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Pernille Højgaard Wind eksamensnummer 281561 5. maj 2009

Intercultural aspects of the modern identityWith special reference to derma challenge

Pernille Højgaard Wind281561

BA-projectSupervisor: James Bulman-May

2009

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Table of Contents1. Introduction

1.1. Thesis Statement

1.2. Delimitation of the thesis

1.3. Method

1.4. Structure of the thesis

2. Theory on cultural identity

2.1. Stuart Hall’s three Concepts of Identity

2.1.1. The Enlightenment Subject

2.1.2. The Sociological Subject

2.1.3. The Post-modern Subject

2.2. Jenkins on Ethnicity

3. Cultural Theory

3.1. The Concept of Culture

3.2. Hofstede’s Understanding of Culture

3.2.2. The Manifestations of Culture

3.2.3. The Dimensions of National Culture

3.2.3.1. Power Distance

3.2.3.2. Individualism versus Collectivism

3.2.3.3. Masculinity versus Femininity

3.2.3.4. Uncertainty Avoidance

3.2.3.5. Long-term versus Short-term Orientation

3.2.4. Applicability of the Theory

3.3. Trompenaars’ Understanding of Culture

3.3.1. Trompenaars’ Dimensions of Culture

3.3.1.1. Universalism versus Particularism


3.3.1.3. Specific versus Diffuse

3.3.1.4. Affective versus Neutral

3.3.1.5. Achievement versus Ascription


3.4. Hall’s Understanding of Culture

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3.4.1. High-context vs. Low-context Cultures


3.5. Anne-Marie Søderberg

3.5.1. Applicability of the theory

4. Culture and advertising

4.1. Marieke de Mooij

4.1.1. The Value Paradox

4.1.2. Appeals by Dimensions

5. Semiotics

5.1. Saussure’s System of Signs

5.2. Peirce’s System of Symbols

5.3. Barthes and Visual Semiotics

5.4. Foucault on Power Relations

5.5.1. Orientalism

5.6. Applicability of the Theories

6. Product Syntax

7. Analysis

7.1. Analysis of the American Commercial

7.2. Analysis of the Taiwanese Commercial

7.3. Comparison of the findings

7.4. Product Syntax

8. Conclusion

9. English summary

10. Bibliography

11. Appendices/enclosures

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1. Introduction

Identity is about how we define ourselves. According to G.W.F Hegel an identity is an ongoing

project that needs constant remaking and maintenance. He states that this continuous remaking of

the identity reveals that to some extent the sense of self is an illusion, as the making of the self

requires a constant interaction with the external world (Baldwin et al, 2004: 224). Following that

idea, one could argue that one’s choice of clothes, accessories and hairstyle can be seen as a

reflection of the identity, created to interact with the external world.

Although the wish to be seen as a unique individual has a great impact on how people express

themselves in the external world, the wish to belong also influences a person’s appearance.

According to Pierre Bourdieu we adopt the identifying images of our social group, whether in hair-

style or clothing, to stay in coherence with our in-group and confirm our social identity (Baldwin et

al, 2004: 111). However the need to stay in coherence with the in-group varies from culture to

culture.

Since the advent of advertising, the use of clothes, accessories and make-up, as a reflection of one’s

identity, has been applied by advertisers, as they in their commercials combine the promotion of

goods with positive images. Today commercials are filled with products that promise perfection and

the people portrayed in the commercials are all beautiful, trendy and glamorous, just like we all

dream of being (Abercrombie et al, 2006: 6-7).

Some argue that advertisements also possess a more cultural role since they tend to contain cultural

elements and therefore help to promote a particular societal culture (Abercrombie et al, 2006: 6-7).

1.1. Thesis statement

It is my belief that there are cultural signs to be found in national commercials and that there are

cultural differences to be found, even when the product represented is essentially the same,

In my paper I would like to analyse an American and a Taiwanese commercial, both for skin-

colouring creams, to see if there are any cultural signs implied in them. Furthermore I would

like to examine if any cultural differences between the two commercials can be found. Finally

I would like to analyse if the product itself could be inscribed by culturally significant signs.

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1.2. Delimitation of the thesis

The purpose of this thesis is to analyse the cultural signs and differences of the commercials

mentioned above. Therefore there will be no focus on the primary purpose of advertising, which is

to affect people’s buying behaviour.

The applied theories are more complex and comprehensive than described in this thesis, but due to

the limited space, the purpose of this thesis is not to give detailed presentations of the various

theories. Thus, the presentations of the theories applied are limited to the parts that are relevant in

relation to this paper.

