of the corpus callosum in inhibiting aggression. However it should be noted that findings from animal research cannot be directly extrapolated to humans. Furthermore, callossal dysfunction itself is unlikely to cause aggression; instead it may contribute to violence in those with limbic and cortical abnormalities. The findings of this study suggest that the neural processes underlying violence are complex and cannot be reduced to single brain mechanisms causing violence in a direct causal fashion. Instead, violent behaviour probably involves disruption of network of multiple interacting brain mechanisms that predispose to violence in the presence of other social, environmental, and psychological predispositions. Nevertheless, attempts to ‘connect’ findings from the individual brain sites in this study must proceed cautiously, because there are brain mechanisms relevant to aggression (e.g. the hypothalamus) that could not be imaged in this study. For this reason, this study cannot provide a complete account of the neurophysiology of violence in this specific and selected subgroup of violent offenders, although it is felt that it both provides evidence that murderers pleading NGRI have different brain functioning compared to controls, and also gives initial suggestions as to which specific neural processes may predispose to their violent behaviour.

Conclusions First, it is important to document that these findings cannot be taken to demonstrate that violence is determined by biology alone; clearly, social, psychological, cultural, and situational factors also play important roles in predisposing to violence. Second, these data do not demonstrate that murderers pleading NGRI are not responsible for their actions, nor do they demonstrate that PET can be used as a diagnostic technique. Third, these findings do not establish causal link between brain dysfunction and violence. Fourth, findings cannot be generalised at the present date from NGRI murder cases to other types of violent offenders. What these findings do document is that as a group, murderers pleading NGRI have statistically significant differences in glucose metabolism in certain brain regions compared to control subjects. They also suggest that reduced activity in the prefrontal, parietal, and callosal regions of the brain, together with abnormal asymmetries of activity in the amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus, may be one of many predispositions toward violence in this specific group. As with all initial findings, future independent replication, refinement, and extension are greatly needed. Use page 17 of the textbook to complete the table below showing conclusions of the study: Brain structure Associated behaviours found in past research Might explain

Limbic system (prefrontal

cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and

thalamus)

Emotion

Learning, memory and attention. Abnormalities

here may lead to reduced sensitivity in conditioning

Prefrontal cortex Deficit linked to impulsivity and loss of control, immaturity and inability to modify behaviour.

Aggressive behaviour

Amygdala Aggressiveness, destruction of amygdala linked to lack of fear.

Hippocampus

Lack of inhibition of aggression

Angular gyrus Low verbal IQs and poor school performance

Corpus callosum Reduced processing of linguistic information (found in violent groups)

Right hemisphere

Dominance of right hemisphere means less left

hemisphere inhibitory processes, negative emotions and inappropriate emotional expression

26

Brief Summary

Elaboration Ladder You need to be able to elaborate on you evaluation points. The further your evaluations are elaborated the higher your AO3 marks will become. You could give credibility to your evaluative point by including a research study or another psychologist’s criticisms of that study. “Have I got a counter argument” - after explaining the evaluation, is there any reason to think that in this case, demand characteristics were not an issue after all?

Raine, Buchsbaum, and LaCasse (1997) Give a brief (get it??!!) account of the study in the pants below!

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27

Contemporary Debate: The ethics of neuroscience

Enhance neurological function

Understanding consciousness

Treat criminal behaviour

Improve marketing techniques

28

Enhance neurological function

Understanding consciousness

Treat criminal behaviour

Improve marketing techniques

You now need to present a conclusion about the debate.

29

Evaluating the Biological Approach

Strengths of the approach

Make sure that you can:

identify strengths of the approach thoroughly explain why this is a strength in relation to the approach draw examples from the therapy to illustrate your answer

30

Evaluating the Biological Approach

Weaknesses of the approach


identify weaknesses of the approach thoroughly explain why this is a weakness in relation to the approach draw examples from the therapy to illustrate your answer

Task: Create a flashcard on the evaluation of biological approach.

31

Plan an answer to the following question: ‘The biological approach offers both strengths and weaknesses.’ Evaluate the biological approach in psychology. [16]

Paragraph 1

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4

Key Term Glossary

Create a key term glossary for the any words you struggle with for the biological approach and its therapy.

33

The Psychodynamic Approach

Make sure that you can: Outline the assumptions of the approach. Use at least one assumption to explain the formation of

relationships. Describe how the assumptions of the approach are applied in the

therapy. Describe the main components (principles) of dream analysis. Evaluate dream analysis in terms of its effectiveness and ethical

considerations. Describe the methodology of Bowlby (1944) (describe and justify,

includes characteristics of the sample but not the sampling technique).

Describe the procedures, findings and conclusions of the study. Evaluate the methodology, procedures, findings (use methodology

and/or alternative evidence) and conclusions (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) of the study.

Discuss the argument and evidence against and in favour of the mother being the primary caregiver of an infant.

Present a conclusion about the debate. Include discussion of the ethical, social and economical implications

of this debate. Consider social and cultural diversity in this debate.


1. Describe two assumptions of the psychodynamic approach. [8] 2. Explain the psychodynamic assumption ‘tripartite personality’.

[4] 3. Describe the formation of one relationship using one

assumption of the psychodynamic approach. [3] 4. Describe how the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

are applied in one therapy. [6] 5. Describe two components (principles) of dream analysis. [8] 6. Evaluate the ethical dream analysis in terms of its effectiveness.

[10] 7. Evaluate two ethical issues of dream analysis. [4 + 4] 8. Critically assess the findings and conclusions of Bowlby’s (1944)

research ‘Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home-life’. [10]

9. Outline the procedure used in Bowlby’s (1944) research ‘Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home-life’. [12]

10. ‘Without mothers as a primary care-giver, infants would fail to develop in a healthy way’. With reference to this quote, discuss evidence which supports this point of view. [20]

11. Discuss the view in today’s society that the primary care-giver does not always need to be the mother of the infant. [20]

12. Discuss two or more weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach. [8]

13. ‘At first you might think that the psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches are very different, but there are quite a few similarities.’ Compare and contrast the psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches. [8]

14. Evaluate one strength and one weakness of the psychodynamic approach. [6]

15. ‘The psychodynamic approach offers both strengths and weaknesses.’ Evaluate the psychodynamic approach in psychology. [16]

34

Psychodynamic Approach


Debate

Psychodynamic

influence of childhood experiences the unconscious mind tripartite personality AS Level: formation of relationships

(e.g. mother and child)

Dream analysis or

Psychodrama

Bowlby, J. (1944) Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home-

life. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 25 (19-52), 107-127

The mother as primary care-giver of an

infant

The Assumptions

Influence of Childhood Experiences

In childhood the ego is not developed enough to deal with trauma and so it is repressed. For example, if a child’s parent dies in early childhood they repress the feelings. Later in life other losses cause the individual to re-experience the earlier loss and this can lead to depression. An earlier unexpressed anger can be directed inwards towards the self and this causes depression.

There are also key stages of early development, and fixation at one of these stages can also have a lasting effect on personality. Watch the video on the QR code and complete the table below:

Stage Age Focus on libido Development Adult fixation

The Unconscious Mind

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v

=nG7yosFQHP4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nG7yosFQHP4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nG7yosFQHP4

35

1. Watch these three videos on the psychodynamic approach: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQh9LBIhjyM&list=PLDXgpau2GASn2wDkOU8Mgg3dnwIdnLbbV&ind

ex=2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hAo_-jcfXUk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eAtHpOM63ZQ

You will find links to each one on the website: http://socialsci-groby.weebly.com/ and your teacher will also tweet a link @SocialSci_Groby

2. Create a flashcard on the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach. 3. Answer this practice question: Describe two assumptions of the psychodynamic approach. [8]

Tripartite Personality

Psychodynamic explanation for the formation of relationships (e.g. mother and child) Childhood experiences Defence mechanisms

AS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQh9LBIhjyM&list=PLDXgpau2GASn2wDkOU8Mgg3dnwIdnLbbV&index=2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQh9LBIhjyM&list=PLDXgpau2GASn2wDkOU8Mgg3dnwIdnLbbV&index=2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hAo_-jcfXUk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eAtHpOM63ZQ

http://socialsci-groby.weebly.com/

36

Applying the psychodynamic assumptions to a variety of behaviours

Shopping Addiction

Watch the video of Little Hans. How can the psychodynamic assumptions be used to explain Hans’

behaviour?

Bullying

Schizophrenia

37

Therapy: Dream Analysis

This link takes you to a free kindle book on dreams: http://www.amazon.co.uk/Dream-Psychology-Psychoanalysis-Beginners-Sigmund-ebook/dp/B0084A5JSQ/ref=sr_1_1?s=digital-text&ie=UTF8&qid=1423431236&sr=1-1&keywords=dreams On 24 July 1895, Freud had his own dream that was to form the basis of his theory. He had been worried about a patient, Irma, who was not doing as well in treatment as he had hoped. Freud in fact blamed himself for this, and was feeling guilty.

Freud dreamed that he met Irma at a party and examined her. He then saw a chemical formula for a drug that another doctor had given Irma flash before his eyes and realized that her condition was caused by a dirty syringe used by the other doctor. Freud's guilt was thus relieved.

