Gamboa, Lois Danielle L.

BSMT-2A

General Psychology

Chapter 1

Psychology - scientific study of behavior

and mental processes.

Psychology seeks to:

o describe

o explain

o predict

o control behavior and mental processes

A theory (a formulation of relationships

underlying observed events) allows you to:

o propose reasons for relationships

o derive explanations

o make predictions

What Do Psychologists Do

o Research

Pure research - research conducted

without concern for immediate

applications

Applied research - research

conducted in an effort to find

solutions to particular problems

o Practice

o Teaching

Fields of Psychology

o Clinical – help people with

psychological disorders adjust to the

demands of life

o Counseling – use interviews and tests

to define their patients’ problems

o School – identify and assist students

who have problems that interfere with

learning

o Educational – focus on course planning

and instructional methods for a school

system

o Developmental – study the physical,

cognitive, social and emotional

changes that occur throughout the

lifespan

o Personality – identify and measure

human traits and determine influences

on human though processes, feelings

and behavior

o Social – concerned with the nature and

causes of individuals’ thoughts,

feelings and behavior in social

situations

o Environmental – study the ways that

people and the environment influence

one another

o Experimental – specialize in basic

processes such as the nervous system,

sensation and perception, learning and

memory, thought, motivation, and

emotion

o Industrial – focus on the relationships

between people and work

Organizational – behavior of

people in organizations such as

businesses

Human Factors – make technical

systems such as automobile

dashboards more user-friendly

Consumer – behavior of shoppers

in an effort to predict and

influence their behavior

o Health – study the effects of stress on

health problems and guide clients

toward healthier behavior patterns

o Sport – help athletes concentrate on

their performance and not on the

crowd, use cognitive strategies to

enhance performance and to avoid

choking under pressure

o Forensic – apply psychology to the

criminal justice system

Aristotle

o Argued that human behavior is subject

to rules and laws.

o personality, sensation and perception,

thought, intelligence, needs and

motives, feelings, and emotion, and

memory

o Peri Psyches

Democritus

o Suggested that we could think of

behavior in terms of a body and mind

(interaction of biological and mental

processes)

o Behavior is influenced by external

stimulation.

o free will vs. choice

Socrates

o Introspection - deliberate looking

into one’s own cognitive processes to

examine one’s thoughts and feelings

o We should rely on rational thought and

introspection to achieve self

knowledge

o People are social creatures who

influence each other

Gustav Theodor Fechner

o Elements of Psychophysics (1860)

showed how physical events (light and

sounds) are related to psychological

sensations and perceptions

Wilhelm Wundt - First psychology

laboratory (1879)

Structuralism (William Wundt) - the school

of psychology that argues that the mind

consists of three basic elements—

sensations, feelings, and images—that

combine to form experience

o Mind functions by combining objective

and subjective elements of experience

Functionalism (William James) - focused

on behavior in addition to mind and

consciousness

o Used direct observations to

supplement introspection

o Influenced by Darwin’s theory of

evolution

Behaviorism (John Broadus Watson) - the

school of psychology that defines

psychology as the study of observable

behavior and studies relationships, between

stimuli and responses

o B.F. Skinner

Learned behavior is behavior that

is reinforced

o reinforcement – a stimulus that

follows a response and increases the

frequency of the response

Gestalt psychology (Max Wertheimer,

Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler) – the school of

psychology that emphasizes the tendency

to organize perceptions into wholes and to

integrate separate stimuli into meaningful

patterns

o focused on perception and its

influence on thinking and problem

solving

Perception are more than sum of

their parts

Active and purposeful

Insight learning

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) – the

school of psychology that emphasizes the

importance of unconscious motives and

conflicts as determinants of human behavior

o Influence of unconscious motives and

conflicts

o Theory of personality

o Therapy

Perspectives

o Cognitive – having to do with mental

processes such as sensation and

perception, memory, intelligence,

language, thought, and problem

solving

Concerned with ways we

mentally represent the world and

process information

Memory, perceptions, learning,

problem solving, decision

making, language, planning

o Humanistic — Existential -

Humanism stresses human capacity

for self- fulfillment

Role of consciousness, self-

awareness, decision making

Existentialism stresses free

choice and personal responsibility

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow

o Psychodynamic - Neoanalysts focus

more on conscious choice and self-

direction than psychoanalysis

Karen Horney

Erik Erikson

o Perspective on Learning- Social

Cognitive

People modify and create their

environment

Observation

social-cognitive theory – a

school of psychology in the

behaviorist tradition that includes

cognitive factors in the

explanation and prediction of

behavior; formerly termed social

learning theory

o Sociocultural – the view that focuses

on the roles of ethnicity, gender,

culture, and socioeconomic status in

behavior and mental processes.

