Publication n° 119 of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences Proceedings of the Grenoble Symposium, August 1975

GEOCHEHIBTKr OF THERMAL WATERS FROM VARIOUS GEOTHERMàL PKOVIBCES OF IUDIA

Gupta Mohan L., Marain Harx., Saxena V.K., Hational Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad - 500 007, India.

Abstract - Resume

An analysis of various geodata has revealed several geothermal provin­ces of India, where sub-surface thermal waters of varying chemical charac­ters occur. The Himalayan Orogen is a part of one main geothermal province, where nearly neutral to mildly alkaline, Na-HC03-Cl, Ife,-Ca-flC03-Cl and Ha-HCQ3 etc., types of mineralised thermal waters flow from various hot springs and few drill holes which tapped steam-water mixture. Detection of high boron (0.1 to 0.13 g/1) content and a few other components indicate associa­tion of some magmatic components in few waters. Spring waters in one area are supersaturated with respect to calcite. Some tritium studies indicate large residence time of thermal waters,

Hot springs of the Ebnkan Geothermal Provinces, located in the Deccan Traps, issue nearly neutral to mildly alkaline (IDS 0.4 to 4-0 g/1) chloride sulphate waters. In Cambay Geothermal Province thermal waters (TDS>4.0 g/1) of Ma-Cl type have been tapped in wells drilled in search of oil. Thermal spring waters from reactivated Pre-Cambrian gneisses are alkaline (TDS < 0.6 g/1). From Pre-Cambrian quartzites neutral Ha-Ca-Cl-HCOj type of thermal water with metalic trace-elements flows through joints in one area and unique mildly acidic Ca-Mg-HC03 Nitrogenous water (TDS <0.06 g/1) issue from a wide group of hot springs in another area.

IA GEOCHIMIE DES EAUX THERMALES DES ffiOVIUCES GEOTHERMâLES DE L'IHDE

Une analyse des données-géo a révélé plusieurs provinces gébthermales en Inde où se trouvent les eaux thermales sous-sol de composition chimique variée. L1 Orogen des Himalayas fait partie d'une province géothermale principale ou jaillissent des eaux minérales thermales neutres jusqu'aux eaux faiblement alcalines Na-SCQ3-Cl, ïïa-Ca-HCOj-Cl et Ha-HCCg etc., des sources chaudes et quelques forages qui ont pris le mélange vapeur-eau. la détection d'un contenu haut da boron (0.1 à 0.13 g/l) et quelques autres éléments indique l'association de quelques parties constituantes magmatiques dans quelques eaux. les eaux de source dans un endroit sont supersaturées à l'égard de calcite. Quelques etudes de tritium indiquent un temps large de résidence des eaux thermales.

Des sources chaudes des Provinces Geothermales de Konkan, situées dans les Deccan Traps, jaillissent des eaux presques neutres aux eaux faiblement alcalines chlorure-sulphate (TDS 0.4 à 4-0 g/1). Dans la Province Geo-•Uiermala de Cambay, des eaux thermales (TDS =-4.0 g/1) du type Na-Cl ont été prises des puits fores à la recherche de l'huila. Las eaux des sources thermales qui viennent des Gneiss pré-Cambrian réactivés sont alcalines (TDS <0.6 g/l). Des quartzites pre-Cambrian presques neutres, coule l'eau thermale du type Ma-Ca-Cl-HCOj avec les traces-éléments métalliques à travers les jointures dans un endroit; et dans un autre endroit d'un largo groupe de sources •thermales coule une eau unique faiblement acide Ca-Mg-HCOj azoté (TDSS0.06 g/l). 47

48

IHTRODOCTIOH

Importance of chemical composition of t h e n » ! waters as an aid for geo­thermal exploration i s v e i l entablished. In India attempts have been made recent ly towards t h i s d i rec t ion . Chemical composition of hot spring and other thermal waters from some of the main geothermal provinces» of the country have been carried out and i s given i n th i s paper along with BOBS r e ­ported data of few other hot springs.