Freud interpreted this dream as wish-fulfilment. He had wished that Irma's poor condition was not his fault and the dream had fulfilled this wish by informing him that another doctor was at fault. Based on this dream, Freud (1900) went on to propose that a major function of dreams was the fulfilment of wishes. Freud distinguished between the manifest content of a dream (what the dreamer remembers) and the latent content, the symbolic meaning of the dream (i.e. the underlying wish). The manifest content is often based on the events of the day. The process whereby the underlying wish is translated into the manifest content is called dream-work. The purpose of dream work is to transform the forbidden wish into a non-threatening form, thus reducing anxiety and allowing us to continuing sleeping. Dream work involves the process of condensation, displacement, and secondary elaboration. The process of condensation is the joining of two or more ideas/images into one. For example, a dream about a man may be a dream about both one's father and one's lover. A dream about a house might be the condensation of worries about security as well as worries about one's appearance to the rest of the world. Displacement takes place when we transform the person or object we are really concerned about to someone else. For example, one of Freud’s patients was extremely resentful of his sister-in-law and used to refer to her as a dog, dreamed of strangling a small white dog. Freud interpreted this as representing his wish to kill his sister-in-law. If the patient would have really dreamed of killing his sister-in-law, he would have felt guilty. The unconscious mind transformed her into a dog to protect him. Secondary elaboration occurs when the unconscious mind strings together wish-fulfilling images in a logical order of events, further obscuring the latent content. According to Freud this is why the manifest content of dreams can be in the form of believable events.

Freud’s therapies are based on the psychodynamic approach. One assumption of psychodyanalytic approach is that individuals are unaware of their unconcsicous condlucts that led to their current psychological state. The aim of psychoanalysis is to bring these conflicts to the conscious

mind where they can then be dealt with. 1. Freud (1900) considered dreams to be the royal road to the unconscious as it is in dreams that

the ego's defences are lowered so that some of the repressed material comes through to awareness, albeit in distorted form. Dreams perform important functions for the unconscious mind and serve as valuable clues to how the unconscious mind operates.

2. In terms of childhood experiences, traumatic memories are buried deep into the unconscious, they might resurface during dreams as a means of working through traumatic past events.

3. Finally, in terms of the tripartite personality, the id’s demands are unacceptable in waking hours and are relegated to dreams. The purpose of dreaming is to act out our wishes and desires in an acceptable

way, rather than letting them build up and threaten our sanity.

http://www.amazon.co.uk/Dream-Psychology-Psychoanalysis-Beginners-Sigmund-ebook/dp/B0084A5JSQ/ref=sr_1_1?s=digital-text&ie=UTF8&qid=1423431236&sr=1-1&keywords=dreams



http://www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html

38

In Freud’s later work on dreams he explored the possibility of universal symbols in dreams. Some of these were sexual in nature, including poles, guns and swords representing the penis and horse riding and dancing representing sexual intercourse. However, Freud was cautious about symbols and stated that general symbols are personal rather than universal. A person cannot interpret what the manifest content of a dream symbolized without knowing about the person’s circumstances.

Task: Try to analyse one of your own dreams including as much detail as possible. Break the report down into specific items and events. For each of the items/events write down the associations (e.g. recent events, old memories or personal interests). These will point to the latent content of the dream. If you can’t think of an interesting dream, look on the internet for dream reports.

Evaluating Psychodynamic Therapy (Dream Analysis)

Strengths of Dream Analysis Weaknesses of Dream Analysis Ethical Considerations

Therapist-client relationship False memory syndrome (FMS) Emotional harm

39

Plan an answer to the following question:

Evaluate the ethical issues raised in dream analysis. [8]

Paragraph 1

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4





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Classic Evidence: Bowlby (1944)

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41

Classic Evidence: Bowlby (1944)

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42

Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves Their Characters and Home-Life

by John Bowlby

The Problem: Methods of Research

It is not a very well know fact that for nine out of ten criminal cases the charge is theft. Furthermore, a large amount of convicted thieves are young people. For several years, half of the people convicted of theft have been under the age of 21 and over a sixth have been under 14. The 13 year old age group appears most frequently in court. Theft is seen as a “disease of childhood” and episodes later in life are mostly recurrences. The evidence suggests that for serious offenders, criminal-like behaviours were already apparent before puberty. Research indicates that the child’s emotional and social development is strongly influenced by their relationship with the mother. This study will focus on the mother-child relationship, considering the mother’s conscious and unconscious attitude. In many cases, discussions with the mothers revealed strong feelings of dislike and rejection towards their children. It was also discovered that most of the children had spent a lot of time away from home. This study also looks at the occurrence of emotional traumas during the first decade of lif;8e. The 44 children were given tests to assess their intelligence and their emotional attitude. The child and mother were then interviewed by a psychiatrist and all the information was then pooled together for diagnosis. In many cases, weekly assessment continued for several months. The research presented here was very limited by a lack of resources; it was very unplanned, the number of cases are few, the data was collected quite unsystematically and several practical issues arose from working in a busy clinic. A proper investigation into this subject would cost a lot of money, however we argue that ultimately crime costs more. If 1% of the money spent on catching, trying and imprisoning criminals was spent on research into the source of criminal behaviour, so much money could be saved in the long term and, more importantly, many of the people condemned to years in prison could live happy lives.

Sample

The sample consisted of 44 children for whom stealing was a problem and who had been referred to a Child Guidance Clinic. Only a few of them had actually been charged in court due to their age; over half were under the age of 11. There were 31 boys and 13 girls in the group, which is unusual for criminal charges of young people which usually have a ration of 10 boys to 1 girl. The Binet Scale was used to assess the children’s intelligence. The average IQ for both groups was higher than the average for the population. Two of the children scored quite low on IQ, they both had a depressed and neurotic character. One child had a drunken and cruel mother whilst the other’s mother experienced serious anxiety. It seemed that low intelligence was only a minor factor compared to others in causing criminal behaviours. There were relatively few cases of children from families who were dependant on support. Half of the cases were instances of chronic and serious thieving lasting very long periods (Grade 4). In ten cases, there had been persistent but irregular, mild thieving (Grade 3). In eight, there had been a few thefts only (Grade 2) and in four only one theft (Grade 1). 44 children from the same clinic who had not stolen were chosen for the control group. The controls were of a similar age, intelligence and economic status as the experimental group.

43

Character Types Introduction The children were categorised into six groups, described in Table 1. It should be noted that only 2 of the 44 thieves were diagnosed as normal, and that even these two possessed characteristics which showed instability. It was believed that without treatment, the other 42 would develop neurotic or psychotic symptoms later in life.

An example of a case from each group is provided below: Group A. ‘Normal Characters’ - Case 1. Claud W. Claude was referred to the clinic at the age of 16 after being charged with breaking open the gas meter in his home. When he was younger his mother used to punish him severely, keeping him in bed for several days at a time. She recently found that she was unable to assert herself over him and complained he was getting out of hand. When they argued, she would throw things at Claud. He began stealing from his mother at the age of 14. It was thought that he was of Normal Character reacting to difficult circumstances. Group B. ‘Depressed Character’ - Case 9. Edward G. L. Edward was referred to the clinic at the age of 14 after being charged with stealing food from his employer’s shop. His father had been killed in a railway accident when he was 5 and his mother had died of consumption when he was 12. He started working at a grocer’s shop at the age of 14 but was charged with stealing food during his first week. It was reported by his family that he had been a very happy child until his mother died. Since then he had become quiet and reserved and rarely expressed his feelings. In the psychiatric interview, he wept when asked about his mother. He claimed the theft was done as an act of bravado to impress his 12 year old nephew. Edward seems to have developed chronic depression since the death of his mother. Group C. ‘Circular Characters’ - Case 12. Audrey H. Audrey was referred to the clinic at the age of 12 by her schoolmistress for stealing. When she was 8 she witnessed the death of Peter, her younger brother, who was killed by a lorry whilst crossing the road. Audrey’s father blamed her for Peter’s death because she had been with him at the time. Audrey did well academically and had won a scholarship to a secondary school. Until Peter’s death, she had been happy and sociable. Since then however, she showed a noticeable lack of enthusiasm and was unable to make new friends. She began telling lies about being kidnapped and giving birth to a child. The stealing was first noticed around the age of 10, when she took money and other objects from children at school. She had an I.Q. of 159, but lacked interest for school work. Audrey displayed typically hysterical behaviour, which is better understood in terms of a depressive phase caused her brother’s death which was followed by an elated phase, prominent in hysterical behaviour.

44

Group D. ‘Hyperthymic Characters’ - 1 Case 19. Ronald H. Ronald was referred to the clinic at the age of 7 by his headmistress for stealing. The most striking thing about him was his strong desire to please. His birth was unplanned and his mother often neglected him during his early life to focus on her work and help his older, sickly brother. Ronald was very active, inquisitive and friendly but his mother described him as ‘too affectionate’. He always had a craving for attention and affection which seemed to motivate his stealing. He appeared to buy popularity at school by giving away stolen sweets and money to other boys. When confronted about the stealing, he confessed and began to cry, saying he was uncertain why he did it. His boastful manner and exaggerated desire to please seemed typically hyperthymic. This personality had probably developed as a reaction to the neglect from his mother. Group E. ‘Affectionless Characters’ - Case 37. Kenneth G. Kenneth was 12 when referred to the Clinic for cruelty to younger children. It was found he had been stealing for several years and had just completed a year on probation for forging a cheque. Kenneth was conceived when his mother was 21 and his father left as soon as he discovered that she was pregnant. He was put into a foster home and then adopted by a loving, married couple. When he was 3, his mother remarried and brought Kenneth back to live with her again. He felt like he ‘did not quite belong’ with his mother, step-father and step-siblings. He did not show her any affection and was often disobedient. At the age of 7, when left in charge of one of his step-sisters, who was 3 at the time, he deliberately burned the child’s leg. He frequently blamed his mother for removing him from his foster-home where he had been happy. He delighted in making his mother and step-siblings cry and would laugh when they did. He had been stealing since the age of 5, usually from his mother. When he was 11, he and three other boys forged a cheque which they cashed, using the money on cinema and boating. The boy’s lack of normal affection was typical of the Affectionless Character. Group F. ‘Schizoid Characters’ - Case 43. Alan E. Alan was referred to the clinic at the age of 9 for stealing and soiling himself. Alan’s parents lost their 6 year old son, William, when he was run over in the street. They decided that they would have another child to replace William and so Alan was born. Alan’s mother was very overprotective of him, and became even more so after he was attacked by a dog at the age of 1. When he was 3, his mother, who suffered from manic-depressive psychosis, tried to strangle him. From the age of 3 onwards, he experienced poor bladder control. His mother was later admitted to a mental hospital and died two years later. His father remarried and had a daughter, of whom Alan was bitterly and openly jealous of. He often had violent outbursts and would break things. He was quarrelsome with other children and disliked groups. If accused of stealing, he would initially protest but would then confess without any sign of guilt. During the three months before coming to the clinic, he had soiled himself, rubbed his hands in his faeces and hidden it around the house. He frequently spoke to himself, as though there was someone in the room with him. He reported a strange feeling as if ‘there was something in the room and then it’s not there’. He began stealing after his father remarried. He would steal money and his step-mother’s jewellery, which he would sell to buy toys, which he immediately picked apart to see what was inside. When asked about rubbing his hands with faeces, he said that the faeces had healing powers. Alan displayed several symptoms of psychosis. His history of hallucinations, together with him playing with faeces which was connected with ideas of magic, implied that he had schizophrenia. Comparison With Controls There was a stark difference between the types of character found in the criminal group and those found in the control group. There were no Affectionless Characters amongst the controls, this absence is statistically significant and demonstrates the strong association between Affectionless Character and stealing. Table 2 shows that the thieves in the Affectionless group would also steal

45

more persistently and more seriously (Grade 4) than those in the other groups. It should also be noted that children of this character constitute over half of the Grade 4 offenders (13).