I have chosen to take my departure in national cultures and thereby also in national values. It must

be noted that I am aware that national cultures contain subcultures, which can have other values

than the overall society. Therefore, there can be a risk of generalising, but when keeping that in

mind, it is still possible to point out certain values which exist on a national level.

Furthermore, it must be noted that as a Dane, I do not possess the profound knowledge it requires to

fully understand the American and Taiwanese cultures. The analysis presented will therefore be

from the etic approach. As a result, I might not be able to make an exhaustive analysis of the

commercials, since an emic analysis is beyond my scope.

1.3. Method

The objective of this thesis is to explain how the two cultures reflect their national values through

advertising. As mentioned in the thesis statement, I assume that there are cultural values to be found

in commercials. By subjecting an American and a Taiwanese commercial to an empirical analysis,

in accordance with the special limitations of this paper, I hope to demonstrate how these values are

expressed. It is important to emphasize that I am aware of the fact that my empirical material is very

limited, and should therefore not be considered a final conclusion as to how national values are

reflected in commercials for skin-colouring cream. Instead it should be considered as a suggestion

as to how values, based on my analysis, appear to be implied.

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In order to answer the main questions proposed in the thesis statement, various relevant literatures

on culture, advertising and signs will be applied. These theories are central topics that need to be

considered when analyzing commercials.

As regards cultural theories, this thesis draws on theorists such as Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall

but with varying degrees of emphasis. Hofstede and Trompenaars are included, as they both have

shown that cultural differences between countries exist. Hall is incorporated, because he focuses on

the communication patterns. Finally Søderberg is applied as a representative of the more recent

view on culture. To link culture to advertising, De Mooij is consulted in the thesis.

The discussion on semiotics is based the theories of Saussure and Peirce, followed by Barthes as he

focuses on visual semiotics. Foucault is also included in the thesis. Finally Djursaa’s theory on

product syntax is applied.

1.4. Structure

The first part presents the introduction and the thesis statement, followed by delimitation, method

and structure. In the second part the concept of identity is introduced via Stuart Hall’s theory. The

third part is devoted to the cultural theory of the thesis. The concept of culture is defined and then

the cultural theorists Hofstede, Trompenaars, Hall and Søderberg are presented. In part 4 culture

and advertising subsequently will be linked through the theory of De Mooij. Part 5 deals with the

semiotic approach to analysing commercials, taking its departure in Saussure and Peirce and

progressing with Barthes and Foucault. Part 6 will present the concept of product syntax. Finally the

analysis of the commercials will be presented and discussed and followed by a conclusion.

2. The Concept of Identity

As the concept of identity is an important aspect in this thesis, the next section is devoted to Stuart

Hall’s work “the question of cultural identity”.

2.1. Stuart Hall’s three concepts of identity

Stuart Hall distinguishes in his work between three different conceptions of identity, namely those

of the enlightenment subject, the sociological subject and the post-modern subject (Hall et al, 1992:

274).

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2.1.1. The enlightenment subject

The enlightenment subject was based on the conception that a human being is a fully centred and

unified individual who has the capacities of action, reason and consciousness. Moreover each

individual has an inner core which emerges when the person is born. This inner core remains

essentially the same throughout the person’s lifetime. Further it was believed that it was in this core

that the individual’s identity was found (Hall et al, 1992: 275).

2.1.2. The sociological subject

The idea of the sociological subject was a reflection of the growing complexity of the world,

together with the awareness that the inner core of the subject could not be self-sufficient, but

actually was formed in interaction with others. These others would mediate to the subject values,

meanings and symbols of the society he was born into (Hall et al, 1992: 275). According to this

conception, an identity is formed by the interaction between the self and the society. The subject

still consists of an inner core, but it is formed and modified in an ongoing dialogue with the world,

and the identities offered by it.

The subject, which was previously experienced as having a unified and stable identity, has become

fragmented. Now the subject consists of not just a single, but of several identities as we project

ourselves into different cultural identities as it helps us fit into the society (Hall et al, 1992: 276-

277).

2.1.3. The post-modern subject

The post-modern conception is that the subject does not have a fixed, essential, or permanent

identity. The identity has become something that can be formed and transformed in relation to the

ways we are represented or addressed in the cultural system surrounding us. The subject assumes

different identities at different times. These identities are not unified around an inner core, therefore

if we feel that we have a unified identity from birth to death, it is because we construct a story about

ourselves (Hall et al, 1992: 277).