Important chemical consti tuents alongwith few «are ear th elements, noble and trace elements have been quant i ta t ive ly determined by atomic Ab­sorption Spectrometer. For other ions e t c . , gravimetric and t r i t i um methods suggested by Rainwater and Thatcher (i960) have been used.

HOT SPRIHG ZONES AND GEOTHERMAL PROVINCES OF IRDI1

Hot springs which manifest i n most of the tectonic regions of India, are quite wide spread (Fig. i ) and more than 250 springs or t he i r groups are known presently. Msst of the hot springs of the sub-continent are not i s o ­la ted phenomena, but follow cer ta in tectonic t rends . There i s no recent volcanic ac t iv i ty i n India except on the Barren Island of the Jndaman-Hicobar group in the Bay of Bengal. However, boil ing with steam seperation and mild geyser a c t i v i t y occurs a t few hot springs areas i n the Himalayan tectonic be l t . Large numbers of hot springs, which generally are i n c lus te r s and groups, occur i n the Himalayan Orogen i n i t s four contrasted l i thotec tonic un i t s associated by i t s th rus t s and f au l t s . Many hot springs emerge from the shear and fracture zones near junction of two lava flows or contact of do le r i t e dikes with basa l t s , approximately i n a H-S direct ion along the West Coast of India where strong c rus t a l movements have occured and presence of ancient r i f t s in some parts are inferred. lev hot springs are also located along the lineament of the r i ve r s Narmada and Sone which i s a major r i f t zone of the Indian land mass. A group of hot springs generally known as Rajgir-Msngbyr be l t of hot springs of unique type of waters manifest from the Pre-Cambrian meta-sediments in the north-eastern part of India, where c rus ta l movements corresponding to the l a t e phase of the Himalayan Orogeny, have taken place. Towards south of t h i s b e l t , i n an area which i a largely covered by Pre-Cambrian c rys ta l l ine rooks and par t ly by Gondwanas (upper Palaeozoic - lower Mesozoie) a group of hot springs occur. Tatapani hot springs (Fig. 2) , which has the highest temperature on the surface (91°C)ln the Indian peninsular region, occur i n t h i s group. Few hot springs are a lso aligned along a Pre-Bimalayan lineament towards south-west of Delhi. Large number of hot springs are also widely d is t r ibuted in the other Pre-Cambriqn fold be l t s of the Indian shield in areas of minor faul t and shear zones.

Association of hot springs with main tectonic t rends, the northward d r i f t of the Indian land mass and the associated tectonics and the analysis of other geodata have led to the conclusion t h a t , the Hiaalayan-Burmase-Andaman-Nicobar Arc5 Sarmada-Sone-Baukl lineament; the Konkan Coast (tfest Coast of India) ; Cambay Graben (which i s a Tert iary basin known for i t s o i l deposits) are the geotectonic regions, which can be termed as the nain geo­thermal provinces of India where sub-surface thermal waters sui table for power generation and other multipurpose uses can be encountered (Gupta e t a l . 1975 a ) .

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Various important features along with chemical type, sub-surface rese r ­voir temperatures, as inferred from Na-K-Ca thermometry, of some thermal waters from different areas of India are given in table 1, while analyses of representative spring and borehole waters are given i n tables 2 and 3. Chemically the waters of the geothermal provinces and hot spring be l t s and

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Big.2 - Hot Springs of North-Sastera Part of India.