The control group contained more depressed children as well as 8 children of a type not found among the thieves - Anxious Characters; well-behaved children who had developed a stammer or a phobia.

Causation Genetic Factors The incidence of mental illness in the parents and grandparents of the thieves is high and it is possible that genetic factors played a part in some cases. However, it should be noted that our data is limited in many respects. Firstly, evidence of the mental health of the parents is not comprehensive. Secondly, even if we had all the desired information, it would be impossible to separate inherited factors from the psychological influence of unstable parents. 4 of the thieves had psychotic parents and 2 others had psychotic grandparents. 11 patients had at least one neurotic or psychopathic patient. 3 had close relatives with epilepsy. Overall, only 22 of the thieves had parents or grandparents who were mentally healthy. This rate was the same for the patients in the control group. This implies that heredity is an important factor in predisposing the development of delinquent and unstable personalities. However this evidence is only suggestive, as a parent who is mentally ill is likely to have a negative influence on the emotional environment in which the child is raised. Early Home Environment a) Broken Homes and Separation of Child From Mother 40% of the thieves had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers (defined as a separation of at least 6 months) compared with only 5% of the control subjects, a significant difference. 12 of the 14 Affectionless thieves had experienced a prolonged separation early in their lives. Whilst in the entirety of the other groups (30 children), only 5 had been separated from their mothers. There is a high degree of association between Affectionless Character and history of mother-child separation. It did not make a difference if the separation was from the child’s biological mother or foster mother, it still had the same negative impact (as seen in the case of Kenneth G. when he was removed from his foster mother to be with his biological mother, whom he strongly resented). After periods of prolonged separation, mothers have described reuniting with their children as ‘like looking after someone else’s baby’, and described them as ‘stranger’ and ‘the odd one out’. Such accounts are vivid evidence of the shattering affect these long separations have on the emotional bonds which usually unite mother and child. This may come as a shock to the mothers, many of whom find it difficult from then on to treat the child with normal affection.

46

Another important point is that, in most cases, there have been multiple accounts of interruption in the child’s relationship with the mother-figure. Many of these children were in more than one foster home. It is also interesting to note that in practically all of these cases, the separation occurs after 12 months, suggesting the existence of a lower age limit, before which separations, whilst having undesirable effects, do not lead to the development of criminal behaviour. b) Emotional Attitude of Parents Whilst mother-child separation accounts for 17 of the 44 cases of stealing, it played no part in the remaining 27. However, in many of these 27 cases, the home environment was far from normal. Several children were unwanted, a few had fathers who hated them and many had anxious, unstable and nagging mothers. Unlike the incidence of separation, the incidence of these factors was the same amongst the thieves and the controls. Therefore, if these factors have a causal significance, it would be to predispose towards an unstable and neurotic character and not specifically criminal behaviour. Only 7 out of the 27 cases where there was no mother-child separation had mothers who were fairly normal. The proportion of unstable mothers is roughly the same for the thieves and the unstable controls. It is likely that the rate in a normal control group would be much lower. If a child’s mother is irritable, critical and nagging, the resulting frustration will produce anger and aggression in the children. This frustration will increase the child’s desire for affection and tokens of affection but will also direct his aggression towards the mother. However, because the child also loves his mother, he will feel very anxious and guilty about having unkind impulses towards her. This will lead to a variety of pathological reactions, usually the formation of a rebellious and boastful character. In 5 of the 27 cases without mother-child separation, the children’s fathers were openly hostile towards them. Several of them never wanted the child and did not try to hide this fact from them. The impact of the father’s attitude on the development of the child is demonstrated in another study by Healy and Bronner. Two twin boys are born to a married mother and father. When two months old, one of the babies didn’t respond to the father for a time. Ever since then, the father hated that child saying ‘I would rather have a snake around me than him’ and never let the child touch him. This child grew up to be ‘restless, impulsive, and uninhibited’ whereas his twin grew up to be normal and sociable. Traumatic Experiences During Later Childhood There is reason to believe that the same influences can have a different affect depending on whether they take place during early or late childhood. In many of these cases, the instability of these children can be traced back to the first few years of life and any influences which come into play after the formation of their personality is completed will be regarded as being of secondary importance. There was only one case where unfavourable parental attitudes were of greater significance than the already criminal cast of the child’s personality. This was Case 1, Claud, W. His stealing, which was directed entirely at his mother, appeared to be a direct reaction to her nagging attitude and demands for his weekly earnings. When away in a hostel he was much happier and settled down sociably. There are other cases where it appears that the child would not have become a criminal, but for a relatively recent incident. In this study there are 11 cases in which a recent traumatic event precipitates stealing, varying from the death of a close relative to jealousy at the birth of a new baby. In most of these cases, the stealing was a part of a wider syndrome of depression, brought about by the traumatic event. The psychological process which leads a depressed child to steal is not clear however it does seem to involve a desire to make restitution to the dead person. (e.g. Audrey, who’s younger brother, Peter, died in front of her, would steal things to give to her other brothers, but it seemed that this may have been an echo of her desire to help Peter).

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Summary In the majority of children, more than one of the above factors was present. Overall the most common factors were genetics, separation from mother and having an ambivalent mother. These factors were present in 40-50% of the cases, however their incidence varied between Character Types, as shown in Table 3.

We can see that the incidence of genetic factors is high for both Depressed (6 out of 11) and Hyperthymic (6 out of 13) thieves. The incidence of prolonged separation from the mother is significantly higher in the case of the Affectionless Characters (12 out of 14) than in any of the other groups. The instance of hostile and ambivalent mothers is significantly higher in both the Depressed (7 out of 11) and Hyperthymic groups (8 out of 13) than the others. The incidence of fathers who hate their children is relatively low in all groups. The incidence of recent traumas is significantly higher for the Depressed characters (8 out of 11) than the other groups. This differential incidence of causal factors by character type is striking, as is their differential incidence by degree of stealing. The less serious thieves (Grades 1 and 2) do not differ from the controls; the variations of incidence lie within the boundaries of chance for both groups. However, the incidence of ambivalent mothers and traumatic events is significantly less in the group of habitual thieves than in the other groups. Prolonged separations are significantly more frequent in the case of habitual offenders than in the other groups. Four of the five factors can therefore be ruled out as specifically causing criminal behaviour. On the other hand, the prolonged separation of the child from its mother or foster mother is highly characteristic of the persistent offender. The close relationship between child-mother separation, the Affectionless Character and persistent (Grade 4) stealing can be summarised like this:

Of the 23 persistent (Grade 4) thieves, 13 (56%) were of Affectionless Character. Of the 14 cases of Affectionless Character, 13 (93%) were persistent thieves. Of the 14 cases of Affectionless Character, 12 (86%) had suffered prolonged separation from their mothers, or mother-substitutes, during their first five years. Conversely, of the 19 cases where such a separation had occurred, 12 (63%) were cases of Affectionless Character.

Finally, 14 of the 23 persistent thieves (61%) had suffered prolonged separation, and of the 19 who had suffered a prolonged separation, 12 (74%) were persistent thieves. It can be concluded that a large proportion of children who steal persistently are of Affectionless Character, a condition which has resulted from them having suffered prolonged separation from their mothers or foster-mothers during early childhood.