In the past, people had a number of central elements to help construct their identity; family, nation,

social class, gender, ethnicity, etc. However the post-modern societies introduce more sources of

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identity producing a more complex pattern of both identity and the sense of belonging. Today

identities are based on a multiplicity of lifestyles, not on nationality, and people can therefore

choose themselves who they want to be in the society (Abercrombie et al, 2006: 190).

2.2. Jenkins on Ethnicity

In connection to Stuart Hall’s theory a few comments on ethnicity will be included, as it is relevant

to the topic of the thesis.

Richard Jenkins argues that ethnicity is an example of a social identity (Jenkins: 1994: 197). An

identity is constructed by the individual, but also via social interactions. Thereby identity becomes a

two way process between the individual and the society. According to Jenkins the internal

definition of the individual’s identity needs to be reflected in the external definition, meaning that

the individual needs constant confirmation from the outside world. Therefore ethnicity is a two way

process that takes place across the boundaries between “us” and “them”. The powerful dominates

the social constructions of ethnic identities (Jenkins, 1994: 218-219).

3. Cultural Theory

This chapter will present some of the most popular works in the arena of culture research, the state-

of-the-art theories. That is, the works of Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall as each of them present

different approaches to classifying cultures. These approaches can help analysing differences and

similarities at culture level with the focus on Taiwan and the United States. However, as these

theories all are quite old, and we live in a world in constant change, this thesis will include a more

resent view on culture, namely that of Søderberg.

3.1. The Concept of Culture

The concept of culture is quite comprehensive as it can be defined in both a narrow and a broad

sense depending on the context in which it is used. In the narrow sense, culture is believed to

consist of the works and practice of intellectual and artistic activity, therefore culture is the word

that describes music, literature, painting and theatre (Baldwin et al, 2004: 4). However within social

sciences, and especially anthropology, the concept of culture is understood and used in the broad

sense. Anthropology is knowledge about societies and the relations within societies. Edward B.

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Tyler was the first to offer a definition of culture from the anthropological perspective. He defined

culture as

“that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other

capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” (Baldwin et al, 2004: 6)

This definition emphasises that culture is a product of people living together, and that culture both

affects and expresses human behaviour. Culture is the glue that binds groups together, as it is

representing a set of shared values that manifest themselves in the behaviour, beliefs and customs of

a given group (Baldwin et al, 2004: 6).

3.2. Hofstede’s Understanding of Culture

The first cultural theorist, with whom this thesis deals, is Geert Hofstede. He has conducted several

analyses of national culture in organisations and his work ‘Culture’s consequences’ has become a

classic in the field of social science.

Geert Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the

members of one group or category of people from others.” (Hofstede, 2001: 9)

3.2.2. The Manifestations of Culture

According to Hofstede a group’s common cultural features will be manifested in various ways. In

order to explain these manifestations of culture, Hofstede created the “Onion Diagram” which

describes the manifestations of culture in different layers of depth. ‘The onion’ consists of four

layers and is similar to the skin of a real onion, hence the name.

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Figure 2: the “Onion Diagram”

The outermost layer is symbols. Symbols are words, pictures, objects and gestures that are specific

to people sharing the same culture. The next layer is heroes. These heroes can be both real and

fictive people, but they all have a significant meaning to members of a culture and they may serve

as role models or idols to them. The third layer is Rituals. Rituals are habits, traditions and

ceremonies and other forms of collective activities that within a certain culture are considered

essential.

The three above-mentioned layers are all part of the term ‘practices’. They are visible components

of the culture and can therefore be seen by an outsider; however their cultural meanings are

invisible and lie in the way these practices are interpreted by the members of the culture (Hofstede,

2001: 10-11).

The final layer is values, which are the core element of culture. According to Hofstede (2001: 5)

values affect the individual’s tendency to prefer one thing over another and, thereby, form the

background for a certain action or behaviour. Contrary to the previous three layers, values are not

easily observed by an outsider as they are an implicit part of what a person ‘feels’ or ‘knows’ is

right. As values vary across cultures, they make it possible to separate one culture from another

The purpose of including the manifestations of culture is to illustrate that certain elements of culture

are more or less visible than others. Therefore, companies need to be aware that symbols, heroes

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and rituals might cross borders, but values are difficult if not impossible to pass on to another

culture.

In the following section, Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture will be presented, indicating

several of the national values of the United States and Taiwan.

3.2.3. The Dimensions of National Culture

Geert Hofstede’s study of national values identified four dimensions1 of national culture

differences, all embedded in a basic problem with which all societies have to cope, but on which the

answers differ. The dimensions are: power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity

versus femininity, and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 2001: 29).