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52

also some thermal waters of the same geothermal province of India (Tables 2 and 3) are di f ferent from one another. Thermal waters of Himalayan Qrogen are neut ra l to mildly a lka l ine , while mildly acidic to alkal ine thermal waters occur in other provinces. The hot spring temperatures and also the inferred reservoir temperatures (Figures l & 5 and Table l ) and as a conse­quence par t ly the concentration of t o t a l dissolved sol ids i s more in most of the Himalayan hot spring waters than those in thermal water or iginat ing in the Pre-Cambrian shield. However, thermal waters which emerge from Deccan Traps in Konkan Geothermal Province between gg°H - 16°N l a t i t u d e s , show a large var ia t ion in the concentration of t o t a l dissolved sol ids (0.4 to 4.0 g / l i t ) . This most probably, i s due to in t rus ion of sea water in various proportions. Also, thermal waters of Gambay Graben Geothermal Progince, which have been tapped under high pressure during o i l exploration, are highly mineralised (about 4.6 g / l i t ) . The wells have encountered f au l t s , which most probably are connected to some basement f a u l t s . Thermal waters from various hot springs of the Pre-Cambrian fold be l t s d i f fer s ignif icant ly in t he i r physico-chemical cha rac t e r i s t i c s . The t o t a l mineralisation i s low and varies from about 0.06 to 0.7 g / l i t .

Analysis of only few thermal waters, from various Pre-Cambrian areas, are given in table 3 . However a detai led search indicate tha t the Inown mildly acidic waters of India issue through the Arehean quar te t te in Rajgir-Monghyr be l t of hot springs where movements have occured during Miocene to Pleistocene. The hot springs of t h i s bol t though manifest in a large area, having separation upto 150km between two hot spring areas , the thermal waters are generally of the same character and type and having very low mineralisa­t ion ^ 0 . 0 6 g / l i t . The waters are different from local ground water i n the i r respective chemical character and t h e i r origin i s d i f f i cu l t to explain. These, from geochemieal point of view, are ra ther unique in the world. The waters are radioactive and are a lso associated with 15 to 20$ COgi 1$ CH4; 6 to 9»S Og and 70 to 80£ Ng and i ne r t gases (Guha and Nag, 1971). GOg i s generally a major const i tuent in gases from areas of volcanic hot springs and contribute from 70 to 95£ of the t o t a l volume (Wiile 1957 5 Ifehon 1970). The low and high contents of GO2 and Hg respectively in the spring gases of the be l t indicate tha t t h e i r voleanic/magmatic orogin i s a very remote pos­s i b i l i t y .

Another group of hot springs with temperatures varying from S5 to 91°C (HLg. 2) of the PreXambrian Provinces occurs towards south of Rajglr-Monghyr be l t through Chotanagpur gneissic complex. The thermal waters are a lkal ine , of mixed type with TDS<0.6 g / l i t and mostly dominated by Ha HGO3. Considerations of chemical parameters and other environmental factors point out towards the meteoric origin of the waters of t h i s group.

Sohna hot spring, emerges a t the junction of alluvium and Pre-Cambrian Alwar quar tz i te which protrude i n the form of a ridge in the Indo-Gangetic trough. This zone i s current ly known to be seismically active and a faul t of Tert iary age associated with Himalayan Orogenic movements have been i n ­ferred in t h i s area. Apart from the concentration of main cations and an­ions (Table 3) the waters also show ths presence of minor quant i t ies of S i lver , Gold, Beryllium, Copper, Iridium, l i thium, Molybdenum, Platinum e t c . , (Deb, Personal Communication). The Na/K and Ha-K^Ga geothermometry (Fournier and Truesdell , 1973) show high reservoir temperature (150-170°C). In compa— r i s ion to volcanic water, Sohna thermal waters have lower mineralisation and K/Na r a t i o s , higher Ca+l^Ha+K r a t i o s , while SO4/GI, F/Gl and M/Ha r a t io s are of the same order.

