published hawaiian songbooks

Published Hawaiian SongbooksAuthor(s): Amy K. StillmanSource: Notes, Second Series, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Dec., 1987), pp. 221-239Published by: Music Library AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/941570 .

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PUBLISHED HAWAIIAN SONGBOOKS BY AMY K. STILLMAN

0

Impressions of Hawaii formed by visitors often have little to do with the realities of everyday life for residents. Similarly, commonly-held stereotypes of Hawaiian music bear little resemblance to the ethnic musical traditions which thrive in Hawaii. At first glance, Hawaiian music appears to be commercialized popular music, whose origin in and relation to any indigenous practice predating European contact are not appar- ent. The repertory of Hawaiian music offers a crucial yet untapped line of investigation for understanding that much of the Hawaiian music currently performed and recorded can be regarded simultaneously as an ethnic tradition and as a branch of American popular music.

Despite widespread stereotypes and a voluminous secondary literature, no systematic description and analysis of the Hawaiian-music repertory has yet been undertaken. The three scholarly monographs published to date' focus on pre-European Hawaiian music, thereby pre- cluding any sustained inquiry into the problematic aspects of the later repertory. The remaining secondary literature either summarizes the findings contained in the monographs or presents journalistic inter- views with performers and composers.

The signal publication in 1979 of Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Illustrated History2 made available a wealth of new information on Ha- waiian music. It contains, in encyclopedic format, biographical essays (e.g., "Lili'uokalani"), brief articles on narrow topics (e.g., "Ipu"), and lengthier surveys of greater breadth (e.g., "Chant" and "Internation- alization of Hawaiian Music"). The selected discography and annotated bibliography, both compiled by Elizabeth Tatar, were pathbreaking en- deavors in the field. Tatar's bibliography has since been superseded,3 and the comprehensive discography she envisioned is now being compiled under the auspices of the Hawaii Academy of Recording Arts.

Amy Ku'uleialoha Stillman holds degrees in ethnomusicology and Hawaiian studies from the Uni- versity of Hawaii; she is currently on a Fulbright fellowship in Tahiti, conducting fieldwork for a dissertation in musicology at Harvard University.

1. Nathaniel B. Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 38 (Washington, 1909); Helen H. Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian Music, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Bulletin 29 (Honolulu, 1926); Elizabeth Tatar, Nineteenth Century Hawaiian Chant, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Dept. of Anthropology, Pacific Anthropological Records, 33 (Honolulu, 1982).

2. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. 3. Bryan C. Stoneburner, Hawaiian Music: An Annotated Bibliography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood

Press. 1986).

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MLA Notes, December 1987

Lacking in all these bibliographic projects, however, is any detailed cov- erage of published Hawaiian songbooks.

Approximately two hundred such songbooks, dating from 1888 to 1985, have been located in Hawaiian and other libraries, and comput- erized indexing of their contents has been under way for three years.4 This work has yielded numerous factual revisions to the article "Pub-

lishing and Hawaiian Music" in Hawaiian Music and Musicians. More im-

portant, it has revealed that publishing activities-especially on the part of certain individuals-were much more extensive than previously be- lieved. Taken together, the songbooks in fact represent most of the

repertory central to the Hawaiian music tradition as it has been widely performed and recorded, including some songs long thought to be un- published. Individual songbooks are themselves fascinating to study: they are often associated with specific portions of the repertory, and they manifest the different artistic and commercial interests of composers, compilers, and publishers. Shifting emphases in the scope and content of published Hawaiian songbooks can be interpreted socially as well as musically. This survey will identify the major published Ha- waiian songbooks and consider their role and significance in the Ha- waiian music tradition.

I. DEFINING HAWAIIAN MUSIC

Before discussing the repertory of Hawaiian songbooks, we must de- fine Hawaiian music. In doing so, it is important to distinguish Ha- waiian music-a discrete ethnic tradition-from music in Hawaii-musical life that includes the traditions of various ethnic groups, among them Hawaiian, Japanese, Chinese, and Western peoples. Hawaiian music, then, is not simply any music we may encounter in Hawaii, but rather the music tradition of one particular ethnic group, the Hawai- ians.

Within the Hawaiian ethnic tradition, indigenous Hawaiian and Westernized musical styles coexist. The indigenous styles derive from practices that predate the earliest European contact (1778). They en- compass numerous vocal genres which can be classified by text function, recitation style, and phonetic vocal techniques. In these genres, instruments are used mostly for rhythmic accompaniment in dances. The Westernized styles date from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They represent indigenous responses to introduced materials in combining features of both Hawaiian and Western musical systems.

4. Amy K. Stillman, "Hawaiian Music: Published Sources" (in progress). My visits to the Library of Congress and the New York Public Library were supported by a grant from the Wesley Weyman Fund, which I gratefully acknowledge.

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Published Hawaiian Songbooks

Western influence on nineteenth-century Hawaiian music came primarily from American Protestant hymnody, whereas in the twentieth

century it has come primarily from American popular music. These influences appear in the domains of melody (in the form of tempered scales), harmony (in the use of tonality and functional chord progres- sions), and instrumentation (in the use of stringed chordophones such as the guitar and the ukulele ['ukulele]). Performance practice consti- tutes the Hawaiian element in Westernized Hawaiian music: recitation

styles and vocal techniques are carried over from indigenous styles. Both indigenous and Westernized styles are referred to today as "tra-

ditional" Hawaiian music, a paradox that lies at the heart of the prob- lem of defining Hawaiian music. Indigenous Hawaiian music-i.e., music representative of pre-European practice-is unquestionably non- Western. In the later styles, however, Western elements predominate, overshadowing subtle Hawaiian elements to the point that many listeners are unaware of the presence of vocal performance techniques from the indigenous system. Further, instrumental accompaniment pat- terns and arrangements in the Westernized styles have often followed fashions in American popular music. A failure to perceive and ac-

knowledge Hawaiian elements has led many listeners to conclude from Westernized elements that the songs they heard and their performance were Western rather than Hawaiian.