Later, an additional survey was conducted in 23 countries by Michael Harris Bond, and Hofstede

added a fifth dimension to his model, long-term versus short-term orientation (Hofstede, 2001: 41).

In the next section the five dimensions of national culture will be presented, but since this thesis is

on a specialised level Hofstede is considered common knowledge and will not be explained in

detail2, instead focus will be on the position of the two countries; the United States and Taiwan.

The following figures 3 and 4 demonstrate the United States and Taiwan’s positions in Hofstede’s

study on national values.

Figure 3: United States Figure 4: Taiwan

1 A dimension, in connection to this area, is “an aspect that can be measured in relative to other cultures” (Hofstede et al, 2005: 23)2 Should there be any questions, I would be happy to elaborate in the presentation of my paper.

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3.2.3.1. Power Distance

The first of the five dimensions of national culture is power distance. It reflects to which extent a

country accepts the difference of power in the society (Hofstede et al, 2005: 46).

As shown in figure 3 the United States has a relative low score on power distance, which indicates a

greater equality between societal levels even though different social classes do exists. In contrast

Taiwan scores relatively high on power distance as seen in figure 4. This indicates that there is a

clear hierarchy in society that can be seen in both workplaces, schools and even in the family.


The second dimension is individualism versus collectivism. It reflects the relationship between the

individual and the collectivity that prevails in a society (Hofstede, 2001: 209).

As can be seen in figure 3, the United States has individualism as their highest dimension. The high

ranking of individualism points towards a society where the interest of the individual comes before

that of the group. Further it indicates a society that focus on accomplishments and living out the

dream. When looking at figure 4, it is clear that individualism is the dimension with the lowest

score in Taiwan. This is an indication that collectivism is dominant in Taiwan and that the interest

of the group comes before that of the individual.

3.2.3.3. Masculinity versus Femininity

The third dimension is masculinity versus femininity, it is concerned with the way gender roles are

distributed in a society.

The United States scores high on the dimension of masculinity, meaning that there are distinct

gender roles in the society, and that ambition, status and competition are highly valued (Hofstede,

2001: 120). According to figure 4 Taiwan scores lower on masculinity than the United States,

which should indicate that gender roles overlap. However this seems paradoxical as Taiwan has a

hierarchal society based on traditional, patriarchal and patrilineal values, where men rule over

women, elder over younger, ect. (Copper, 2003: 69). So even though the Taiwanese people do value

relationships and modesty, Taiwan does not really fit into the characteristics of countries high on

femininity.

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3.2.3.4. Uncertainty Avoidance

The fourth dimension is called uncertainty avoidance. This dimension deals with the way people of

different cultures react to the uncertainty of the future (Hofstede, 2005: 167).

As can be seen in figure 3 the United States scores low in the uncertainty avoidance dimension.

This is an indication of a society with few rules. Further they are willing to take risks, and they

welcome changes. Taiwan, on the other hand, scores high on uncertainty avoidance. This indicates

that there are a strong need for rules and formality in the society.

3.2.3.5. Long-term versus short-term orientation

As mentioned earlier, Hofstede later added a fifth dimension, which is called long-term versus

short-term orientation. Long-term orientation is based upon the Confucian philosophy.3

The United States scores low on long-term orientation which indicates that Americans pursuit

happiness and instant success of the individual. Americans live in the present, and do not think

about the future (De Mooij, 2005: 69-71). In contrast long-term orientation is the dimension with

the highest score in Taiwan; this indicates that they are living in coherence with the Confucian

thinking. Some of the values of the Confucian philosophy are perseverance, ordering relationships

after status, being thrift centred and having a sense of shame (Ting-Toomey, 1999: 74).


Hofstede’s five dimensions have been criticized by many theorists throughout the years and it is

therefore appropriate to discuss the applicability of Hofstede’s theory.

First, there is the question whether Hofstede’s country scores produced in the late 1960s and early

1970s are valid to use 40 years later, as his model is static and therefore not follows the dynamic

development of culture. However several replications of his work have proved that his data are still

valid to some extent (Gudykunst et al, 2003: 81-82).

Secondly, Hofstede has been accused of stereotyping people, and one must therefore be aware of

essentialism when applying the theory (Søderberg et al, 2002: 107-108). However the theory can be

used as a framework when working with cultural differences.

3 Confucianism is an ethical value system based on the writings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 B.C (Ting-Toomey, 1999: 75).