Gn the whole, chemical parameters along with other considerations i n d i ­cate tha t the waters of the Pre-Cambrian Province in I t s various be l t s are mostly of meteoric or igin and heated up by deep c i rcula t ion through f i s sures , jo in t s and f au l t s , tost of the hot springs of the Pre-Cambrian Province emerge at the topographically lowest points through f rac tures . Rocks of variou» types but having l i t t l e or no primary porosity or permeability occur

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in the v ic in i ty of hot spr ings. The effective porosity and permeability being due t o fracturing, shearing or jo in t ing . In the Indian shield various old faul ts have been delineated and during l a s t decade several earthquakes though of small magnitude have been recorded a t various locat ions . In the tectonics of the Indian land mass, the northward movement of the Indian p l a t e , which i s s t i l l continuing, and i t s co l l i s ion with Eurasian plate i s a major event. Associated phenomena with t h i s and the minor earthquake a c t i ­v i ty have kept the old faul ts and fractures open and thus f ac i l i t a t ed the deep c i rcu la t ion of meteoric water.

Bsw hot springs also emerge through Gondwana sediments in the Damodar and Godavari Grabens, but detai led chemical analysis of t he i r waters are not avai lable .

Geologically the next Geothermal Provinces where thermal waters manifest a t surface in India i s the Konkan Geothermal Province. Thermal waters of the Konkan area, which i s a s t r i p of land of width upto SOkra located between the Western Ghats (a chain of mountains) and the Western Coast of India, are dominated by Na+ - Gl~ and Ca - SOj" ions . Most of the springs Issue from the same geotectonic environment ahd indicate similar chemical character of thermal waters (Tables 1 and 3 ) . This suggest t h a t the waters may bs der iv­ed from similar sources. The waters issue in Ter t iary volcanic environment and show such chemical charac te r i s t i cs a lso .

The thermal waters, which have flown from two exploratory o i l wells in the Cambay Graben, are much different from those of the above two geothermal provinces. The Central par t of the graben where steam-water mixture has furiously blown i s characterised by high t e r r e s t r i a l heat flow values (Gupta e t a l . 1970). Pressures of 90 to 100 atmos. before the bean were noted and fluid discharge of 2500 to 3000 up/day was estimated. Ter t iary sediments overlie the Decean Traps in the Cambay Basin, where during ear ly Ter t iary times, es tuar ine , lagoonal and de l t i c conditions al ternated with marine i n ­cursions. Temperatures of the order of 150°C have been observed in the sediments at depths of about I860 m. I t i s worth mentioning tha t waters of same type (Na-Cl), but with much lower concentration of HGOg and higher con­centrat ion of Na and CI and t o t a l mineralisation (about 7.0 g / l i t ) are s t o ­red within the sediments a t s imilar depths from which thermal waters have been tapped. This indicate a different source of the high enthalpy fluids which i s probably within the t r aps . I t i s also evident tha t the Cambay Basin i s a geopressured reservoir where vast reserves of Na-Cl type thermal waters are stored.

Thermal waters of various character, as mentioned e a r l i e r occur in the Himalayas, which i s the youngest mountain system of the world. I t comprises of Recent to Pre-Cambrian rocks of many types. The young up l i f t of the Himalayas, which i s s t i l l continuing, has developed a large fracture system which has fac i l i t a t ed the emergence of a large number of hot springs. The resu l t s of analyses of waters from son» important areas of t h i s province are discussed below and given in tables 1 and 2.

Puga hot spring area has been recognised as the most po ten t ia l geothermal f ield i n ]iidia. The analyses of i t s springs and borehole waters indicate same order of concentration of t o t a l dissolved solids and similar chemical character (Table 2 ) . Thus indicat ing tha t the hot spring waters are not d i ­luted at shallow depths in the val ley. The probabil i ty in te rpre ta t ion and comparative studies show tha t the Puga thermal waters are some what similar to non-geyser Ka-Cl-HCOg type thermal waters which are associated with some voleanie/magmatic components. Such waters are believed to bs dominated by r e l a t ive ly high F, CI, S i0 g , B, COg and Id as well as low Ca and Mg. This character i s more or l e s s sa t i s f ied by Puga thermal waters. The waters are also associated by very high ( l l - 12 mg/ l l t ) of Cesium. This indicate a s ­sociation of some phase/s of l a t e magmatic a c t i v i t y in the area. Associa­t ion of these waters with borax and sulphur also indicate contribution of magmatic bodies as source of heat and par t ly of these components.