Defining the Hawaiian music tradition is complicated by the inde- pendence of Hawaiian performance practice from the repertory itself. A Hawaiian song (to be defined shortly) performed by someone not familiar with salient features of Hawaiian music performance cannot be classified as Hawaiian music. On the other hand, non-Hawaiian songs are often performed by Hawaiian musicians in the Hawaiian style. Such songs often become associated with individual Hawaiian musicians and may eventually be included in published Hawaiian songbooks.

Musicians and listeners steeped in the aural experience of Hawaiian performance accept both Westernized styles and non-Hawaiian songs sung in the Hawaiian style as components of the Hawaiian music tradition. The rubric "Hawaiian music," then, actually describes an ethnic tradition that embraces a complex of repertory, performance practice, and genre (the latter as determined by the texts, which can be classified by function and recitation style).

II. SONG TYPES IN WESTERNIZED HAWAIIAN MUSIC

Any Hawaiian or American song can be sung in the Hawaiian style, i.e., using features of Hawaiian performance practice; doing so does not, however, produce a Hawaiian song. The term "Hawaiian song" encompasses all songs in Hawaiian on any subject, as well as all those

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in English with Hawaii or some aspect of Hawaiian culture as a theme. Hawaiian songs in the Westernized styles fall into four song types, whose features are summarized in table 1.

The oldest of the four, himeni (a Hawaiianization of the term "hymn"), consists of sacred hymns whose texts were translated into Hawaiian from American and European sources. They were printed, often with tunes, by Protestant, Catholic, Anglican, and Mormon missionaries, beginning in 1823, 1852, 1874, and 1924, respectively.5 Himeni are not Hawaiian inventions, but they are an important song type in Hawaiian music, for two reasons. First, they are often performed in secular contexts in the Hawaiian performance style, with guitar and ukulele accompaniment, thereby forming one component of the Hawaiian music tradition. Sec- ond, himeni provided models for Hawaiian songwriters, who began writing and composing secular songs in the 1860s.

The second song type, himeni-type song, consists of secular songs that differ from their sacred models only in their text content; in form (alternation of verse and chorus) and melodic style, himeni-type songs are indistinguishable from himeni. Most are love songs whose texts use the same kinds of images and poetic devices as those found in indigenous poetry.6 Verse and chorus most often contain sixteen measures each. They may either share the same music (AA' A"A' A"'A' . . .) or have contrasting music (AB A'B . . .). While many himeni-type songs are set in duple meter, waltzes in triple meter are also common. Hi- meni-type songs enjoyed immense popularity in the mid- and late-nineteenth century, particularly among those segments of the Hawaiian community whose members aspired to Westernized lifestyles. Hawaii at the time was undergoing transformation into a cosmopolitan Western society, and the emulation of Western models was considered desirable. This view is reflected in the predominance of himeni-type songs in published collections until well into the twentieth century.

The third song type is hula ku'i. Songs of this type, also called hula songs, emerged out of the late-nineteenth-century revival of Hawaiian dance (hula), in which practitioners creatively sought to combine (ku'i) features of older Hawaiian music and dance with new Western traditions.7 In its earliest manifestation in the 1870s and 1880s, the hula ku'i

5. Hymnals printed before 1900 are listed in Bernice Judd, Janet E. Bell, and Clare G. Murdoch, Hawaiian Language Imprints, 1822-1899 (Honolulu: Hawaiian Mission Children's Society and the Uni- versity Press of Hawaii, 1978). Protestant hymnals are discussed in "Outline of Hawaiian Hymnology," a preface to the latest edition of the hymnal Nd Himeni Haipule Hawaii (Honolulu: Hawaii Conference, United Church of Christ, 1972).

6. For a discussion of Hawaiian poetry, see Samuel H. Elbert and Noelani Mahoe, Nd Mele o Hawai'i Nei: 101 Hawaiian Songs (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1970), 3-26.

7. An analysis of this song type appears in Amy K. Stillman, "The Hula Ku'i: A Tradition in Ha- waiian Music and Dance," M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii, 1982.

224




TABLE 1: SONG TYPES IN WESTERNIZED HAWAIIAN MUSIC

Language Form Other Attributes

himeni Hawaiian Verse-chorus alternation, Sacred texts transplanted 16 measures each: from Anglo-American AA' AA" . . . or AB A'B hymnody; associated . . . tunes used

himeni-type Hawaiian Verse-chorus alternation, Secular texts set by 16 measures each: Hawaiian composers; AA' A"A' . or AB A'B tunes patterned on . . . himeni models; not

choreographed hula ku'i, or Hawaiian Strophic, 8 or 16 measures Secular texts set by

hula song Hawaiian composers; choreographed

hapa haole English "Popular-song" form, 32 Secular texts set by non- measures: AABA Hawaiian and

Hawaiian composers, with Hawaii or some

aspect of Hawaiian culture as a theme

was modeled closely on indigenous Hawaiian music and dance. Begin- ning in the late nineteenth century, Western traditions in melodic style and accompaniment became more prominent in hula songs. Neverthe- less, Hawaiian vocal performance techniques remain clearly audible in hula songs; they are less noticeable, because of their more subtle exe- cution, in himeni-type songs.