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3.3. Trompenaars’ understanding of culture

In addition to Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture, Fons Trompenaars developed the

‘seven dimensions of culture’ to show how to manage complexity in a heterogeneous environment.

Trompenaars defines culture as: “the way in which a group of people solves problems and

reconciles dilemmas.” (Trompenaars et al, 1997: 6)

He states that all cultures confront similar problems and dilemmas, but all cultures differ in the

solutions they find to solve these problems and reconcile the dilemmas. As it is the culture that

determines how we act and what we value. (Trompenaars et al, 1997: 27)

3.3.1. Trompenaars’ dimensions of culture

Trompenaars has identified seven value dimensions of culture: universalism versus particularism,

individualism versus collectivism, specific versus diffuse, affective versus neutral, achievement

versus ascription, time: sequential versus synchronic cultures, nature: internal versus external.

Along with the seven dimensions he identified three categories on which the solutions depend:

people’s relationships with others, people’s relation to time and to the environment (Trompenaars

et al, 1997: 8). Of relevance to this thesis are the five dimensions falling into the first category.

Thus, the last two dimensions falling into the other two categories are not discussed as these

dimensions concern how cultures manage their time and relate to nature.

However, since this paper is on a specialised level Trompenaars is considered common knowledge

and will therefore not be explained in detail4, instead the focus will be placed on the United States

and Taiwan.

Finally, it should be noted that in the analysis of the commercials, only a couple of Trompenaars’

dimensions will be applied as some of the theory is almost identical to Hofstede’s theory.

3.3.1.1. Universalism versus particularism

4 Should there be any questions, I would be happy to elaborate in the presentation of my paper

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Universalistic cultures believe that general rules and values have a priority over particular needs of

an individual, thus the same rules apply to all members of society. In particularistic cultures the

focus is on relationships. Rules are needed, but exceptions can be allowed (Trompenaars et al, 1997:

8, 31). The United States is high in universalism whereas Taiwan is particularistic.

3.3.1.2. Individualism versus collectivism

In individualistic cultures, the individual comes before the group whereas in collectivistic cultures,

the group comes before the individual (Trompenaars et al, 1997:67). The United States is highly

individualistic as people make their own decisions and achieve success alone; it is all about the

American dream. Taiwan is a very collectivistic culture that places the community before the

individual, and success is achieved in groups.

3.3.1.3. Specific versus Diffuse

People from more specific-oriented cultures tend to keep their private and public spheres separated,

whereas in diffuse-oriented countries, the two spheres tend to melt together (Trompenaars et al,

1997: 81, 87). United States is a specific-oriented culture as there is a strong separation between

work and private life. Taiwan is more diffuse-oriented as work and private life are closely linked

together, but intensely protected.

3.3.1.4. Affective versus Neutral

In neutral cultures people do not express emotions in public whereas in affective cultures showing

emotions is a natural part of life (Trompenaars et al, 1997: 69, 73). Taiwan is a neutral culture

where emotions are not displayed. The United States scored average in this dimension so they are a

mixture of the two; however displaying emotions in public is much more common in the United

States than in Taiwan.

3.3.1.5. Achievement versus Ascription

In an achievement culture, people are accorded status based on their achievements. In an ascription

culture, status is based on who or what a person is. This is based on age, gender and social

connections. The United States is achievement-oriented whereas Taiwan is ascription-oriented.


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Trompenaars has with his model developed a toolkit that can help describe cultural differences. As

some of these dimensions are almost identical to those of Hofstede, the model can be used as a

supplement to Hofstede’s theory. This supports the applicability of Trompenaars’ seven dimensions

in this thesis.

3.4. Hall’s understanding of culture

The third cultural theorist included in this thesis is Edward T. Hall, as he focuses on the

communication patterns found within cultures. Hall shortly defines culture as communication (Hall

et al, 1990: 3). In his theory, he deals with four dimensions: context, space, time, and information

flow. Only the dimension of context will be discussed below as it is the only dimension with

relevance to this thesis. However, since this paper is on a specialised level Hall’s theory is

considered common knowledge and will therefore not be explained in detail5; instead focus will be

on the United States and Taiwan.

3.4.1. High-context versus low-context cultures

This dimension is first and foremost concerned with the way in which information is transmitted -

or communicated. In other words, it is about the context that surrounds the message, and how much

information that is considered necessary to understand the message. Context and messages are

closely interrelated as they combined produces a given meaning.

