PUBLIC RHETORIC OF ARISTOTLE

/ The Greeks and Romans distinguished five parts, or divisions of thc stud-v ofrhetoric.

l lnvention - discovery ofconvincing arguments.2. Arrangement - organizing material for best impact3. St)le - selection ofappropriate lalguage4. Delivcry - coordinating voice and gestures

5. Memory - mastery and rehearsal of content

/ The Greek philosopher Plato regarded rhetoric as mostly flattery. Far from seeingit as an art, he described rhetoric as a .'Knack" similar to cooking or the clcveruse of cosmctics- Both are attempts to make things seem bette r than they realll'are.

/ Aristotle. a student of Plato. made rhetoric as an academic subject. More than2000 l ears ago- Aristotle's Rhetoric sl stematicalll explored the topics of speaker.

mcssagc, and audicnce./ Ancient Grsece $'as knou'n for its traveling speech teachers called sophists.

Particularly in Athens, these teachers trained aspiring larvy'ers and politicians toparticipate effectivel-v in the courts and deliberative councils.

RHETORIC : MAKING PERSUASION PROBABLE

v/ Aristotle saw the firnction of rhetoric as the discovery in each case of '-the

availablc mears of persuasion." Hc never spcllcd out r.vhat he meant bypersuasion but his concem rvith non-coercive methods makes it clear that he ruledout force of law, torture, and u'ar. His threefold classification ofspeech situationsaccording to the nature ofthe audience shoxs that he had affarrs ofstate in mind.

l. Courtroom (forcnsic) speaking which addresses iudges who are trying todecide the facts ofa person's guilt or innocence.

2. Political (deliberative) speaking attempts to influence legislators or votersllho decidc futurc polic1,.

3. Ceremonial (epidcictic) speaking heaps praise or blame on anotlle r for thebenefit of spectators.

/ Becausc the students of Aristotlc n'ere familiar with the question-and-ansncr styleof Socratic dialogue, Aristotle classified rhetoric as a counterpart or offshoot ofdialectic. Dialectic is one-on-one discussion; rhetoric is one person addressingmanl-: Dialectic is a search for truth: rhetoric tries to demonstrate truth that'salreadl been found. Dialectic ansrvers general philosophical questions: rhetoricaddresses specific- practical ones. Dialectic deals with certaint): rhetoric dealsn i& probabiliS .

RHETORICAL PROOF: LOGOS, ETHOS, pATHOS

Logical proof: Lines of Argument that make sense

The available means of penuasion is based on three kinds of proof: Logical(Logos), ethical (ethos) and elnotional (Pathos).Logical proof comes from tle line argument in the speech, ethical proof is theway the speaker's character is revealed through the message, and emotional proofis the feeling the speech dralvs out ofthe hearers.

Aristotle focuses on two tenns of logical proof- the elthymerne and the cxample.He regarded the enthymeme as "the strongest of the proofs." An enth;rmemi ismerely an incomplete version of a formal deductive syllogism.Major or general premise: All people are created equal Minor or specificpremise: I am a person - Conclusion: I arn equal to other people.

Ethical Proof: Perceived Source Credibility

* According to Aristotle, it's 'ot enough for a speech to contain plausible argument.

The speaker must seem credible as well. Many audience impressions are formedbefore the speaker ever begins.

l. Pcrceived intelligence: The qualirl,* of iltelligence has more to do withpractical wisdom and shared values than it does lvith training at plato.sacademy. Audiences judge intelligence by the overlap between theirbeliefs and the speaker's ideas.

2. Virtuous Character: Character has to do $'ith the speaker's image as agood honest person.

3. Good will: Good will is a positive judgment of the speaker's intentiontoward the audience. Aristotle thought it possible for an orator to possessextraordinary intelligence and sterlirg character. Yet still not have theIisteners' best interest at heart.

Although Aristotle's comments on ethos lvere stated in a felv brief sentences no otherportion ofhis Rhetoric has received such close scientific scrutinv.

Emotion Proof: Striking a Responsive Chord

.i. Aristotle believed that the effective speaker must knolv how to stir up variousemotions in &e audience. He catalogued a series of opposite feelings, thenexplained the conditions under which each mood is experienced- and finallydescribed how the speaker can get an audience to feel that $'ay.

I. Anger Vs Mildness: Aristotle's discussion of aager rvas an early versionof Freud's fmstration-aggression hypothesis. People feel angry when theyare thuarted in their attempt to futfill a need. Remind them ofinterpersonal insights, ard thcy rvill become irate. Show them that the

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offender is sorr1. deserves praise, or has great power, and the audience

rvill calm dorvn.Love or friendship Vs hatred: Co sistent rvith present-day research on

attraction, Aristotle considered similarly as the kev to mutual lvarmth The

speaker must point out common goals, experience, attitudes and desires.

Fest Vs Confidence: Fear comes from mental image of potential disaster'

The speaker should paint a vivid llold picture ofthe tragedy, showing that

its occurrence is probable.Shame Vs Shamelessne ss: We feel cmbarrassed or guilty lvhen loss is due

to our o$,n weakness or vice. The emotion is e specialll'' acutc $'hen a

speaker recites our failings in the presoncs of famil.v, fiiends- or those n'e

admire.lndignation Vs Pity: We all have a built-in sense of faimess. Appeal to the

faimess ofpersons.Admiration Vs. Envl : Pe oplc admire moral viftue' porver, rl ealth, and

bcauty. Bl demonstrating that an individual has acquired life's goods

through hard lvork rathcr than merc luck. admiration rvill increase

THW FIVE CANONS OF RHETORIC

* Although the organization of Aristotle's Rhetonc is somewhat puzzling, scholars

and practitioneri s.vnthesize his tvords into four distinct standards for measuring

the quality ofa spiaker: the construction ofan argument (invention)' ordering ofmaterial lanangeinent)- selection oflanguage (s\1c), and techniques of delivery,.

L lnvention: To generate effectivc enthymemes and examples' the speaker

clrar,vs on both specialized knorvledge abor'rt the subject and general lines

of rcasoning comnon to all kinds of speeches. Orato r hunts for arguments

as hunter hunts for game.

2. Arrangement: Thcre are tlvo pats to a spcech: for it is nec€ssary first to

state ihe subject and then to demonstrale it Tho introduction should

capture attention- establish credibili4' aId make clear the purpose of the

speech. The conclusion should remind the listeners rvhat -vou have said

und l"uu" them feeling good about you and your ideas

3. Style: Aristotle believed that '-to leam easily rs naturall-v plcasant to all

people," and that "metaphor most brings about leaming " Usc metaphor

that has clarity, s\\'eetness and strangencss.

4. Memory: Ariitotle 's students needed no reminder that good speakers are

able to iraq,' upon a collection ofideas and phrases stored in the mind'

5. Delivery: Audieuces reject delivery that scerns planned or staged.

Naturalness is persuasivc: artificc' just the reverse Any form ofpresentation that calls attention to itself takes awa)' from the speakers'

p roofs.

CRITIQUE

'?.Tor many teachers of public speaking, criticizing Aristotle's rhetoric is like' doubting Einstein's theory ofrelativity.,, Failed to define what enthymeme mean* ln Rhetonc. audiences are passive* Wrong to play the emotions ofthe audience (an ethical issue).:. Rhetoric is a foundational theorv humanistic studies