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Psychopathology of the Affectionless Character

First, the role of emotional and aggressive impulses, both of which will have been exacerbated by the frustration of the early separation, should be noted. Through stealing, the child hopes for emotional satisfaction, though in reality it proves ineffective because the symbol of love has been mistaken for the real thing. From the earliest days, emotional satisfaction is associated with obtaining possession of things. In infancy it is milk, in later years toys and sweets, and even in adulthood a drink, a box of chocolates or a good meal symbolise kind feelings from one person to another. A child separated from its mother comes to crave both for her love and for its accompanying symbols. If this craving is unsatisfied then it later presents itself as stealing. The fact that most of these children stole food and that these thefts were often from their mothers was clearly no accident (there are several accounts of milk being stolen). Important though emotional factors are in driving children to steal, the part played by aggression must not be forgotten. Revenge is undeniably a very powerful driving force towards stealing. Children who have suffered great deprivation themselves, will feel inclined to inflict equal suffering on someone else. Case 34, Derrick O’C., reluctantly admitted that much of his stealing had been done out of revenge. He felt jealous of his younger brother and felt that his presence had robbed him of his parents’ affection and presents. Whilst excessive emotional and aggressive impulses directed towards parents are not indicative of criminal behaviour and are often found in cases of mental illness, these cases are slightly different in that they lack the usual inhibition of these impulses and also that they are unable to form permanent personal relationships owing to the difficulty they have feeling and expressing love. It is theorised that this lack of inhibition is due to the absence of a functioning super-ego which is meant to coordinate selfish and altruistic desires. It is believed that the super-ego requires a stable love-relationship in early childhood to develop properly. These affectionate relationships are lacking in the case of the Affectionless thieves. They may be lacking due to lack of opportunity; it seems that there is a critical period between 6 and 12 months when infants require contact or they will be unable to form relationships when they are older. This inability has been observed with children in hospitals since it is unlikely that nurses will remain with them long enough for an attachment to form. A second factor which may hinder the ability to form affectionate relationships is the child’s own anger. This was apparent in cases where, at a later age, children where moved from their homes where they were happy and then expected to settle down with strangers. It is unsurprising that their reaction is often one of hatred for the new mother-figure which effectively inhibits any growth of love. It is likely that such emotions may also be aimed towards a mother who places her child in a hospital or foster-home. The child may be unaware of the reason for this event and may interpret it as an act of hatred on the part of the mother. An example of this is Case 27, Betty, I. She completely ignored her mother when she visited her in her foster-home and continued to avoid her when she returned home. Love is impossible if hate is already established. In the human mind, such a mood of hatred tends to perpetuate itself through fantasy. To hate a person is to conjure up a mental representation of them as bad and evil and bent on harm towards the perceiver. Fantasy, born of rage, thus distorts the picture of the real mother. The child then becomes haunted by bad ‘objects’, eventually seeing themselves as bad ‘objects’ and the child’s picture of themselves becomes as distorted as their picture of their mother. They come to see themselves as undeserving of love and will interpret circumstances accordingly. One of the Affectionless thieves, Case 34, Derrick O’C., showed this tendency very strikingly. He was always anxious to please and worried whenever he was unable to answer a question. On one occasion, he arrived at the clinic so quietly he was not noticed and was in the waiting room for 45 minutes. He later said that he thought he was being kept waiting as a punishment for not answering all the

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questions. Such a misinterpretation demonstrates the child’s belief that the analyst is a hostile person, but also that the patient is worthy of punishment. The Affectionless thief seems to be dominated by these fantasies and the real situation is obliterated. This is the result of the prolonged separation they have suffered. Normally when such fantasies arise in children they are soon corrected to some degree by contact with the real mother who is never as bad as the and mother pictured by the child. The mere presence of the mother, irrespective of what she does, will go far to discredit the fantasy and will reassure the child as regards both her and themselves. But when a child does not see its mother for several months there is no opportunity for this correction and these fantasies become so entrenched that when the child returns to the real situation, it is viewed in no terms other than those of the fantasy. The result is a lack of trust and love for themselves and others. The presence of such fantasies explains the suspicion, secrecy and guilt which characterise these children. For instance Case 27, Betty I. and Case 34, Derrick O’C., never asked for anything, which suggests that they expected nothing and felt they deserved nothing. Several other cases saw children giving what they stole away for free, suggesting a feeling that they ought not to have anything. There is a third factor which is probably instrumental in preventing the formation of loving relationships; the determination at all costs to avoid the disappointment, anger and sadness which results from wanting someone very much and not getting them. If we are indifferent towards others or dislike them then we disarm them of any power to hurt us. This indifference was characteristic of every single one of the 44 children, although in some cases it was only skin-deep. They neither showed affection nor appeared to care whether they got it. This may be the explanation of much of their apparent indifference. It is a policy of self-protection.

Conclusions and Summary

It can be concluded that, had it not been for certain factors inhibiting the development of the ability to form relationships, it is possible that these children would not have become offenders. These findings confirm the general psychoanalytic assumption that the early years are of great importance in character development. However, juvenile crime is not just a psychological problem, it is a social and economic problem as well. Poverty, bad housing, lack of recreational facilities and other socio-economic factors are very important and young criminal behaviour is the outcome of many, complex factors which should be studied together in order to ascertain the weight of each one. Psycho-analytical treatment can often be slow and difficult, the main reason for this is that in most cases, the condition has been present in the child for several years and is therefore an established part of their psychology. Attempts should be made to diagnose and treat children at a much earlier age, when treatment is more influential. But even more vital than early diagnosis is prevention. Certain factors, such as deaths, cannot be prevented. Nevertheless, if all those who are involved in the upbringing and care of small children were aware of the appalling damage which prolonged separations have on the development of a child’s character, a greater effort would be made to avoid them and many cases of criminal behaviour could be prevented.

NOTE: The full article is too large for the Social Science website. Your teacher can save a copy to your memory stick on request.

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Planning an answer: A – C – E

Imagine you are given this question in an exam: ‘The value of research such as Bowlby (1944) is undermined by weaknesses in the methodology of the research’. Evaluate the methodology used by Bowlby’s (1944) research ‘Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home-life’. [12] What might an A grade answer look like? What about a C grade? Or even an E grade answer?! Plan each in the space below.

Grade A C E

Plan

Justification for grade

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Contemporary Debate: The mother as primary care-giver of an infant

Deprivation damage

Feeding

Freud’s view on the importance of the mother

Mothers not fathers

Ethical, social and economical implications

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Deprivation damage

Feeding

Freud’s view on the importance of the

mother

Mothers not fathers

Feeding

Deprivation damage

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Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach




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Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach




Task: Create a flashcard on the evaluation of psychodynamic approach.

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Revising Psychodynamic Approach Create a crossword for the psychodynamic approach and its therapy.

Clues: Down Across

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The Behaviourist Approach



therapy. Describe the main components (principles) of systematic

desensitisation. Evaluate systematic desensitisation in terms of its effectiveness

and ethical considerations. Describe the methodology of Watson and Rayner (1920)

(describe and justify, includes characteristics of the sample but not the sampling technique).

Describe the procedures, findings and conclusions of the study. Evaluate the methodology, procedures, findings (use

methodology and/or alternative evidence) and conclusions (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) of the study.

Discuss the argument and evidence against and in favour of using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children being ethical.

Present a conclusion about the debate. Include discussion of the ethical, social and economical

implications of this debate. Consider social and cultural diversity in this debate.


1. Describe the assumptions of the behaviourist approach. [12]

2. Explain the behaviourist assumption ‘behaviour is learnt through conditioning’. [4]

3. Describe the formation of one relationship using one assumption of the behaviourist approach. [3]

4. Describe how the assumptions of the behaviourist approach are applied in one therapy. [6]

5. Describe two components (principles) of systematic

desensitisation. [8] 6. Evaluate systematic desensitisation in terms of

ethical considerations. [8] 7. Evaluate the effectiveness of systematic

desensitisation. [8] 8. Outline the methodology of Watson and Rayner’s

(1920) research ‘Conditioned emotional reactions’. [3]

9. Outline the findings and conclusions of Watson and Rayner (1920) research ‘Conditioned emotional reactions’. [8]

10. ‘Using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children does more harm than good’. Using psychological evidence, discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement. [20]

11. ‘Without the use of conditioning techniques, children in the UK would be out of control’. Discuss the use of conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children. [20]

12. Discuss two or more weaknesses of the behaviourist approach. [6]

13. Evaluate one strength and one weakness of the behaviourist approach. [4 + 4]

14. ‘At first you might think that the biological and behaviourist approaches are very different, but there are quite a few similarities.’ Compare and contrast the biological and behaviourist approaches. [8]

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Behaviourist Approach


Debate

Behaviourist

blank slate behaviour learnt through

conditioning humans and animals learn in

similar ways AS Level: formation of

relationships (e.g. pet and owner)

Aversion therapy or

Systematic desensitisation

Watson, J.B. and Rayner, R. (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions.

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), 1-14

Using conditioning techniques to control the

behaviour of children

The Assumptions

The basic assumption of the behavioural approach is that all behaviour is learned. If you are aggressive at school, good at football, have a mental disorder or a phobia of frogs it is because of the experiences you have had, rather than genetic predisposition. Blank Slate Behaviourists believe that we are born as a blank slate...

Human and animals learn in similar ways

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Behaviour learnt through conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Scan the QR code and watch the video. Make a note of all the different conditioning techniques that you observe.

Task: What do you consider to be the key words for the behaviourist approach?

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1. Watch these three videos on the behaviourist approach:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7wZCtFWblE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wf3-tRpmGmY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut1zmfolM9E

You will find links to each one on the website: http://socialsci-groby.weebly.com/

and your teacher will also tweet a link @SocialSci_Groby

2. Create a flashcard on the assumptions of the behaviourist approach. 3. Answer this practice question: Describe two assumptions of the behaviourist approach. [8]

Use the space below to plan your answer.