Diversity within Psychology

o Ethnicity

Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps

Clark - known for research on

school segregation

Jorge Sanchez (1906-1972) –

Latino American, among first to

show how intelligence tests are

culturally biased

Lillian Comas Diaz – edits journal

on multicultural mental health

Richard Suinn – Asian American

psychologist studies mental

health and identity development

among Asian Americans

o Gender

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

Studied as a “guest student” at

Harvard (men only) and

completed the PhD requirements

but was not granted the degree

because of her sex. Harvard

offered her a PhD from Radcliffe

(women’s only) but Calkins

declined in protest. She went on

to become president of APA.

Mary Salter Ainsworth (1913-

1999) Groundbreaking work on

attachment in children

Elizabeth Loftus - contemporary

researcher on memory

Principles of Critical Thinking

o Be skeptical

o Insist on evidence

o Examine definitions of terms

o Examine the assumptions or premises

of arguments

o Be cautious in drawing conclusions

from evidence

o Consider alternative interpretations of

research evidence

o Do not oversimplify

o Do not overgeneralize

o Apply critical thinking to all areas of

life

The Scientific Method

o Formulate a research question

o State the hypothesis - a specific

statement about behavior or mental

processes that is tested through

research

o Test the hypothesis

o Draw conclusions based on findings

o Publish research

o Replicate study

Sample - segment of population

Population - entire group targeted for

study

Representative samples allow

generalization of findings

Random sample - each member of

population has equal chance of selection

Stratified sample - subgroups are

represented proportionally

Volunteer bias - bias represented by

studying people who volunteer to

participate

Case Study - gather information about

individuals or small groups; sometimes used

to investigate rarities

Survey - used to collect information that

cannot be observed directly

Sources of inaccuracies in case studies

—Gaps and factual inaccuracies in memory

Sources of inaccuracies in surveys—

Inaccurate recall and social desirability

(misrepresentations)

Bias in both case study and survey—

social desirability

Naturalistic Observation - observe

subjects in their natural environment;

Unobtrusive measure

Correlation - Mathematical method of

determining a relationship between

variables

o Expresses strength and direction of

relationship between variables

o Does not prove cause and effect

Experimental Method - Demonstrates

cause and effect through scientific method

o Independent variable - a condition in a

scientific study that is manipulated so

that its effects may be observed

o Dependent variable - a measure of an

assumed effect of an independent

variable

experimental groups – in experiments,

groups whose members obtain the

treatment

control groups – in experiments, groups

whose members do not obtain the

treatment, while other conditions are held

constant

placebo – a bogus treatment that has the

appearance of being genuine

blind – in experimental terminology,

unaware of whether or not one has received

a treatment

double-blind study – a study in which

neither the subjects nor the observers know

who has received the treatment

Ethics of Research with Humans

o Ethical review committee and ethical

standards

Promote individual dignity,

human welfare and scientific

integrity

Ensure no harm will come to

subjects

o Informed consent - a participant’s

agreement to participate in research

after receiving information about the

purposes of the study and the nature

of the treatments

o Confidentiality

o Deception

o Debriefing - to explain the purposes

and methods of a completed

procedure to a participant

Ethics of Research with Animals

o Animals are used when research

cannot be carried out with humans

o Animals may be harmed, only when:

there is no alternative, and

benefits of the research justify

the harm

Chapter 2

Neurons - receive and pass messages ; cell

body, dendrites, axon and axon terminals

Glial cells – cells that nourish and insulate

neurons, direct their growth, and remove

waste products from the nervous system

Dendrites – rootlike structures, attached to

the cell body of a neuron, that receive

impulses from other neurons

Axon – a long, thin part of a neuron that

transmits impulses to other neurons from

branching structures called terminal buttons

Myelin – a fatty substance that encases

and insulates axons, facilitating

transmission of neural impulses

Afferent neurons - neurons that transmit

messages from sensory receptors to the

spinal cord and brain. Also called sensory

neurons

Efferent neurons – neurons that transmit

messages from the brain or spinal cord to

muscles and glands. Also called motor

neurons

Neural impulse – the electrochemical

discharge of a nerve cell, or neuron

Polarize – to ready a neuron for firing by

creating an internal negative charge in

relation to the body fluid outside the cell

membranes

Resting potential – the electrical potential

across the neural membrane when it is not

responding to other neurons

Depolarize – to reduce the resting potential

of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts

toward zero

Action potential – the electrical impulse

that provides the basis for the conduction of

a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron

Firing - conduction of neural impulse along

the length of a neuron

Threshold - incoming messages reach a

strength at which neuron will fire

All-or-None principle – the fact that a

neuron fires an impulse of the same

strength whenever its action potential is

triggered

Refractory period – a phase following

firing during which a neuron is less sensitive

to messages from other neurons and will not

fire

Synapse – a junction between the axon

terminals of one neuron and the dendrites

or cell body of another neuron

Neurotransmitters – chemical substances

involved in the transmission of neural

impulses from one neuron to another

Synaptic vesicles - contain

neurotransmitters in the axon terminals

Receptor site – a location on a dendrite of

a receiving neuron tailored to receive a

neurotransmitter

Reuptake – neurotransmitters are

reabsorped

Excitatory neurons - cause other neurons

to fire

Inhibitory neurons - prevent other

neurons from firing

Acetylcholine (Ach) – a neurotransmitter

that controls muscle contractions (↑ =

paralysis, ↓ = Alzheimer’s disease)

Hippocampus – a part of the limbic system

of the brain that is involved in memory

formation

Dopamine – a neurotransmitter that is

involved in Parkinson’s disease and that

appears to play a role in schizophrenia;

Pleasure, voluntary movement, learning,

memory (↑ = schizophrenia, ↓ =

Parkinson’s disease)

Norepinephrine – a neurotransmitter

whose action is similar to that of the

hormone epinephrine and that may play a

role in depression ; Excitatory

neurotransmitter

o Accelerates heart rate, affects

eating, linked to activity levels,

learning and remembering

o ↑ = mania, ↓= Mood disorders,

depression, bipolar disorder

Serotonin – a neurotransmitter,

deficiencies of which have been linked to

affective disorders, anxiety, and insomnia

o ↓= Eating disorders, alcoholism,

depression, aggression, insomnia

o Emotional arousal, attention,

learning, sleep, important in social

behavior

Gamma-amniobutyric acid (GABA) - an

inhibitory neurotransmitter that apparently

helps calm anxiety (low levels = depression)

Endorphins – neurotransmitters that are

composed of amino acids and that are

functionally similar to morphine; inhibit

pain

o May be connected to indifference to

pain

Runner’s high

o Occur naturally within the brain and

bloodstream

Nerves – a bundle of axons from many

neurons

Central nervous system – the brain and

spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system – the part of

the nervous system consisting of the

somatic nervous system and the autonomic

nervous system

Somatic nervous system – the division of

the peripheral nervous system that

connects the central nervous system with

sensory receptors, skeletal muscles, and the

surface of the body

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) – the

division of the peripheral nervous system

that regulates glands and activities such as

heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and

dilation of the pupils

o Sympathetic – the branch of the

ANS that is most active during

emotional responses, such as fear

and anxiety, that spend the body’s

reserves of energy

o Parasympathetic – the branch of

the ANS that is most active during

processes (such as digestion) that

restore the body’s reserves of energy

Spinal cord – a column of nerves within the

spine that transmits messages from sensory

receptors to the brain to muscles and glands

throughout the body

Spinal reflex – a simple, unlearned

response to a stimulus that may involve

only two neurons

Gray matter – the grayish neurons and

neural segments that are involved in spinal

reflexes

White matter – axon bundles that carry

messages from and to the brain

Electroencephalograph (EEG) – a method

of detecting rain waves by means of

measuring the current between electrodes

placed on the scalp

Experimenting with the brain

o Assessing damage from trauma and

disease

o Intentionally damaging parts of a

brain

o Electrical probes to stimulate parts of

the brain

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT

or CT scan) – a method of brain imaging

that passes a narrow X-ray beam through

the head and measures structure that

reflect the rays from various angles,

enabling a computer to generate a three-

dimensional image

Positron Emission Tomography (PET

scan) – a method of brain imaging that

injects a radioactive tracer into the

bloodstream and assesses activity of parts

of the brain according to the amount of

glucose they metabolize

Magnetic Resonance Imaging – a

method of brain imaging that places a

person in a magnetic field and uses radio

waves to cause the brain to emit signals

that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which,

in turn, indicate brain activity

Functional MRI (fMRI) – a form of MRI that

enables researchers to observe the brain

“while it works” by taking repeated scans

Thalamus

o Relay station for sensory stimulation

to the cortex and in the functions of

sleep and attention

o The cerebral cortex also sends

information to the thalamus, which

then sends this information to other

systems

o processes and transmits movement

and sensory information

Hypothalamus

o responsible for controlling hunger,

thirst, emotions, body temperature

regulation, and circadian rhythms.