56

74 76 78° 8 0 82

Big.5 - Location of Hot Springs in the North-Western Himalayas, India.

Chumatang hot spring though are located only a t a short distance from the Fuga valley are most probably fed from a different sub-surfaee aquifer as the concentration of TDS, B, Cl, l a and HCO3 are mich lower in Chumatang water than in Biga waters. However the reservoir temperature as indicated by Na-K-Ca geotheraometry i s of the same order in both the areas (Table 1 ) .

At the Mmlkaran area of the Himalayas (H.g.3) ho t t e s t springs in India along with geyser ac t iv i ty occurs. The temperature and chloride content of the hot springs waters show a large systematic var ia t ion. This indicates mixing of deep thermal water with shallow cold water. Considering the tempé­rature and SiOg content of non-boiling springs and local «urface water of the Manikaran area and the data on enthalpy of water and so lub i l i ty of quartz a t various temperatures, the fraction of deep thermal water mixing with cold water has been calculated. The fraction cones out to be of the order of 0.4 (Gupta e t a l . 1975 b ) .

The major consti tuents of Manikaran thermal waters are in the order of Ha^Ca-^K >Mg<Cl^-HC03, while metall ic t races elements Ag, Ou, Ni, Sr and Zn are also present in very low concentration (Table 2 ) . In these waters the r a t i o s of HUOj/Cl, K/Sa are similar and F/Cl and B/Cl are some what higher than tha t of "Wairakei thermal waters (Hew Zealand). The waters are r i ch in Ca and HCOg and the equilibrium condition indicate that the waters are super saturated with respect t o c a l c i t e . Therefore deposition of c a l -

57

cium carbonate in the d r i l l i n g wells may create problems during the exploi­t a t ion of these waters.

Some t r i t ium isotope studies of thermal waters of India have also been carr ied out (Gupta and Sukhija 1974, Gupta e t a l . 197S b) . Using the t r i ­tium concentration i n hot spring and surface waters and nixing of deep t h e r ­mal waters with shallow cold waters i t has teen inferred that the thermal waters of Manikaran has a large residence time. The t r i t ium measurements on Fuga hot spring and borehole waters indicate tha t the thermal waters are quite old.

Pa r t i a l chemical analyses of some more hot springs of the Himalayan Sub-Province are avai lab le . The data indicate that thermal waters of Na-Cl, Na-Mg-HCOg, Na-HCOg-Cl and Na-HCOj; type with reservoir temperatures varying from about 150°0 also occur.

The geochemistry of various thermal waters of India along with other geodata indicate tha t the e a r t h ' s heat i s a viable source of energy in India. High enthalpy fluids have been already tapped through d r i l l holes i n Puga and Chumatang hot spring areas, where exploi tat ion of geothermal energy for i t s multipurpose applications including power generation i s planned. Cer­t a in ly a good futur© awaits the geothermal energy development i n India, in which the geochemistry of thermal waters and associated gases i s going to play a very s ignif icant r o l e .

References

Chaterjee, G. C , 1969, Mineral and thermal waters of India: Rep. 23rd Geol. Cong. v.19, p.21-43.

Deb, S . , and Mikherjee, A. L. , 1989, On the genesis of few groups of t he r ­mal springs in the Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex, India: J . Geoch. Soc. India, v .4 , p .1-9 .

Fournier, R. D., and Truesdell , A.H., 1975, An emperical Na-K-Ca geothermo-meter for natural waters: Geochimica e t Cosmochimiea Acta, v.57, p.1255-1275.

Guha, A.K., Nag, P . , 1971, Studies of the thermal springs of Monghyr Dis­t r i c t . Geological Survey of India, Unpublished Report.

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