Hula songs are strophic songs in duple meter, each verse containing two lines of text. Each text line corresponds to one musical phrase, most commonly of four or eight measures, with the two phrases in each verse related melodically and harmonically as antecedant and consequent. In performance, strophes are divided by an instrumental interlude, popularly referred to as a "vamp," consisting of a cadential harmonic pro- gression (V-I or V/V-V-I). An important feature identifying hula songs is a textual formula found in the first line of the final strophe, signaling the end of the song. The most common such formula in its fullest form is "Ha'ina 'ia mai ana ka puana," which translates as "The story is told."

The social context of hula ku'i music is diametrically opposed to that of himeni and himeni-type song. This contrast is due to the hula ku'i's unabashed identification with Hawaiian practices and to its association with the hula dance tradition. Hula ku'i songs are choreographed, while himeni and himeni-type songs are not. The hula was regarded throughout the nineteenth century as an offensive element by those aligned with the Christian and Western segments of the community, so to them,

225




the hula ku'i was an outcast genre. This view is reflected in the low occurrence of hula songs in published collections until well into the twentieth century.

Himeni-type and hula songs are easily distinguishable on the printed page: himeni-type songs are recognizable by their verse-chorus form, hula songs by their strophic format (see figures 1-4).

The fourth song type, hapa haole song, is distinct from the other three in terms of language and form. Himeni, himeni-type, and hula songs all qualify as Hawaiian songs through their use of Hawaiian-language texts. The term hapa haole, which literally means "half foreign," is ap- plied to English-language songs whose texts are about Hawaii. The form of hapa haole songs differs from the verse-chorus alternation of himeni-type songs and the strophic form of hula songs. Most hapa haole songs are in 32-bar "popular song" form, AA'BA, the B section being known familiarly as the bridge or chorus.

Hapa haole songs, like himeni-type songs, are most often love songs. However, the straightforward presentation of images and subjects con- trasts starkly with the use of allusion and poetic subtlety in Hawaiian-

language songs, betraying the essentially non-Hawaiian origins of hapa haole songs. Hawaiian songwriters had begun writing such songs as early as the 1910s. Great quantities of similar songs were produced on New

34 BUKE MELE HOONANEA.

ALOHA OE.

Haaheo e ka ua i na pali, Ke nihi ae la i kanahele, E uhai ana paha i ka liko, Pua ahihi lei o uka.

HUI :-Aloha oe aloha oe, E ke onaona noho i ka lipo, I fond embrace a hoi ae au, Until we meet again.

Ka halia ko aloha kai hiki mai, Ke hone ae nei i kuu mlanawa, 0 oe no ka'u ipo aloha, A loko e hana nei.

Maopopo kuu ike i ka nani, Na pua rose o Maunawili, Ilaila hoohie na manu, Mikiala i ka nani oia pua.

LILIU.

Fig. 1. Himeni-type song text from Keakaoka- lani and Bright (1888)

226




90

HE MANAO HE ALOH&.

He nanao he aloha, No ka ipo lei manu, Ua manu kuu hoa, Noho mai i ka nahele, Iiwi o uka, Polena i ka ua, Elua maua, I ka po ua nui, Ua o [-laalei, Anu au inaeele, Ua anu lioi au, I ka ua noe anu, Na hau o Maihi, Au ana i ke kai, Na ulu o Webi, Punohu mai ana, Mapu mai ana, Ke ala o ka hala, Hala o Mapuana, Onaona i ka ihu, Ke ala pua loke, Hone ana ka manao,

91

E naue kuu kino, I ke kai o Upu, Upu aku ka manao, Ko hiki ana Inai;

Haina ka puana, 0 Kalanikaulilua.

HuI IJEI MAMO.

PUA MIUL&NA ONAONA

Auhea wale oe pua miulana, Kuu hoa o ke kulukuluaumoe, Hiaai mai nei lana ka manao, Ke ala onaona o ia pua, He pua nui oe na ka manao, A nei puuwai e hiipoi nei, Hoapili oe o ka pua kanese, O ka lei hoohie lei onaona, Onaona ko ala e mailehuna, Ka poli pumehana la o ka wahine, Akahi a lana mai ka manao, E hui olelo pu kaua, O oe a owau ike i ka nani, I ke ala o ka pua o ka miulana;

Hainaia mai ana ka puana, O ka pua miulana o ke aumoe.

S. PINAo

Fig. 2. Hula song text from Testa (1895)

York's Tin Pan Alley in the 1920s and 1930s, many with pseudo-Ha- waiian nonsense texts that capitalized on exotic and sensational images. These have often been negatively portrayed and perceived as commercialized imitations of Hawaiian music. Regardless of the cultural and musical merits of this repertory, many of these songs entered the Ha- waiian music tradition when they were recorded by Hawaiian musicians applying Hawaiian performance techniques.

III. TYPES OF PUBLISHED HAWAIIAN SONGBOOKS

In the following discussion, a published Hawaiian songbook is considered to be a volume comprised mainly of secular Hawaiian songs (i.e., himeni-type, hula, and hapa haole songs). A songbook will be des- ignated "major" if it contains a significant number of first printings of

songs, or any first printings of songs by prominent composers. Song- books that appear to have been casually or privately compiled and dis- tributed but have been catalogued as part of library collections are also included. Individual sheet music folios, while important for rounding

227



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out the story of Hawaiian music publishing, are not included, nor are sources for indigenous Hawaiian music.8

Two other categories of songbooks, instrumental method books and children's songbooks, will not be considered here. Manuals for guitar and ukulele proliferated from the late 1910s through the 1930s, and a resurgence since the 1970s in the popularity of Hawaiian music gave rise to a new group of guitar method books. While the earlier publications duplicate repertory found in Hawaiian songbooks, at least one- third of the pieces they contain are non-Hawaiian songs, such as "My Old Kentucky Home." This mix of content can be explained in part by the growing separation of these instruments from the Hawaiian music tradition. Children's songbooks contain mostly specially-composed songs which, although thematically related to Hawaii, are peripheral to the Hawaiian music tradition that is widely performed and recorded.