o controls the pituitary gland by

secreting hormones, which gives the

hypothalamus a great deal of control

over many body functions.

Limbic System

o central in the control of emotional

responses.

o involved in memory and emotion

o 4 structures

Amygdala

Hippocampus

regions of the limbic cortex

septal area

Midbrain

o smallest region of the brain that

acts as a sort of relay station for

auditory and visual information.

Hindbrain

o Medulla – an oblong area of the

hindbrain involved in regulation of

heartbeat and respiration

o Pons – a structure of the hindbrain

involved in respiration, attention, and

sleep and dreaming; connects the

medulla to the cerebellum and helps

coordinate movement on each side

of the body.

o Cerebellum – a part of the hindbrain

involved in muscle coordination and

balance

comprised of small lobes and

receives information from the

balance system of the inner

ear, sensory nerves, and the

auditory and visual systems

It is involved in the

coordination of motor

movements as well as basic

facets of memory and

learning.

Basal Ganglia

o group of large nuclei that partially

surround the thalamus.

o These nuclei are important in the

control of movement

o The red nucleus and substantia nigra

of the midbrain have connections

with the basal ganglia

Reticular Activation System – a part of

the brain involved in attention, sleep, and

arousal

Cerebrum

o Responsible for thinking and

language

Cerebral Cortex

o Surface of cerebrum

Corpus Callosum

o Connects two hemispheres

Occipital Lobe

o Vision

o associated with interpreting visual

stimuli and information

o The primary visual cortex -

receives and interprets information

from the retinas of the eyes

o Damage : can cause visual problems

such as difficulty recognizing objects,

an inability to identify colors, and

trouble recognizing words.

Temporal Lobe

o Hearing and Auditory functions

o also the location of the primary

auditory cortex which is important

for interpreting sounds and the

language we hear

o The hippocampus is also located in

the temporal lobe, which is why this

portion of the brain is also heavily

associated with the formation

of memories.

o Damage : problems with memory,

speech perception, and language

skills.

Parietal Lobe

o associated with processing tactile

sensory information such as

pressure, touch, and pain

o Somatosensory Cortex - the section

of cortex in which sensory

stimulation is projected. It lies just

behind the central fissure in the

parietal lobe.

Frontal Lobe

o Damage to the frontal lobe can lead

to changes in sexual habits,

socialization, and attention as well as

increased risk-taking.

o associated with reasoning,

motor skills, higher level

cognition, and expressive

language

o Motor Cortex - the section of cortex

that lies in the frontal lobe, just

across the central fissure from the

sensory cortex; neural impulses in

the motor cortex are linked to

muscular responses throughout the

body.

Association areas

o Not primarily involved in sensation or

motor activity

o Responsible for learning, thought,

memory and language

Association areas in frontal lobe

o Responsible for executive functions

(problem solving, making plans, and

decision making)

Two hemispheres of the brain mirror

and differ

o Left hemisphere contains language

functions for nearly all people

o If damaged before age 13, speech

functions would transfer to right

hemisphere

o aphasia – a disruption in the ability

to understand or produce language

Wernicke’s Area

o Temporal Lobe

o Wernicke’s aphasia

Impairs ability to comprehend

speech and think of words to

express own thoughts

Angular Gyrus

o Translates visual into auditory

information

o Damage impairs reading ability

Broca’s Area

o Frontal Lobe

o Production of speech

o Broca’s aphasia

Understand language but

speak slowly and laboriously

Left-brained

o Logical and intellectual

Right-brained

o Intuitive, creative and emotional

Hemispheres do not act independently

o Functions overlap and they respond

simultaneously

Left-handed

o Somewhat greater-than-average

probability of language problems and

certain health problems

o More likely than right-handed people

in gifted artists, musicians, and

mathematicians

Origins of handedness

o Genetics

Severe cases of epilepsy may require

split-brain operations

o Examples of “two brain”