According to Hall, the United States is a low-context culture. Meaning, that the information given

must be explicit, as the receiver is believed to know very little and therefore need clear explanations

to interpret the message. In connection to advertising, one must suppose that the level of

information in the commercial is high in low-context cultures.

Taiwan is a high-context culture. Therefore the information given is implicit and without many

details. Hence, only minimal information is given in the transmitted message. The receiver of the

message is assumed to have enough background information to understand the meaning. In the

world of advertising one must assume that a lower level of information is needed in high-context

cultures than in low-context cultures (Hall et al, 1990: 6-9).

5 Should there be any questions to the theory, I would be happy to elaborate in the presentation of my paper

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Hall’s theory deals with communication patterns, but it is not based on a study. Furthermore in his

book: Understanding cultural differences, he seems to consider Europe as one cultural unit (Hall et

al, 1990: 5-7). Finally, it would have been preferable if he had illustrated the different countries in a

table like Hofstede, but he only gives a few examples.

However Hall’s theory on high-context versus low-context cultures is applicable in this thesis as it

can help explain the communication patterns of the United States and Taiwan.

3.5. Anne-Marie Søderberg

As mentioned earlier Anne-Marie Søderberg is included in this thesis as a representative of the

more recent view on culture. Further she criticizes the essentialistic understanding of culture, used

by for example Hofstede and Trompenaars (Søderberg et al, 2002: 107).

According to Søderberg the traditional view on culture as deterministic and territorially bound is

obsolete in an increasingly culturally diverse and globalized world (Søderberg et al, 2002: 108).

Instead she proposes that culture is made up of relations, rather than being a stable substance, and

therefore people’s cultural identity is contextual (Søderberg et al, 2002: 112). Further Søderberg

argues that every individual contains a unique combination of personal, social and cultural

experiences, and it is for that reason impossible to make cultural analyses that results in general

guidelines. Therefore she suggests that people should focus on the identity constructions,

sensemaking processes and stories told by the individual (Søderberg et al, 2002: 112), as it is

through stories or narratives that identities are constructed. Narratives are furthermore a social

process, where the individual interacts with the society through the story told and thereby creates a

shared meaning (Søderberg: 2004: 55). Creating these stories or narratives is essential when

creating our identity, but also in the creation of the purpose of our life. The creation of meaning will

always be social and cultural dependable as it is created through social interaction (Søderberg:

2004: 59).


Søderberg’s theory is applicable in this thesis of several reasons. Firstly she represents a more

recent view of culture that distances her from essentialism and stereotyping, as she sees each

individual as unique. This view is the opposite of the three other theorists included in my cultural

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theory part. They all divided people into different groups that are more or less nation-bound.

Secondly Søderberg’s theory can be linked to that of Stuart Hall, as he also states that every person

creates his own identity.

However her theory of sensemaking and narratives is not very concrete and at the same time it is

very complex. This means that her theory is not as easy to comprehend and employ in practice as

the theories of Hofstede and Hall. The area is not that researched, but hopefully the future will bring

clarification.

4. Culture and Advertising

In continuation to part of cultural theory, Marieke de Mooij is included in the thesis, as she

combines culture with advertising.

4.1. Marieke de Mooij

Marieke de Mooij has been doing research on how to adjust advertising to different cultures. She

believes that advertising is a cultural artefact that reflects cultural values:

“Advertising reflects these wider systems of meaning: It reflects the way people think, what moves

them, how they relate to each other, how they live, eat, relax, and enjoy themselves. All

manifestations of culture, at different levels, are reflected in advertising.” (De Mooij, 2005: 36)

The following section will describe how advertisements use various appeals to reflect the core

values of different cultures. These appeals can be linked to Hofstede’s dimensions and help explain

why advertising to some degree is culture-bound. However the advertising appeals do not always

follow the norms of a society, they might even go against them. In an attempt to understand this,

one must first reflect on the value paradox (De Mooij; 2005: 163).

4.1.1. The Value Paradox

The value paradox distinguishes between two opposing elements in one value; namely the desirable

and the desired. The desirable refers to the general norms for right and wrong in a culture and to

what people think they ought to desire. The desired refers to what people actually desire and want

and also what the majority of the society actually does (De Mooij, 2005: 164).

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The distinction between the desirable and the desired can lead to paradoxical values in a culture. In

individualistic cultures values like self-actualization, self-esteem and going it alone are highly

valued. However the sense of belonging is also strongly valued in individualistic cultures. This

creates a paradox (De Mooij, 2005: 164). Understanding these value paradoxes of cultures is

important when analysing commercials, as they tend to focus on the desirable, what should be, what

people want but cannot attain due to different circumstances (De Mooij: 2004: 24-25).