Major published Hawaiian songbooks are listed in the checklist ap- pended to this article. Most of these songbooks contain both musical notation and lyrics; those that contain lyrics only (checklist, part 1) offer quick access to larger portions of the repertory. Each songbook contains either mostly Hawaiian-language songs (part 2) or mostly hapa haole songs (part 3); equitable mixtures of the two are rare.

IV. COLLECTIONS OF LYRICS

Traditional poetry in the Hawaiian language presents us with sublime expressions of social and physical experience through such devices as allusion and kaona (secondary meanings). Understanding the evocative ethos of this poetic world is critical to understanding the symbolic role that Hawaiian music continues to play in Hawaiian culture. Therefore, collections of lyrics alone can still be useful for studying the Hawaiian musical repertory. The Hawaiian-language lyrics of himeni-type songs and hula songs can serve as a window onto the Hawaiian symbolic and conceptual world.

Most lyric songbooks appeared during two widely separated pe- riods-the end of the nineteenth century, and the 1960s and 1970s.

8. Most texts associated with the indigenous repertory exist in manuscript sources located in the Bishop Museum Library and the Hawaii State Archives in Honolulu. Aside from scattered published articles that include texts from the pre-European Hawaiian repertory, there are six well-known sources that contain substantial collections of these texts: Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii; Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian Music; Emerson, Pele and Hiiaka (Honolulu: Star Bulletin, 1915; reprinted, Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1978); Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Memoir, 4-6 (Honolulu, 1916-20); Mary K. Pukui and Alfons L. Korn, The Echo of Our Song: Chants and Poems of the Hawaiians (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1973); and Ke'ala Brunke, ed., Traditional Chants and Hulas (Honolulu: Beamer Hawai'iana, 1982). This last publication is unique in including dance instructions for thirteen traditional hula. An enlarged edition containing thirty-three hula is forthcoming: Nona Beamer, ed., Na Mele Hula: A Collection of Hawaiian Hula Chants (Laie: Institute for Polynesian Studies, Brigham Young University).

230




Four publications were issued in the earlier period; Keakaokalani and

Bright (1888) is the earliest published collection of secular Hawaiian

songs. Testa (1895) is highly unusual in two respects. First, many of its

songs describe and praise the failed counterrevolution against the Pro- visional Government, which had toppled the Hawaiian monarchy two years earlier. Although openly pro-royalist and anti-annexationist (and, therefore, anti-American), this publication was apparently allowed to circulate without being censored by the government. Second, the songs are all of the hula type, at a time when such songs were not well rep- resented in published collections. The very use of the hula song form and its publication constituted a pro-Hawaiian cultural and social state- ment.

Among the later collections of lyrics, at least three that were compiled by community groups for their own use have found their way into general circulation: Addicott and Chock (1973), Brigham Young Univer-

sity-Hawaii Campus (n.d.), and the Lani-Kailua Business and Profes- sional Women's Association (n.d.). Two undated mimeographed volumes, Ukulele Songbook and Ukulele Style, are large collections devoted only partly to Hawaiian and hapa haole songs; they are representative of the type and format of material widely used in recreational ukulele classes. The

Hawaiian-language lyrics, often grossly incorrect and incomplete, are spelled out phonetically rather than syntactically. Both volumes are prefaced by chord fingering charts, and contain chord letter names above the lyrics.

A standard of excellence in presenting Hawaiian-language lyrics was established in Elbert and Mahoe (1970). Complete texts are provided, including verses that are no longer commonly known or performed. The texts are supplied with phonemic diacritical markings, which are necessary for proper pronunciation. Each song is accompanied by a commentary on its topic and, when known, its composition. Mahoe (1973) follows the same editorial practices. While most of the lyric collections were compiled for general use and contain a cross-section of repertory, those of John K. Almeida (1946 and 1977) contain primarily compositions by the compiler, one of the few outstanding twentieth century writers of hula. In contrast to songbooks concentrating on one or several composers (common to songbooks with notation but uncommon to lyric collections), Ronck (1984) focuses on the Brothers Cazimero, presenting lyrics and translations from their first twelve discs in a lavish picture book that is part travelogue and part biography.

V. SONGBOOKS WITH MUSICAL NOTATION

Hawaiian-language and hapa haole songbooks occupy relatively distinct chronological niches, the former predominating before World War

231




II and the latter since then (see table 2). The available evidence suggests that while some two dozen major Hawaiian-language songbooks appeared between the late 1890s and 1935, only four were published during the following twenty-three years (all by Honolulu publisher Charles E. King between 1942 and 1950), and only seven since 1959. The late- 1930's decline in Hawaiian-language songbook publishing coincides precisely with the increased appearance of major songbooks devoted

mainly to hapa haole songs. A steady stream of these appeared from 1936 to 1950 and again from 1955 to 1972. Following an eight-year lull, three new major collections have been published thus far in the 1980s.