phenomenon

Caused by inability of one

hemisphere to communicate

with the other

o epilepsy – temporary disturbances

of brain functions that involve

sudden neural discharges

Endocrine system – the body’s system of

ductless glands that secrete hormones and

release them directly into the bloodstream

Hormone – a substance secreted by an

endocrine gland that regulates various body

functions

Gland – an organ that secretes one or more

chemical substances such as hormones,

saliva, or milk

Pituitary gland – the gland that secretes

growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic

hormone, and other hormones; “master

gland”

o Growth hormone – regulates

growth of muscles, bones, and

glands

o Prolactin – regulates maternal

behavior in lower mammals and

stimulates production of milk in

women

o Vasopressin – inhibits production of

urine when body fluids are low

o Oxytocin – stimulates labor in

pregnant women, connected with

maternal behavior

Pineal gland

o Secretes melatonin

o Helps regulate sleep-wake cycle

o May affect onset of puberty

Thyroid gland

o Produces thyroxin

o Affects body’s metabolism

o Hypothyroidism - Thyroxin

deficiency

o Hyperthyroidism - Too much

thyroxin

o Cretinism - stunted growth and

mental retardation; thyroxin

deficiency in children

Adrenal glands

o Located above the kidneys

o Adrenal cortex secretes cortical

steroids – increase resistance to

stress; promote muscle

development; cause liver to release

stored sugar; makes more energy

available in emergency

o Adrenal medulla secretes

epinephrine and norepinephrine –

Helps arouse body in threatening

situations

o Cortical steroids

increase resistance to stress

promote muscle development

o Epinephrine and norepinephrine

Helps arouse body in

threatening situations

Steroids

o increase muscle mass,

o heighten resistance to stress,

o increase body’s energy supply

Anabolic steroids

o enhance athletic prowess

o connected with self-confidence,

aggressiveness, memory function

Testosterone

o produced by testes (smaller amounts

from adrenal gland)

o male sex characteristics

Estrogen and progesterone

o produced by ovaries (smaller

amounts from testes)

o female sex characteristics

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

o Struggle for existence

Competition for same

resources

o Natural selection

Adaptive genetic variations

aid in survival

o Mutations

Sudden changes in genes

Evolutionary psychology – the branch of

psychology that studies the ways in which

adaptation and natural selection are

connected with mental processes and

behavior

Species – a category of biological

classification consisting of related

organisms who are capable of

interbreeding; homo sapiens—humans—

make up one species

Instinct – a stereotyped pattern of behavior

that is triggered by a particular stimulus and

nearly identical among members of a

species, even when they are reared in

isolation

Heredity

o Transmission of traits from parent to

offspring, based on genes

Genetics

o Subfield of biology that studies

heredity

Behavioral Genetics

o Focuses on contributions of genes to

behavior

Gene – a basic unit of heredity, which is

found at a specific point on a chromosome

Chromosome - a microscopic rod-shaped

body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that

transmit hereditary traits from generation to

generation; humans normally have 46

chromosomes

DNA – acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid,

the substance that forms the basic material

of chromosomes; it takes the form of a

double helix and contains the genetic code

Genes regulate development of specific

traits

o Some traits are determined by one

gene

o Other traits are polygenic - referring

to traits that are influenced by

combinations of genes

Genotype – one’s genetic makeup, based

on the sequencing of the nucleotides we

term A, C, G, and T

Phenotype – one’s actual development and

appearance, as based on one’s genotype

and environmental influences

Nature – the inborn, innate character of an

organism

Nurture – the sum total of the

environmental factors that affect an

organism from conception onward

Sex chromosomes – the 23rd pair of

chromosomes, whose genetic material

determines the sex of the individual

Down syndrome – a condition caused by

an extra chromosome on the 21st pair and

characterized by mental deficiency, a broad

face, and slanting eyes

Kinship studies - Focus on presence of

traits and behavior patterns in people who

are, or are not related biologically

Monozygotic (MZ) twins – twins that

develop from a single fertilized ovum that

divides in two early in prenatal

development; MZ twins thus share the same

genetic code; also called identical twins

Dizygotic (DZ) twins – twins that develop

from two fertilized ova and who are thus as

closely related as brothers and sisters in

general; also called fraternal twins