Assumptions of the behaviourist approach

Behaviourist explanation for the formation of relationships (e.g. pet and owner) Operant conditioning Classical conditioning

AS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7wZCtFWblE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wf3-tRpmGmY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut1zmfolM9E

http://socialsci-groby.weebly.com/

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Applying the behavioural assumptions to a variety of behaviours

Phobias

Aggression

Crime

Addiction to coffee

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Plan an answer to the following question: Describe two assumptions of the behaviourist approach. [8]

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Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Watch this collection of videos about treating fears: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzNSYw7xwpU&list=PLBC166F83ACE852E8

Therapy: Systematic Desensitisation

Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural therapy used to treat phobias. The therapy was developed by Joseph Wolpe, his inspiration came from experiments with cats. Masserman (1943) developed a phobia in cats when they were electrocuted after being placed in a box. The cats later showed a phobic response whenever they were placed in a box, but this disappeared when they were fed in the box. Wolpe explained this in terms of conditioning and conducted more experiments introducing the food gradually (e.g. from a distance and getting close until inside the box). This success led Wolpe to develop systematic desensitisation. The key to phobias is that a reaction is severe, excessive and interferes with everyday life. Phobias include specific phobias (e.g. spider, dogs, heights), agoraphobia) a fear of being trapped in a public place where escape is difficult or embarrassing) and social phobias (a phobia of situations involving other people, such as speaking in public). An individual can learn that the feared stimulus is not so fearful if they can re-experience the stimulus. This is a gradual reintroduction based on Masserman’s research on cats. The process is based on counter-conditioning and creating a new stimulus-response link, moving away from fear and towards relaxation. How does it work? The diagram on the right is a desensitisation hierarchy. This is a gradual set of steps that are determined at the start of therapy, the therapist and client work through the hierarchy. When the therapy was first developed the client would have to meet the feared stimulus head-on (in vivo desensitisation) by learning to relax in front of the stimulus, but in recent years the therapist asks the patient to imagine the stimulus (in vitro or covert desensitisation). Research has found that actual contact with the stimulus (in vivo techniques) are more successful.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzNSYw7xwpU&list=PLBC166F83ACE852E8

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. Evaluating Behavioural Therapy

Strengths of SD Weaknesses of SD Ethical Considerations

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Classic Evidence: Watson and Rayner (1920)

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Classic Evidence: Watson and Rayner (1920)

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Conditioned Emotional Reactions By John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920)

One theory proposes that because there are very few patterns of emotional reaction during infancy compared to the wide range observed in adulthood, there must be a way of increasing the range of stimuli which provide emotional reactions. It was believed that the early home life of the child acted as the laboratory within which this range could be increased through conditioning. This theory is tested here on one child, Albert B, who was chosen for his strong physical health and emotional stability. Albert was used in four experiments which aimed to answer four questions about conditioning emotional responses:

• Can fear of a previously neutral stimulus be conditioned by presenting it simultaneously with an established negative stimulus?

• Could this conditioned response be transferred to other animals or objects?

• Does this conditioned response change over time?

• If, after a reasonable period, the emotional responses have not died out, how might they be removed?

Establishing a conditioned emotional response

The testing began when Albert was 11 months old. The procedure is described below: 1. A white rat is presented to Albert who then reaches for it. As he touches the rat a loud

noise is made behind him by hitting a steel bar with a hammer. He is startled and falls backwards.

2. Joint stimulation with rat and sound. This time Albert starts to cry. 3. Joint stimulation is repeated 6 more times and Albert cries and starts withdrawing from

the rat as soon as it is presented. 4. The rat is presented alone. Albert immediately starts crying and quickly crawls away.

This experiment demonstrates that a fear response can be conditioned to a neutral stimuli. It is highly likely that a louder noise would have meant fewer joint stimulations were required.

Transferring a conditioned response to other stimuli Five days later Albert was brought in for further testing. A preliminary test where Albert was presented with the rat showed that the conditioned fear response was still present. 1. Albert was first presented with a rabbit. He immediately turned away from the animal

and then began to cry. When the rabbit was placed in contact with him he crawled away from it.

2. He was then presented with a dog, he stared at it and shrank back a little. When the dog came closer, Albert turned his head away and began to cry.

3. His reaction was the same when a fur coat was presented to him. 4. When he was presented with cotton wool, he initially kicked it away but after time began

to play with it, but made sure only to hold the paper packaging of the wool, and avoided touching the wool itself.

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5. Albert was presented with the rat and withdrew his whole body but kept his eyes on the rat and did not cry. His hand was then placed on the rat and the rod was struck resulting in a violent reaction.

6. The rabbit is presented alone. Albert leans away from it and begins to whimper. It is then decided to change the setting to see if it would have any effect on the conditioned response. Albert was taken to a lecture hall. 7. The rat was presented alone. There was no sudden fear reaction although he did hold his

hands away from the animal. 8. The rabbit is presented alone. Albert turned away from the animal. 9. The dog is presented alone. Albert turned away and cried until the dog left. 10. The rat is presented alone, there was a slight negative reaction. 11. Joint stimulation with rat and sound. Albert jumped violently. 12. The rat is presented alone. No initial reaction, but when the rat was placed nearer he

began to whimper and draw back. 13. The rabbit is presented alone. Albert whimpered and fell backwards. 14. The dog was presented alone. There was not much of a reaction until the dog barked,

whereupon Albert began wailing and continued until the dog was removed. This experiment demonstrates that emotional transfers can occur.

The effect of time on conditioned emotional responses No further emotional experimentation was conducted for a month. 1. The fur coat was presented alone. He withdrew his body and when the coat was placed

in contact with him he began to cry. 2. The rat was presented alone. Albert stared at it and stayed still as it crawled towards

him. When the rat touched his hand, Albert withdrew it immediately and leaned away. When the rat was placed on him he withdrew his body and covered his eyes with his hands.

3. The rabbit was presented alone. Albert pushed the rabbit away with his feet whilst withdrawing his body. When the rabbit moved towards him he began wailing. When his hand was placed on the rabbit’s back, he withdrew it immediately and covered his face with both hands.

4. The dog was presented alone. Albert began to cry but did not fall over backwards as he had done when he dog was last presented.

This experiment demonstrates that emotional responses brought about by conditioning and transferring persist for at least a month, although the there is a reduction in the intensity of the reaction. It is believed that they persist and modify personality throughout life.

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Removal of conditioned emotional responses Unfortunately Albert was removed from the hospital before the last experiment could take place. It is the authors’ beliefs that these responses will persist indefinitely, unless a method for removing them is accidentally hit upon. Three possible methods are suggested: 1. Constantly presenting the stimuli to the child which should result in habituation and

reduced response. 2. Try to recondition the object linked to a fear response by presenting it and

simultaneously stimulating the erogenous zones. 1 3. Reconditioning by giving the child sweets or food when the animal is shown.

Incidental Observations Thumb-sucking as a way of blocking fear and unpleasant stimuli. During the course of these experiments, especially in the final test, whenever Albert was on the verge of tears or emotionally upset, he would put his thumb in his mouth. The moment he did so, he became impervious to the fear-producing stimuli. Before the conditioned response could be obtained, his thumb had to be removed from his mouth. This phenomenon seems to be present from birth as it also occurs in babies less than 10 days old. Albert only resorted to thumb-sucking in the presence of fearful stimuli and would stop as soon as his toys were presented to him. This indicates that, rather than being the expression of a pleasure-seeking principle as Freud suggests, thumb-sucking is a compensatory device used to block out fear. Equal importance of fear and love in conditioning. According to the Freudian school, sex (or love) is the principal emotion in which conditioned responses arise which later limit and distort personality. However, these experiments indicate that fear is as important a factor as love.

Conclusions It is probable that many of the phobias in psychopathology are true conditioned emotional reactions either of the direct or the transferred type. It is also possible that the persistence of conditioned responses will only be found in people who are not as strong willed. Emotional disturbances in adults cannot be traced back to sex alone, as Freudians would theorise. They must be considered with regards to conditioned and transferred responses set up in infancy and early youth in all three of the fundamental human emotions; love, fear and rage.

1 By today’s standards, it would be unlikely that this practice would receive ethical approval.

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Tabloid Story Re-write the Watson and Rayner article in the style of a tabloid journalist. This gives you the opportunity to interpret text and develop the skill of selecting the key information and what it means to ordinary people i.e. not psychologists! Create your article in the space below:

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Contemporary Debate: Using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children

Peers

At home

In school

Vulnerable groups of children


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Peers

At home

In school

Vulnerable groups of children

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Evaluating the Behaviourist Approach




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Evaluating the Behaviourist Approach




Task: Create a flashcard on the evaluation of behaviourist approach.

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Revising the Behaviourist Approach Create a mindmap of the behaviourist approach and its therapy.

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1. Describe the assumptions of the cognitive approach. [12] 2. Explain the ‘schemas’ assumption of the cognitive approach. [4] 3. Describe the formation of one relationship using one assumption of the cognitive approach. [3] 4. Describe how the assumptions of the cognitive approach are applied in one therapy. [6] 5. Describe two components (principles) of REBT. [4 + 4] 6. Evaluate the ethical issues raised in REBT. [8] 7. Evaluate the effectiveness of REBT. [6] 8. ‘The methodology used in Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research ‘Reconstruction of automobile destruction: an example of

the interaction between language and memory’ offers us a valuable, scientific insight into eyewitness testimony’. Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement. [8]

9. Outline the findings and conclusions of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research ‘Reconstruction of automobile destruction: an example of the interaction between language and memory’. [10]

10. ‘The reliability of eyewitnesses is so poor that no conviction should happen if the only evidence is eyewitness testimony’. With reference to the quote, discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement. [20]

11. Discuss the view that eyewitnesses are reliable. [20] 12. Discuss two or more weaknesses of the cognitive approach. [8] 13. Evaluate one strength and one weakness of the cognitive approach. [6] 14. ‘In order to change human behaviour we need to understand conscious thinking patterns, and this can be achieved through

scientific observation’. With reference to this quote, compare and contrast the cognitive and psychodynamic approaches in psychology. [12]

15. ‘The cognitive approach offers both strengths and weaknesses.’ Evaluate the cognitive approach in psychology. [16]

The Cognitive Approach



therapy. Describe the main components (principles) of drug therapy. Evaluate drug therapy in terms of its effectiveness and ethical

considerations. Describe the methodology of Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse

(1997) (describe and justify, includes characteristics of the sample but not the sampling technique).

Describe the procedures, findings and conclusions of the study. Evaluate the methodology, procedures, findings (use

methodology and/or alternative evidence) and conclusions (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) of the study.

Discuss the argument and evidence against and in favour of neuroscience being ethical.

Present a conclusion about the debate. Include discussion of the ethical, social and economical

implications of this debate. Consider social and cultural diversity in this debate.