The majority of Hawaiian-language songbooks bear Hawaiian im-

prints, while hapa haole songbooks, with few exceptions, have been published outside Hawaii. Among the earliest hapa haole collections are three volumes issued in Melbourne, Australia by the firm of L. F. Col- lin. American publishers, as might be expected, have played a prominent role, with fully half of all major hapa haole songbooks emanating from New York houses. The three hapa haole songbooks published in Hawaii have all been composer-compiled: Noble & George (1944), An- derson (1971), and Page (1972).

Most Hawaiian-language songbooks contain at least a few hapa haole songs, perhaps for variety. Likewise, most hapa haole songbooks con-

TABLE 2: SONG TYPES IN MAJOR DATABLE HAWAIIAN SONGBOOKS

Himeni- Hapa Type Hula Haole Total*

Berger (1898) 30 0 0 30

Hopkins (1899) 40 4 3 43 Cunha (1902) 14 7 0 21 Hawaiian News Co. (1907) 45 5 1 50 Cunha (1914) 27 14 9 41

King, Book (1916) 52 21 3 82 Hodges & Kaai (1917) 5 6 5 16 King, Book (1917) 52 24 3 83 King, Hulas (1917) 0 17 0 17 King, Songs of Honolulu (1917) 15 10 3 27 King, Book (1919) 40 28 3 75 King, Book (1920) 48 29 3 82 King, Book (1921) 48 27 3 82 Collin, No. 1 (1925) 0 0 10 10 Collin, No. 2 (1925) 0 0 10 10 King, Book (1923) 55 25 5 88 King, Book (1925) 52 21 5 85 King, Prince (1925) 5 3 7 19 King, Prince (1926) 8 4 6 23

232




TABLE 2 (Continued):

Himeni- Hapa Type Hula Haole Total*

King, Book (1928) 45 18 3 83 Hawaii Sales Co. (1929) 4 5 0 9 Noble (1929) 46 23 6 76

King, Book (1930) 45 21 3 84

King, Book (1933) 71 29 4 104

King, Book (1934) 71 28 4 103 Noble, Hulas (1935) 0 63 1 64 Davis (1936) 0 0 50 50

Kinney (1938) 0 0 16 16 Martell (1938) 1 0 14 15 Miller Music Corp. (1941) 0 0 12 12

King, Songs of Hawaii (1942) 55 30 15 99 McIntire (1943) 0 0 17 17

Meany (1944) 5 7 18 40 Noble & George (1944) 3 3 5 11

King, Book (1945) 71 28 4 103 Kuaana (1946) 1 3 11 15 Owens (1946) 1 0 14 15 Alkire (1947a) 0 0 7 10 Alkire (1947b) 0 0 7 10

King, Book (1948) 68 26 7 100

King, Songs of Hawaii (1950) 38 28 17 99 Miller Music Corp. (1950) 4 0 25 29 Criterion, No. 1 (1955) 3 0 21 28 Kelly (1959) 4 2 0 9 Criterion, No. 2 (1960) 2 8 33 45 Criterion, No. 3 (1961) 1 0 26 30 Kelly (1962) 5 3 1 8 Machado (1962) 4 8 2 12 Criterion, No. 5 (1963) 2 1 17 22 Criterion, No. 6 (1963) 2 2 7 13 Owens (1964) 1 0 14 15 Criterion, No. 7 (1965) 0 0 13 22 Kelly (1965) 7 4 0 14 Seven Seas (1966) 0 0 12 12 Criterion, No. 8 (1967) 3 2 10 16 Lee (1967) 0 0 13 13 Ho (1969) 0 0 9 9 Lee (1969) 0 0 10 10 Anderson (1971) 0 0 83 83 Page (1972) 1 0 68 69 Hayatsu (1974) 10 30 34 90 Columbia Pictures (1980) 2 1 10 13 Hayatsu (1982) 14 24 44 100 Olsen (1984) 2 0 26 28 Hal Leonard (1985) 1 0 29 30 *Includes non-Hawaiian songs.

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tain some Hawaiian-language songs-at the very least Queen Lili- 'uokalani's "Aloha 'Oe." In several hapa haole songbooks, the melodies of Hawaiian-language songs appear with English singing translations. For reasons discussed in section II (above), hula songs were published far less frequently than himeni-type songs. Apart from the two songbooks dedicated entirely to them-King, Hulas (1917) and Noble, Col- lection (1935)-hula songs never accounted for more than thirty percent of the contents of any Hawaiian-language songbook.

Almost all published Hawaiian songs are arranged for voice with piano accompaniment. In the early Hawaiian-language songbooks, however, the refrains of himeni-type songs are frequently harmonized for four- part SATB ensemble (cf. fig. 3). Choral singing enjoyed popularity in Hawaii before and after the turn of this century. The two Hawaiian monarchs (Kalakaua and Lili'uokalani), their siblings, and their asso- ciates led glee clubs which frequently engaged in friendly competition. The vocal-ensemble arrangements with piano accompaniment found in the early songbooks betray the Western orientation of these performing groups, who in their attention to himeni-type songs bestowed on them a degree of social approval not shared by hula songs.

Many of the early Hawaiian-language songbooks contain chord letters, placed above the staff, for the benefit of guitarists and ukulele players. Charts of chord fingerings were a feature of guitar and ukulele manuals from their inception in the early 1910s. Charles E. King was the first compiler to include chord-fingering charts above the staff in addition to chord letters, allowing the same publication to serve both vocalists and instrumentalists. King credits Ernest Kaai, who himself published two ukulele manuals, with preparing the chord charts for his Book of Hawaiian Melodies (1916).