4.1.2. Appeals by Dimensions

This section is devoted to link advertising appeals to Hofstede’s dimensions.

Status symbols are seen more frequently in high power distance cultures than in cultures with a low

power distance. This could be by showing a fancy car or expensive jewellery. Also the use of rich

and famous people is often seen in high power distance cultures as they are a symbol of high status.

Power distance can also be shown in the way people interact or by the people shown, e.g. older

versus younger people (De Mooij, 2005:169).

When dealing with individualistic cultures the public is addressed in a personal and direct way, by

using words like you, we and I e.g. L’Oreal’s ‘because you deserve it’. In collectivistic cultures it is

more important that the public can relate to the spokesperson in the advertisement. Furthermore, in

collectivistic cultures appeals that focus on harmony, family and the well-being of the in-group are

more effective than appeals to the individual success and benefits. Also the number of people in the

advertisement indicates whether it is an individualistic or collectivistic culture (De mooij, 2005:

171-172).

According to De Mooij (2005: 174-175) values like winning, competitiveness, and making dreams

come true are often reflected in advertisements in masculine cultures. In feminine cultures values

like caring for others, softness and modesty is reflected in the advertising appeals. Furthermore

celebrity endorsement is rare in feminine cultures whereas it is used frequently in masculine

cultures (De Mooij, 2005: 176)

In culture with strong uncertainty avoidance there is a high need for explanations, testing,

testimonials, technical details and design, whereas people of low uncertainty avoidance focus more

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on the quality of the product. However the design is also important in low uncertainty cultures, but

the focus is on the outer appearance, not the technical design (De Mooij, 2005: 180).

In long-term oriented cultures the value is ‘save for tomorrow’ whereas the value of short-term

cultures is ‘buy now-pay later’. Another short-term oriented value is the thought of instant pleasure

which is often portrayed in advertising. When dealing with Asian countries values like harmony

with nature and humans are popular as appeals (De Mooij, 2005: 182-183).

5. Semiotics

This part of the thesis will deal with the semiotic approach to advertising analysis. It is concerned

with the relation between the visual and textual signs that are present in ads as both pictures and

texts can be analysed by using a semiotic approach. First the classic theories of semiotics developed

by Saussure and Pierce will be included. Afterwards Barthes’s theory on visual semiotics will be

presented. Finally Foucault and his theory on power relations will be included. However due to

limited space their theories will only be described shortly

5.1. Saussure’s System of Signs

As mentioned above the first semiologist included in this thesis is Ferdinand de Saussure.

According to Saussure a sign is composed by two elements; signifier and signified. The signifier

can be a physical object, a word or a picture. The signified is a mental concept or idea indicated by

the signifier. Thus, the sign is the association of the signifier and the signified.

In addition Saussure emphasizes that the relationship between a sign and the thing it denotes is

arbitrary as there is no natural relationship between a word and the object to which it refers. He

states that what a sign stands for is a matter of cultural convention (Baldwin et al, 2004: 34).

5.2. Peirce’s System of Symbols

The second theorist is Charles S. Peirce, who believed that signs establish meaning through

relationships that arise in sets of three; namely an object, a sign and an interpretant. The object can

be anything, either a concept or a thing, so long as it is capable of being encoded in a sign. Thus, the

sign denotes the object and the interpretant is the meaning obtained by decoding or interpreting the

sign (Smith et al, 2005: 228).

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Furthermore Peirce distinguished between three types of signs: icon, symbol and index. An icon

bears a resemblance to its object. An index is a sign that has a direct connection to its object, like

smoke is an index of fire. A symbol is a sign which connection to its object depends on a cultural

convention or rule, like the red cross. According to Peirce icons, signs and symbols are all part of

culture and they help define different cultural groups. He believed that culture is the shared ability

to decode and produce signs and symbols (De Mooij, 2005: 44-45).

5.3. Barthes and Visual Semiotics

The third semiologist included in this thesis is Roland Barthes, who had his focus on visual sign

systems especially based on photographs and printed advertisements. He extended Saussure’s

concepts of signified and signifier to include connotation and denotation, which he used to analyse

different layers of meaning in a visual (Smith et al, 2005: 231).