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Cognitive Approach


Debate

Cognitive

computer analogy internal mental processes schemas AS Level: formation of

relationships (e.g. romantic)

Cognitive Behavioural

Therapy or

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

Loftus, E. and Palmer, J.C. (1974) Reconstruction of automobile

destruction: an example of the interaction between language and

memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 13, 585-589

Reliability of eye-witness testimony

The Assumptions

Computer Analogy

Internal Mental Processes Schemas

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Applying the cognitive assumptions to a variety of behaviours

OCD

Fear of heights

Anorexia

Narcolepsy

Cognitive explanation for the formation of relationships (e.g. romantic) Schemas Internal mental processes

AS

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Plan an answer to the following question: Describe two assumptions of the cognitive approach. [8]

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Therapy: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) is a form of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). This treatment suggests that changes in thinking leads to changes in behaviour, alleviating symptoms. The therapy aims to change irrational thinking patterns which have caused emotional distress into more rational and reasonable thoughts. CBT is not only focused on thinking (the cognitive element) but also contains the behaviourist approach which suggests that undesirable behaviours have been learned. Behaviourist therapy aims to reverse the learning process and produce more desirable behaviour. In the 1950s Albert Ellis was one of the first psychologists to develop CBT. It was called ‘rational therapy’ due to the fact that psychological abnormality is due to faulty and irrational thoughts. Therapy aims to turn irrational (and often self-defeating) thoughts into more rational ones which are flexible, undemanding and realistic.

ABC model Ellis (1957) proposed the ABC model:

Think of a phobia that you might have:

identify the activating event what are the associated self-defeating thoughts? what is the consequence of this irrational thinking? how might REBT change your irrational thinking and make more productive consequences for you?

This clip nicely explains REBT: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vzp-7-LKQIs ABCDE The model was later extended to include D and E. D = ____________________ and E = ________________. It is important to remember that the activating event does not produce undesirable consequences, it is the beliefs. REBT focuses on challenging or disputing the beliefs and replacing them with more rational beliefs. For example:

Logical disputing –

Empirical disputing –

Pragmatic disputing –

Give some examples of disputing irrational beliefs:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vzp-7-LKQIs

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The effects of disputing are to change the self-defeating beliefs into more rational beliefs. The individual moves from catastrophising (‘no one will ever like me’) to more rational interpretations (‘my friend was probable thinking about something and didn’t even see me’). This helps the client to be more self-accepting. Mustabatory thinking The source of irrational beliefs lies in mustabatory thinking – thinking that certain thoughts or beliefs must be true in order for the individual to be happy. Ellis identified three components of irrational beliefs:

1.

2.

3. Other irrational assumptions include:

Others must treat me fairly and give me what I need, or they are absolutely rotten. People must live up to my expectations or it is terrible!

An individual who hold these beliefs will (at least) be disappointed and at worst be depressed. An individual who fails an exam becomes depressed not because of failing the exam, but because of the irrational thoughts surrounding the failure (e.g. ‘If I fail people will think that I’m stupid’). These musts have to be challenged in order for the individual to become psychologically healthy. Unconditional positive regard Ellis came to recognise that the more important ingredient of successful therapy is to convince the client of their value as a human being and help them to feel less worthless. They will then consider changing their beliefs and behaviour. If the therapist provides unconditional positive regard (respect and appreciation) for the client regardless of what they do or say, this will help to change the attitudes and beliefs.

Evaluating Cognitive Therapy

Strengths of CBT Weaknesses of CBT Ethical Considerations

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Classic Evidence: Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Experiment 1 Experiment 2

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Classic Evidence: Loftus and Palmer (1974)

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Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction:

An Example of the Interaction between Language and Memory By Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer

Two experiments were conducted in which subjects were questioned about a film of a car accident they had watched. Subjects gave higher estimates of speed when asked “About how fast were the cars going when they hit into each other?” compared to subjects who were asked the same question but had the verb hit replaced with bumped or contacted. When they were tested a week later, subjects who received the verb smashed were more likely to say that they had seen broken glass, even though there was no broken glass in the film. These results support the idea that the questions asked after an event can cause a reconstruction in one’s memory of that event.

How well can we remember the details of a complex event? It is well documented that most people are very inaccurate in reporting numerical details like time, speed and distance. Research indicates that people tend to overestimate the duration of complex events. In a test administered to members of the Air Force, they watched a car moving at 12 mph. Their estimates ranged from 10 to 50 mph. Given the inaccuracies in estimates of speed, it seems likely that there are powerful variables which influence these estimates. This research investigates how the phrasing of questions affect how an event is remembered. In this study, subjects were shown films of traffic accidents and then were asked questions about the speed of the vehicles.

Experiment 1 Method The sample consisted of 45 students who were divided into 5 groups. They were shown films depicting a traffic accident. They were then given a questionnaire which asked one groups “About how fast were the cars going when they hit into each other?” The other groups were questioned with the verbs smashed, collided, bumped, and contacted replacing hit. Results Table 1 shows the mean speed estimates for different verbs. A statistical test showed that the words used had a significant effect on speed estimation.

Table 1: Speed estimates for the verbs used in Experiment 1.

Verb Mean speed estimate (mph)

Smashed 40.8

Collided 39.3

Bumped 38.1

Hit 34.0

Contacted 31.8

Discussion These results show that the phrasing of a question can significantly affect a witness’ answer. The actual speed of the vehicles had little effect in subject reporting, while the effect of the phrasing was significant. Two interpretations of this finding are possible. First, the difference in speed estimates

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may be due to response-bias factors. For example, a subject is uncertain whether to say 30 mph or 40 mph and the verb smashed biases his response towards the higher estimate. A second interpretation is that the question form causes a change in the subject’s memory of the accident. The verb smashed may change a subject’s memory such that he ‘sees’ the accident as being more severe than it actually was. If this was the case, we would expect subjects to recall other details that did not actually occur, but which would be associated with an accident occurring at higher speeds. The second experiment was designed to provide additional insights into the origin of the various speed estimates.

Experiment II Method The sample consisted of 150 students who were divided into 3 groups. A film depicting a car accident was shown, followed by a questionnaire about details of the accident. 50 subjects were asked “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Another fifty subjects were asked the same question but with the word hit instead of smashed. The other 50 were not asked about car speed. One week later, the subjects were asked the question; “Did you see any broken glass?”. There was no broken glass in the accident, but since broken glass is associated with high speed accidents, the subjects in the smashed condition were expected to say ‘yes’ more often. Results The mean speed estimate for subjects in the smashed condition was 10.46 mph, with hit the estimate was 8 mph. These means are significantly different. Table 2 presents the distribution of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ responses for smashed, hit and control subjects. Table 2. Distribution of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ responses to the question, “Did you see any broken glass?”

Response Smashed Hit Control

Yes 16 7 6

No 34 43 44

A statistical test showed that the verb used has a significant effect on the probability of saying “yes”. Subjects in the smashed condition were more likely to say ‘yes’ than subjects in the hit and control condition. Smashed leads to both more ‘yes’ responses and higher speed estimates. It was found that the probability of saying ‘yes’ was not just an effect of the speed estimation made previously, the effect was still present even when speed estimation was controlled for. Discussion We would like to propose that two kinds of information go into one’s memory for complex events. The first is information acquired during perception of the original event, the second is external information supplied after the event. Over time, information from these two sources may be integrated in such a way that we are unable to tell from which source some specific detail is recalled. All we have is one ‘memory’. We propose that the subject first forms some representation of the accident that they have witnessed and then when the experimenter asks “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” a new piece of external information is added, namely, that the cars did indeed ‘smash into’ each other. When these two pieces of information are integrated, the subject has a memory of an accident that was more severe than it actually was. Since broken glass is associated with severe accidents, the subject is more likely to think that broken glass was present.

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Car Crash Cartoon You will be given a set of cartoon images. Your task it to create a cartoon strip in the space below, imagining you are one of the participants from Loftus and Palmer’s research, and that you are explaining to your friend about the study you just took part in.

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Contemporary Debate: Reliability of eyewitness testimony

Post-event information

Child witnesses are not reliable

Crimes are emotive experiences

Memory is reconstructive


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You now need to present a conclusion about the debate. You now need to present a conclusion about the debate.

Child witnesses are not reliable

Post-event information

Crimes are emotive experiences

Memory is reconstructive

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Evaluating the Cognitive Approach




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Evaluating the Cognitive Approach




Task: Create a flashcard on the evaluation of cognitive approach.

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Revising the Cognitive Approach Create a set of true or false questions about the cognitive approach and its therapy.

1 True or False

2 True or False

3 True or False

4 True or False

5 True or False

6 True or False

7 True or False

8 True or False

9 True or False

10 True or False

11 True or False

12 True or False

13 True or False

14 True or False

15 True or False

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1. Describe two assumptions of the positive approach. [8] 2. Explain the positive approach assumption ‘acknowledgement of free will’. [3] 3. Describe the formation of one relationship using one assumption of the positive approach. [3] 4. Describe how the assumptions of the positive approach are applied in one therapy. [6] 5. Describe two components (principles) of Quality of Life Therapy. [12] 6. Evaluate Quality of Life Therapy in terms of ethical considerations. [6] 7. Evaluate the effectiveness of Quality of Life Therapy. [10] 8. ‘The methods used in Myers and Diener’s (1995) research ‘Who is happy?’ allow the researchers to be confident in the

conclusions that they draw’. To what extent to you agree with this statement? [8] 9. Outline the conclusions of Myers and Diener’s (1995) research ‘Who is happy?’ [6] 10. Outline the methodology used in Myers and Diener’s (1995) research ‘Who is happy?’ [6] 11. ‘Positive psychology has yet to prove that it is as relevant in today’s society as other psychological approaches’. Discuss the

extent to which the positive approach is relevant in today’s society. [20] 12. ‘Other approaches in psychology have had a much more significant impact on today’s society than the positive approach’.

Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement. [20] 13. Discuss two or more weaknesses of the positive approach. [8] 14. Evaluate one strength and one weakness of the positive approach. [4 + 4] 15. Compare and contrast the positive and psychodynamic approaches in psychology. [10]

The Positive Approach

Make sure that you can: Outline the assumptions of the approach. Use at least one assumption to explain the formation

of relationships. Describe how the assumptions of the approach are

applied in the therapy. Describe the main components (principles) of Quality

of Life Therapy. Evaluate Quality of Life Therapy in terms of its

effectiveness and ethical considerations. Describe the methodology of Myers and Diener

(1995) (describe and justify, includes characteristics of the sample but not the sampling technique).

Describe the procedures, findings and conclusions of the study by Myers and Diener (1995).

Evaluate the methodology, procedures, findings (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) and conclusions (use methodology and/or alternative evidence) of the study by Myers and Diener (1995).

Discuss the argument about the relevance of positive psychology in today’s society.

Present a conclusion about the debate. Include discussion of the ethical, social and

economical implications of this debate. Consider social and cultural diversity in this debate.

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Positive Psychological Approach


Debate

Positive

acknowledgement of free will authenticity of goodness and

excellence focus on ‘the good life' AS Level: formation of relationships

(e.g. friends)

Mindfulness or

Quality of life therapy

Myers, D.G. and Diener, E. (1995) Who is happy? Psychological

Science, 6(1) 10-17

Relevance of positive

psychology in today’s society

https://www.ted.com/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology

The Assumptions Acknowledgement of Free Will

Authenticity of Goodness and Excellence

Focus on ‘The Good Life' One of the primary focuses of positive psychology is on the good life (the factors which contribute to a well-lived life). Seligman (2003) distinguishes between three desirable lives: 1. The pleasant life – happiness comes from pursuing positive motions in relation to past, present and future. 2. The good life – happiness comes from pursuing activities that positively absorb and engage us. The good

life is the combination of 3 elements: Positive connections to others: __________________________________________________________ Positive individual traits: _______________________________________________________________ Life regulation qualities: _______________________________________________________________

3. The meaningful life – happiness comes from a deep sense of fulfilment by living for a purpose much greater than oneself.

The pleasant life is the starting point; the next step (good life) is a place of happiness and allows relationships to work. However, Seligman suggests you go beyond the good life and seek a meaningful life in a quest for happiness.

https://www.ted.com/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology

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Applying the positive assumptions to a variety of behaviours

Petty theft at work

Stress

Terrorism

Aggression

Positive explanation for the formation of relationships (e.g. friends) Authenticity of goodness and

excellence The good life

AS

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Plan an answer to the following question: Describe two assumptions of the positive approach. [8]

Paragraph 1

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4





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Therapy: Mindfulness The positive approach focuses on happiness, optimism, and subjective (perceived) well-being. It is concerned with three issues:

Positive emotions Positive individual traits Positive institutions

This approach does not concern itself with finding the reasons for psychological illness or offering treatment, instead it celebrates individual happiness and contentment via the development of the individual’s natural positive traits, which lead to overall greater well-being. How do the positive assumptions apply to mindfulness?

The main components of mindfulness Mindfulness has its roots in ancient Buddhist practice. It teaches people to control their own mind by paying attention to, and increasing awareness of their present thoughts. Although it might sound obvious, our mind is usually on autopilot, focussing on the past or future.

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Gaining control of thoughts

Meditation and mindful breathing

How can mindful breathing be achieved? Informal practices of mindfulness

https://www.ted.com/talks/andy_puddicombe_all_it_takes_is_10_mindful_minutes?language=en

https://www.ted.com/talks/andy_puddicombe_all_it_takes_is_10_mindful_minutes?language=en

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Evaluating Positive Therapy

Strengths of the therapy Weaknesses of the therapy Ethical Considerations

Make sure that you are able to:

describe how the assumptions of the approach are applied in the therapy describe the main components of the therapy evaluate the therapy in terms of effectiveness evaluate the therapy in terms of ethical considerations Task: Create a flashcard on mindfulness and the evaluation of mindfulness.

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Classic Evidence: Myers and Diener (1995)

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Classic Evidence: Myers and Diener (1995)

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Who is Happy? By David Myers and Ed Diener

This article looks at a number of new studies which show that happiness and life satisfaction are available to everyone, regardless of age, gender, nationality or socio-economic background. Better clues to subjective well-being (SWB) are found by knowing about a person’s traits, close relationships, work experiences, culture, and religiosity. We present here the elements that a theory of happiness should incorporate; adaption, world-view, and personal goals.

Introduction

“Happiness is an imaginary condition, formerly attributed by the living to the dead, now usually attributed by adults to children, and by children to adults.” This was the view of psychiatrist Thomas Szasz and it reflected the opinions of many writers and academics in the early 20th century that ‘happiness’ was a rare commodity. However, due to a relatively recent surge of interest in wellbeing which started in the 80s, we now know that happiness is more abundant than was previously believed with researchers concluding that most people are generally happy. Whilst the scientific study of emotional well-being is new, theories about happiness are ages old and they provide a wide variety of explanations. Discerning the actual routes of subjective well-being requires rigorous scientific inquiry.

Measuring Subjective Well-Being

Psychological investigations of well-being usually use measures of physical and material wellbeing alongside assessments of subjective well-being. Measures range from multi-item scales to single questions. Self-reports of global well-being fall consistently within the 0.5 to 0.7 range. In order to verify that answers to SWB scales are not influenced by response artefacts (e.g. social desirability), scores are compared with other measures of well-being. For example; those who describe themselves as happy recall more positive events and fewer negative events and also they seem happy to their friends and family members. Ratings derived from interviews correlate well with their SWB scores. Measures of happiness are responsive to recent good events (e.g. therapy) and bad events (e.g. feeling ill). They also predict other indicators of psychological well-being; happy people are less self-focused, less hostile and abusive, and less vulnerable to disease compared to people with depression. This indicates that reports of subjective well-being are reasonably accurate.

The Components of Well-Being

At the cognitive level, SWB includes a sense of satisfaction with life, work, marriage and other domains. At the emotional level, people with high SWB feel primarily pleasant emotions, due to their positive interpretation of events. People with low SWB interpret their life circumstances and events as undesirable, and therefore feel unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, depression and anger. Surprisingly, positive and negative emotions are only weakly correlated with each other; knowing the total amount of good feeling a person experiences does not indicate the total amount of bad feeling the person experiences. However, people who experience their good moods intensely, tend to experience intense bad moods. Thus, positive and negative emotions do not seem to be bipolar opposites. Positive well-being is not defined by the absence of negative emotions.

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Myths of Happiness

Is Happiness Being Young? Middle Aged? Newly Retired? A large survey conducted by Inglehart in 1990 on roughly 170,000 people from 16 different countries has revealed that no time of life is notably happier or unhappier than others. Whilst predictors of happiness do change with age (e.g. social relations and health become more important in later life), knowing someone’s age gives no clue as to the person’s sense of wellbeing. Nor do rates of depression, suicide or divorce increase during the supposed early 40s “midlife crisis” years. Whilst people do face times of crisis, they do not occur at any predictable age. Does Happiness Have a Favourite Sex? In reports of happiness, the overall result is a roughly equal balance for women and men and a meta-analysis has shown that gender accounts for less than 1% of people’s well-being. In Inglehart’s survey, 80% of men and 80% of women said they were at least “fairly satisfied” with life. Does Happiness Vary by Race? People of different nationalities score similarly on tests of self-esteem. Despite discrimination, people in disadvantaged groups maintain self-esteem by valuing things at which they excel, by making comparisons with other groups, and by attributing problems to external sources such as prejudice.

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Does Happiness Vary by Culture? Interestingly, nations differ strikingly in happiness even when income differences are controlled for. For example, in Portugal, about 10% of people say they are very happy whilst in the Netherlands, about 40% of people say the same. In general, collectivist cultures report lower SWB than individualistic cultures, where experiencing and expressing positive emotions is encouraged. Does Money Buy Happiness? In one survey, 75% of Americans beginning college said that “being very well off financially” was a “very important” life goal, and was often ranked more important than “raising a family” and “helping others in difficulty”. Many adults also believe that increased income would make them happier. There does seem to be a strong positive correlation between national wealth and well-being, as seen in Figure 1, despite certain exceptions (e.g. the Irish reporting greater life satisfaction than the wealthier Japanese). Whilst in poorer countries financial satisfaction is a moderate predictor of SWB, as soon as people are able to afford life’s necessities (e.g. food and shelter), it suddenly matters a lot less. Although the correlation between income and happiness is not negative, it is modest. A better prediction of SWB is a person’s satisfaction with income, although there is only a slight tendency for people who make a lot of money to be more satisfied with what they make. For instance, lottery winners only experience a brief feeling of joy before their emotional levels return to normal.