The contents of Hawaiian-language songbooks overlap considerably. Analyzing the contents allows us to identify and track the "core repertory" of Hawaiian music.9 Nearly all Hawaiian-language songbooks have been compiled by the composer of the contents or by an editor- arranger; most hapa haole collections are largely attributable either to the composer or to a publisher.

Songbooks published before World War II contain what can be considered the core repertory of Hawaiian-language songs. Certain groups of songs are associated more or less exclusively with individual compilers and/or publishers. Concordances between collections are found more often among himeni-type songs than among hula songs, which tend to be unique to particular compilers or arrangers. Once a song

9. The idea of "core repertory" was developed by Richard Crawford; see his edition, The Core Rep- ertory of Early American Psalmody (Madison: A-R Editions, 1984).

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had been arranged for publication, the compiler would reuse the ar- rangement unaltered in subsequent publications. Different publishers, of course, issued arrangements that differed slightly, particularly in the accompaniment.

The songbooks containing core Hawaiian-language repertory are those of Henry Berger (1898), Charles A. K. Hopkins (1899), A. R. "Sonny" Cunha (1902 and 1914), and Charles E. King (1916-50). Berger's Mele Hawaii (1898) is the earliest collection of secular Hawaiian songs with musical notation.'° On close examination, all the concordances between Mele Hawaii and the Royal Collection of Hawaiian Songs published by the Hawaiian News Company in 1907 turn out to be Berger arrangements; hence, compilation of the later volume may be attributed to Berger." Johnny Noble published an expanded Royal Collection in 1929 that re- tains the same Berger arrangements, which he printed from the original plates.

The songbooks of Charles E. King occupy a seminal place in Ha- waiian music publishing. Not only was King the foremost publisher and arranger of Hawaiian-language songs, many of his own compositions number among the best known and most often performed works in this repertory. His five songbooks, published between 1916 and 1950 in as many as 28 editions, present a complex bibliographic picture charac- terized by a great duplication of songs from one publication to another.

King's publishing enterprise began in 1916 with his Book of Hawaiian Melodies (popularly known as the "Blue Book" because of its blue cover), which was subsequently issued in some 22 editions up to 1948.12 Its companion volume, Songs of Hawaii (popularly known as the "Green Book"), was issued in two editions, in 1942 and 1950.'3 King also published three other titles: Hawaiian Hulas (1917), Songs of Honolulu (1917),14 and Favorites from the Prince of Hawaii (1925 and 1926).

No two editions of King's songbooks have the same content. Some songs appear in all the editions of his Book, others are found in many editions but not all, and a handful appear in only one or two editions.

10. Mele Hawaii was originally issued as a sheet-music series, with thirty songs issued by 1898. Li- braries have bound the sheets together and the number of items in these bound copies varies. The most complete volume, at the Hawaii State Library, includes all thirty songs in the series, as well as several additional items; this volume is catalogued by the Library as A Collection of Hawaiian Songs and Compositions.

11. Donald Billam-Walker, "Berger, Kapena (Captain) Henry ne Heinrich Wilhelm," Hawaiian Mu- sic and Musicians, 35.

12. The editions are not numbered regularly. The 1948 edition is listed in the National Union Cat- alog as the 22d; to date I have located only the thirteen editions that are listed in table 2, and would appreciate hearing from readers who may own or know of copies of other editions. I can be reached at P.O. Box 7111, Honolulu, HI 96821.

13. Charles Hansen Inc. of New York has acquired the rights to the 1948 Book and the 1950 Songs. Both volumes are still in print, sporting their respective blue and green covers.

14. The only located copies of both books are in the Library of Congress; I am grateful to Dennis Ladd for bringing them to my attention.

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Most but not all of the songs in each edition were carried over to the next. Moreover, the entire contents of Songs of Honolulu were incorporated into later editions of the Book; songs from Hawaiian Hulas were partially absorbed into the Book and the Songs of Hawaii; and most of the songs from Prince of Hawaii were incorporated into the Book. Many songs in early editions of the Book that are not contained in the last (1948) edition turn up instead in Songs of Hawaii, some of them in the 1942 edition only. It is misleading to assume, as some have done in the past, that the 1948 Book and the 1950 Songs of Hawaii are entirely representative of King's published output; only a careful examination of all of King's publications will determine the extent of the repertory that he actually published.

With the exception of Hopkins, compiler-arrangers of early Ha- waiian-language songbooks were also song composers; by contrast, the later compilers, such as educator John Kelly, Jr., and musicologist To- shihiko Hayatsu, are primarily editors. Their anthologies are drawn largely from the earlier repertory (one exception is Lena Machado's 1962 collection of her own compositions).

Hapa haole songbooks rarely borrow from one another. When they do, the borrowed songs usually appear in their original arrangements. Since more hapa haole than Hawaiian-language songbooks have been published, the smaller number of concordances here reflects the larger quantity of hapa haole songs overall.

Throughout the half century of hapa haole songbook publication, publishers have on occasion issued songbooks that carry no indication of compiler; examples include Collin (1925), Allan (1944), Miller (1941 and 1950), Criterion (1955-67), and Hal Leonard (1985). Unlike some composers who became affiliated with established publishers, Harry Owens retained close control over his songs (including the popular "Sweet Leilani") by publishing them himself in three songbooks.

In the tradition of American popular-song publishing, hapa haole publishers have recruited well-known performers and entertainers to endorse their songbooks. While these performers lent the use of their names and were usually known to perform the songs in the collections, the arrangements themselves are the work of staff musicians. Three examples of this approach are Kinney (1938 and n.d., which shares repertory with the generic Miller Music Corporation songbook [1950]), McIntire (1943), and Ho (1969 and n.d.).

Criterion Music Corporation's relationship to hapa haole songbooks resembles Charles E. King's to Hawaiian-language songbooks. The core of its output is in a series of eight numbered songbooks, published 1955- 67. While each of these contains a potpourri of Polynesian songs (book 4 is devoted entirely to New Zealand Maori songs), the majority are

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Hawaiian-related, with over three-quarters being Hawaiian-language songs supplied with singing translations (in book 7, eight Christmas car- ols translated into Hawaiian provide an unusual twist). Criterion issued several other songbooks that draw largely on the contents of these volumes.

VI. A CHECKLIST OF MAJOR PUBLISHED HAWAIIAN SONGBOOKS

The checklist that follows includes items both representative and anomalous, both central to the repertory and peripheral. Not all Ha- waiian songs nor songs associated with the Hawaiian-music performance tradition have seen publication, but surveying the nature and extent of the published repertory provides a foundation to a fuller understanding of Hawaiian music in all its rich complexity.

1: COLLECTIONS OF LYRICS

Addicott, Gerald Kele L., and Alvin Keali'i Chock. Favorite Songs of the Hawaii State Society. Washington: Hawaii State Society of Washington, D.C., 1973.

Ailau, John Keakaokalani. Ka Buke Mele Hawaii: Ka Hoonanea o na Home. (Book of Hawaiian Songs.) N.p., n.d.

. Pakui no ka Buke Mele Hawaii. (Sup- plement to the Book of Hawaiian Songs.) N.p., n.d. [No copies extant; cited in Judd, Bell, and Murdoch, Hawaiian Language Imprints, 226.]

Almeida, John Kameaaloha. Na Mele Aloha: A Collection of Hawaiian Lyrics with English Translations by Mrs. Mary Pukui. Hono- lulu: John Kameaaloha Almeida, 1946.

. Songs of Hawaii: Johnny's Songs Ar- ranged by Mrs. Janet Almeida. [Title on cover: Na Mele Aloha.] Honolulu: Al- meida Music Publishing Co., 1977.

Anonymous. Ukulele Songbook. Type- script. N.p., n.d.

. Ukulele Style. Typescript. Hono- lulu, n.d.

Brigham Young University-Hawaii Cam- pus. Polynesian Songs. Laie: Brigham Young University, Hawaii Campus, n.d.

Elbert, Samuel H., and Noelani Mahoe. Nd Mele o Hawai'i Nei: 101 Hawaiian Songs. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1970.

Keakaokalani and J. M. Bright. Ka Buke o na Leo Mele Hawaii. (The Book of Ha- waiian Songs.) Honolulu: Hale Pai Mahu (Pacific Commercial Advertiser), 1888.

Lani-Kailua Business and Professional Women's Club. E Mele Kakou. (Let's Sing.)

Honolulu: Lani-Kailua Business and Professional Women's Club, n.d.

Mahoe, Noelani. E Himeni Hawai'i Kdkou, Let's Sing Hawaiian Songs. Honolulu, 1973.

Roberts, Jonathan. 101 More Hawaiian Songs. N.p.: Jonat Enterprises, 1980.

Ronck, Ron. Celebration: A Portrait of Ha- wai'i through the Songs of the Brothers Ca- zimero. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1984.

Testa, F. J., comp. Buke Mele Lahui. (Book of National Songs.) Honolulu: Halepai Makaainana, 1895.

2: HAWAIIAN-LANGUAGE SONGBOOKS

Brunke, Ke'ala, ed. Traditional Chants and Hulas. Honolulu: Beamer Hawai'iana, 1982.

Berger, Henry. Mele Hawaii. Honolulu: Hawaiian News Co., [1898].

Cunha, A. R. "Sonny," arr. Songs of Hawaii. Honolulu: Bergstrom Music Co., 1902.

. Famous Hawaiian Songs. Honolulu: Bergstrom Music Co., 1914.

Hawaii, Dept. of Education. Na Mele Hoo- naauao Hawaiian Studies Resource Book. Honolulu: Hawaii, Dept. of Education, 1985.

Hawaii Sales Co. A Collection of Popular Ha- waiian Melodies. Honolulu: Hawaii Sales Co., 1929.

Hawaiian News Co. Royal Collection of Ha- waiian Songs. Honolulu: Hawaiian News Co., 1907 (reprinted, 1915).

Hayatsu, Toshihiko. Seibido Song Books: Ha- waiian. [Tokyo?]: Seibido Song Books, [1974].

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. Standard Hawaiian Album. [Tokyo]: Nichion Gakufu Shubansha, 1982.

Hodges, William C., Jr., and Ernest K. Kaai. Souvenir Collection of Hawaiian Songs and Views. Honolulu: Hawaii Promotion Committee, [1917].

Hopkins, Charles A. K., ed. Aloha Collection of Hawaiian Songs. Honolulu: Wall, Nich- ols Co., 1899 (reprinted, 1928).

Kelly, John M., Jr., comp. Festival of Folk Music of Hawaii and the Pacific Nations: Workshop Song Book. Honolulu: John M. Kelly, Jr., 1959.

. Folk Songs Hawaii Sings. Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1962.

. Folk Music Festival in Hawaii: Folk Songs from Asia, the Pacific and America. Boston: Boston Music Co., 1965.

King, Charles E. Book of Hawaiian Melodies. Honolulu: Charles E. King, 1916 (many subsequent eds. to 1948).