Happy People

The Traits of Happy People Studies have shown that the best indicators of a happy person are; self-esteem, a sense of personal control, optimism, and extraversion. First, happy people tend to like themselves; there is a strong correlation between self-esteem and SWB. Happy people believe themselves to be more ethical, intelligent, healthier, less prejudiced and better able to get along with others than unhappy people. However, this link is weaker in collectivist cultures, where the group is given priority over the individual. Second, happy people typically feel a stronger sense of personal control. Those who feel empowered do better in school, cope better with stress, and live more happily. People in prisons, nursing homes and countries with totalitarian regimes - people with little control of their own lives - suffer lower morale and worse health. Third, optimists tend to be more successful, healthier and happier than pessimists. Third, happy people tend to be extraverted. Compared with introverts, extraverts are happier both when alone and with other people. It is not known if these traits cause someone to be happy or if being happy leads to the development of these traits. The Relationships of Happy People People who can name several intimate friends are healthier, less likely to die prematurely, and happier than people who have few or no friends. Furthermore, when people are with others, they report higher positive emotion. Holocaust survivors who confided more openly in other people about their painful experiences had the most improved health. Married people are more likely to describe themselves as “very happy” than those who never married, are divorced or separated. The “Flow” of Happy People “Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.” - Confucius. People with greater work satisfaction also have better life satisfaction. For many people, work provides personal identity; it helps people define who they are. Work also adds to a sense of community: It offers people a network of supportive relationships. This sense of pride and belonging helps people construct their social identity. And work can add focus and purpose – a sense that one’s life matters. However it is important that the work is not so challenging that it causes stress or anxiety or that it is so underwhelming that people feel bored and unengaged. Work should fall in the middle ground between boredom and anxiety

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where challenges match and engage with a person’s skills. In this zone, it is theorised that we enter an optimal state referred to as ‘Flow’, where one is so caught up in an activity that the mind does not wander, one becomes oblivious to surroundings and time flies. Engaging in this way with a mindful challenge is a source of happiness. Whether at work or at leisure, people enjoy themselves more when absorbed in the flow of an activity than when doing something which is meaningless. Involvement in interesting and engaging activities is a major source of well-being. The Faith of Happy People Religious people are much less likely than irreligious people to become delinquent, to abuse drugs and alcohol, to divorce or by unhappily married, and to commit suicide. They tend to be physically healthier and live longer because of better eating and drinking habits. Religious people also report higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction and are less vulnerable to depression. Surveys have shown that people who are strongly religious are twice as likely to say they are “very happy”. There is a strong positive correlation between happiness and life satisfaction and worship attendance. The two best predictors of well-being among the elderly are health and religiousness. Faith seems to help people to cope with a crisis. For example, recently widowed women reported more joy in their lives if they were religiously active. Religious mothers of disabled children were less vulnerable to depression. It is not fully understood what it is about faith that increases a person’s well-being. Several explanations include the supportive close relationships often enjoyed by people in congregations, the sense of meaning and purpose that it gives to people or possibly having a worldview that offers answers to life’s deepest questions and an optimistic appraisal of life’s events. Elements of a Theory of Happiness A viable theory of happiness must recognise the importance of adaption. Over time, the immediate emotional response to significant events inevitably fades. Although lottery winners are initially elated, their euphoria soon wanes. “Continued pleasure wears off,” noted Frijda, “Pleasure is always contingent upon change and disappears with continuous satisfaction. Likewise, the agony of most bad events gradually subsides. Even the psychological trauma of a paralysing car accident usually gives way to a return of normal happiness. Studies have found that only events within the last 3 months affect SWB and the more recent an event the greater its emotional effect. Another component of a theory of happiness is cultural worldview. Some cultures construe the world as benevolent and controllable, whilst others place emphasis on the normality of negative emotions such as anxiety and guilt. One’s cultural template influences how life events are interpreted, which can have a significant effect on SWB. A third important component is values and goals. Having non-conflicting goals and making progress towards them are all predictors of SWB. Money, social skills and intelligence are only predictors of SWB if they are relevant to a person’s goals. This explains why income predicts SWB in poor nations and why self-esteem predicts SWB in wealthy, individualistic nations.

Conclusion

Knowing a person’s age, race, sex and income (assuming the person has enough to afford life’s necessities) does not inform us about how happy a person is. Better clues come from knowing a person’s traits, whether the person has a strong network of supportive relationships, whether the person’s culture offers positive interpretations of daily events, whether the person is engaged in work and leisure, and whether the person has a faith that entails social support, purpose and hope. This new research on psychological well-being is a welcome complement to the long-standing studies of depression and anxiety, and of physical and material well-being. By asking who is happy, and why, we can help people rethink their priorities and better understand how to build a world that enhances human well-being.

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Diamond Ranking

What do you consider to be the most important points about the Myers and Diener study? Arrange these nine points in a diamond shape with the best point/study/evaluation point at the top, two in second place, three in third place, two in fourth place, and the worst at the bottom.

Are the any similarities or differences between you and your partner?

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Contemporary Debate: relevance of positive psychology in today’s society

Leisure and lifestyle advice

Education

Work

Health


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Leisure and lifestyle advice

Education

Work

Health

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Evaluating the Positive Approach




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Evaluating the Positive Approach




Task: Create a flashcard on the evaluation of positive approach.

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Plan an answer to the following question: ‘The positive approach offers both strengths and weaknesses.’ Evaluate the positive approach in psychology. [16]

Paragraph 1

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4

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Revising the Positive Psychological Approach Create a poster about the positive psychological approach. You should find relevant images or diagrams from the internet. Identify at least 10 key facts about the approach. Remember: colour can help you when it comes to revision.

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Comparing the

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Biological Psychodynamic

Biological

Psychodynamic

Behaviourist

Cognitive

Positive

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approaches

Behaviourist Cognitive Positive

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Practice Questions

A Level Answer all questions 1. Describe two assumptions of the psychodynamic approach in explaining human behaviour. [6] 2. Describe the procedures of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research Reconstruction of automobile

destruction: an example of the interaction between language and memory. [12] 3. Evaluate the research of Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse’s (1997) research Brain abnormalities in

murderers indicated by positron emission tomography in relation to the ethical issues and implications. [16]

4. Demonstrate how the cognitive approach has been applied to either cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) OR rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). [10]

5. In 1995 Myers and Diener conducted research into ‘Who is happy?’ Discuss how the findings and conclusions of this research can be applied in the real world. [12]

6. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of the biological approach and the behaviourist approach. [20]

7. ‘Mothers should stay at home for the first two years of their babies’ lives’. With reference to psychological studies and theories, discuss to what extent you agree with this statement. [24]

AS Level Answer all questions 1. Answer either (a) or (b)

(a) One technique used in rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) is ‘challenging awfulising beliefs’. Identify and explain one other technique that is used during REBT. [4]

(b) One technique used in cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is ‘therapy during therapy’. Identify and explain one other technique that is used during CBT. [4]

2. Describe the procedures of John Bowlby’s (1944) research Forty-four juvenile thieves: their characters and home-life. [10]

3. Describe how the aims and processes of quality of life therapy link to the assumptions of the positive approach. [10]

4. Apply your own knowledge of two psychological approaches to explain why relationships are formed. [10]

5. Describe the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research Reconstruction of automobile destruction: an example of the interaction between language and memory. [6]

6. ‘The behaviourist approach is more appropriate to explain human behaviour than the psychodynamic approach’. Discuss this statement with reference to your knowledge of the assumptions and therapies of both approaches. [10]

7. Discuss the ethical issues of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) study Conditioned emotional reactions. [10]

8. ‘It is important for children to be cared for by their mothers during the first few years of their lives’. With reference to psychological studies and theories, discuss to what extent you agree with this statement. [20]

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Topic Area Covered in Class

Revised

Behaviourist Approach

Know and understand the assumptions of the approach (blank slate, behaviour learnt through conditioning, humans and animals learn in similar ways)

Evaluate the approach (including strengths, weaknesses and comparison with the four other approaches)

Apply the assumptions to explain a variety of behaviours (AS Level: know and understand why a relationship is formed)

Know and understand how the approach can be used in systematic desensitisation, and the main components of the therapy.

Evaluate systematic desensitisation (including its effectiveness and ethical considerations)

Know, understand and make judgements on Watson and Rayner (1920) (including methodology, procedures, findings, conclusions, ethical issues and social implications)

Explore both sides of the debate on using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children from a psychological perspective (including the ethical, social and economical implications. AS Level: consideration of social and cultural diversity).

Cognitive Approach

Know and understand the assumptions of the approach (computer analogy, internal mental processes, schemas)



Know and understand how the approach can be used in Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy, and the main components of the therapy.

Evaluate Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (including its effectiveness and ethical considerations)

Know, understand and make judgements on Loftus and Palmer (1974) (including methodology, procedures, findings, conclusions, ethical issues and social implications)

Explore both sides of the debate on the reliability of eyewitness testimony from a psychological perspective (including the ethical, social and economical implications. AS Level: consideration of social and cultural diversity).

Positive Approach

Know and understand the assumptions of the approach (acknowledgement of free will, authenticity of goodness and excellence and focus on ‘the good life’)



Know and understand how the approach can be used in Mindfulness and the main components of the therapy.

Evaluate Mindfulness (including its effectiveness and ethical considerations)

Know, understand and make judgements on Myers and Diener (1995) (including methodology, procedures, findings, conclusions, ethical issues and social implications)

Explore both sides of the relevance of positive psychology in today’s society from a psychological perspective (including the ethical, social and economical implications. AS Level: consideration of social and cultural diversity).

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Component Checklist

Use this checklist to ensure that you have covered all the areas needed for success in your exams. The following topics will be covered in class. However, it will be your responsibility to catch up with any topics you miss and to actively revise the different areas.

Topic Area Covered in Class

Revised

Biological Approach

Know and understand the assumptions of the approach (evolutionary influences , localisation of brain function and neurotransmitters)



Know and understand how the approach can be used in drug therapy, and the main components of the therapy.

Evaluate drug therapy (including its effectiveness and ethical considerations)

Know, understand and make judgements on Raine, Buchsbaum, and LaCasse (1997) (including methodology, procedures, findings, conclusions, ethical issues and social implications)

Explore both sides of the debate on the ethics of neuroscience from a psychological perspective (including the ethical, social and economical implications. AS Level: consideration of social and cultural diversity).

Psychodynamic Approach

Know and understand the assumptions of the approach (influence of childhood experiences, the unconscious mind and tripartite personality)



Know and understand how the approach can be used in dream analysis, and the main components of the therapy.

Evaluate dream analysis (including its effectiveness and ethical considerations)

Know, understand and make judgements on Bowlby (1944) (including methodology, procedures, findings, conclusions, ethical issues and social implications)

Explore both sides of the debate on the mother as primary caregiver of an infant from a psychological perspective (including the ethical, social and economical implications. AS Level: consideration of social and cultural diversity).

The checklist continues on the previous page.

psychology: past to present - groby -...

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