. Hawaiian Hulas. Honolulu: Charles E. King, 1917.

. Songs of Honolulu. Honolulu: Charles Edward King, 1917.

. Favorites from The Prince of Hawaii, the Hawaiian Operetta. Honolulu: Charles E. King, 1925 (later ed., 1926).

. Songs of Hawaii. Honolulu: Charles E. King, 1942 (later ed., 1950).

Machado, Lena. Hawaii's "Song Bird" Al- bum. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Accadia Music Co., 1962.

Noble, Johnny. Royal Collection of Hawaiian Songs. Honolulu: Johnny Noble, 1929.

. 1935. Collection of Ancient and Mod- ern Hulas. New York: Miller Music Corp., 1935 (reprinted, 1960, as Hawaiian Hu- las).

3: HAPA HAOLE SONGBOOKS

Alkire, Elbern H. "Eddie." Hawaiian Hula Songs. Easton, Pa.: Eddie Alkire Publi- cations, 1947.

. Hawaiian Waltz Songs. Easton, Pa.: Eddie Alkire Publications, 1947.

Allan & Co. Hawaiian Song Folio No. 1. Mel- bourne: Allan & Co., 1944.

. Hawaiian Song Folio No. 2. Mel- bourne: Allan & Co., n.d.

. Hawaiian Song Folio No. 3. Mel- bourne: Allan & Co., n.d.

Anderson, R. Alex. Famous Songs of Hawaii. Honolulu: R. Alex Anderson, 1971.

Campbell Connelly Co. Golden Memories of

Hawaii. London: Campbell Connelly and Co., n.d.

Collin Pty. Hawaiian Folio: Ten Beautiful Original Hawaiian Waltzes. Melbourne: L. F. Collin Pty., 1925.

. Hawaiian Folio No. 2. Melbourne: L. F. Collin Pty., 1925.

Columbia Pictures Publications. Hawaiian Lullaby plus 12 Hawaiian Favorites. Hi- aleah, Fla.: Columbia Pictures Publica- tions, 1980.

Criterion Music Corp. Authentic South Seas Songs from Hawaii, Tahiti and Samoa, Book No. 1. New York: Criterion Music Corp., 1955.

.Authentic Songs of Polynesia from Hawaii, Tahiti and Maori, Book No. 2. New York: Criterion Music Corp., 1960.

. Authentic Island Songs from Hawaii and Tahiti, Book No. 3. New York: Cri- terion Music Corp., 1961.

. Authentic Songs of Paradise from Ha- waii, Tahiti and Maori, Book No. 5. New York: Criterion Music Corp., 1963.

. Authentic Songs from the Pacific Isles from Hawaii, and Tahiti, Book No. 6. New York: Criterion Music Corp., 1963.

. Authentic Songs from the Romantic Is- lands from Hawaii, and Tahiti, Book No. 7. New York: Criterion Music Corp., 1965.

. Authentic Tunes from the Tropics from Hawaii, and Tahiti, Book No. 8. New York: Criterion Music Corp., 1967.

Davis, Joe. Tip Top Album of 50 Original Ha- waiian Songs. New York: Tip Top Pub- lishers, 1936.

Hal Leonard Publishing Corp. Favorite Ha- waiian Songs. Winona, Minn.: Hal Leon- ard Publishing Corp., 1985.

Ho, Don. Don Ho Sings. New York: Va- lando Music, 1969.

Ho, Don. Hawaii Ho! Don Ho Song Album. Miami: Charles Hansen, n.d.

Kinney, Ray. Collection of Native Hawaiian Songs. New York: Miller Music Corp., 1938.

~---- . Collection of Popular Hawaiian Songs. New York: Miller Music Corp., n.d.

Kuaana, Danny. Dream-Islanders Hawaiian Rhythms. New York: Peer International Corp., 1946.

Lee, Kui. Music of New Hawaii: The Extraor- dinary Kui Lee. New York: Sunbeam Mu- sic, 1967.

-- . My Hawaii. New York: Valando Music, [1969].

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Martell, John. Hawaiian Song Folio. New York: Leo Feist, 1938.

McIntire, Lani. Hawaiian Song Folio. New York: Mayfair Music Corp., 1943.

Meany, Ray. Folio of Hulas and Hawaiian Songs. Oakland, Cal.: Golden Gate Pub- lishers, 1944.

Miller Music Corp. Twelve Hits From Hawaii. New York: Miller Music Corp., 1941.

. Songs of Hawaii. New York: Miller Music Corp., 1950.

Noble, Johnny. Book of Famous Hawaiian Melodies. New York: Miller Music Corp., 1935.

, and Don George. Musical Hawaii: A Collection of Songs. Honolulu: Tongg Pub. Co., [1944].

Olsen, David C., and Frank J. Hackinson, eds. I [Love] Hawaiian Music. Hialeah, Fla.: Columbia Pictures Publications, 1984.

Owens, Harry. Hawaiian Melodies. Holly- wood, Cal.: Royal Music, 1944.

--- . Favorite Hawaiian Songs. New York: Miller Music Corp., 1946.

. Great Songs of Hawaii. Pacific Pali- sades, Cal.: Royal Music, 1964.

Page, Paul. Passport to Paradise. Kealake- kua, Hawaii: Paradise Music, 1972.

Seven Seas Pub. Co. Polynesian Music from Hawaii . . . (Music from the Islands of the South Seas, Book 3). Wellington, N.Z.: Seven Seas Pub. Co., 1966.

Your Music Store. Honolulu Number One. New York: Your Music Store, n.d.

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published hawaiian songbooks

Documents