According to Barthes any image or text can contain different levels of signification; starting with

the denotative level which is the obvious meaning of the sign, followed by the connotative level

which is the deeper meaning of the sign. However the meanings of the sign will depend on the

context in which the sign is contained. Some of the levels of meaning are more or less neutral

whereas others are filled with social or cultural meanings (Baldwin et al, 2004: 53)

5.5. Foucault and Power Relations

The fifth theorist included in this part of the thesis is Michael Foucault as he dealt with power

relations, which is useful in this thesis when trying to understand the use of skin-colouring cream.

According to Foucault “power is everywhere” (Baldwin et al, 2004: 94) and is part of all

relationships. One definition of the concept of power relations establishes that the powerful have the

power “to prevent people, to whatever degree, from having grievances by shaping their

perceptions, cognitions and preferences in such a way that they accept their role in the existing

order of things either because they can see or imagine no alternatives to it, or because they see it as

natural and unchangeable” (Baldwin et al, 2004: 94).

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This conception of power is often seen as essentially negative, as it prevents people from doing

what they want or thinking their own thoughts. The powerful is seen as the ones dictating the rules.

However, Foucault offers another conception of power; namely that power is productive. He argues

that power lies in the creation of discourses, institutions, objects and identities. To him power is a

construction where the world is made and remade in a particular way. It is not about saying “no”

but instead power is about constructing ideas and identities (Baldwin et al, 2004: 94-95)

5.5.1. Orientalism

In connection to Foucault’s power relations a small section on Orientalism will be included, as it

can be used as an example of the way power works. Further, it might be able to help explain the use

of especially the whitening skin-colouring cream in Taiwan.

The idea that identity is built upon the characterisation of others as being different from oneself is a

key issue in Edward Said’s notion of Orientalism. He states that the representations of the East

made by intellectuals from the West have identified cultural differences, thereby starting and

othering process and creating a set of unequal power relations. Further Said argues that the “Orient”

was invented by the West and thereby subjected it to the Western panopticon and Gramsci’s

hegemony (Baldwin et al, 2004: 168-170).

Since the focus on skin colour and derma challenge can be interpreted as functions of colonialism

and Orientalism, I find Said’s theory enlightening in the discussion of the signification of skin

colour. The palimpsest to this discussion is also a discussion of power relations, hence the

combination with Foucault’s theory.

5.6. Applicability of the Theories

It is evident that semiotics is a helpful tool to understand signs and how they affect people.

However, the notion of a sign can be described in several ways. Saussure’s theory on signs was

focused on language, therefore his theory alone is not enough to analyse advertisements, as they

contain visuals. Peirce had similar ideas regarding the sign, but he is included in the thesis as he

distinguished between icons, indexes and symbols, which are useful when analysing visual art.

However, in order to analyse the overall meaning of an advertisement, the levels of denotation and

connotation must be considered, and it is therefore important also to include Barthes. Finally,

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Foucault is included as it is essential for this thesis to demonstrate how power influences people,

cultures, identities and beliefs.

6. Product Syntax

The final part of the theory section is concerned with the concept product syntax, described by

Malene Djursaa. The term product syntax can be defined as the combinatorial and structural rules

that determine the choice of products. Syntax refers both to the functional and the stylistic

dimensions of the product. In cognitive psychology, syntax is perceived as a kind of “script”

(Djursaa et al, 1999: 1302). Scripts are cognitive structures that help people to understand different

situations, behaviours and emotions. Scripts are learned and help people predict how others will

react to a given situation; one can argue that they provide guidelines for behaviour and

communication (Gudykunst et al, 2003:169).

Product syntax operates as culturally learnt rules, according to Djursaa, and therefore the

consumers’ interpretation of foreign products is affected by their culturally determined rules. The

differences in the reading of the product arise not least because most cultures hold very different

ideas of appropriate product syntax, e.g. of how furnishing items could and should be combined

(Djursaa et al, 1999: 1301-1302). In connection to this thesis the concept of product syntax can be

expanded to encompass what the right type of skin cream is and what it should do to the skin

colour.

However, as Barthes reminds us: “one cannot base beauty commercials exclusively on the

characteristics of the cream” (Barthes, 1969: 72). It is therefore important to look further into the

deeper layer of the signs represented in the commercials. Applying Foucault, it is clear that the

commercial applies societal power relations as shadow text. Since, as earlier stated, power is part of

all relationships. Within these power relations certain identities have always been privileged over

others; men over women, whites over non-whites etc. (Baldwin et al, 2004: 224). This is supported

further by Said’s Orientalism where he states that the Orient was invented by the West. The creation

of the Orient started an othering process, which lead to a set of unequal power relations. If

connecting this theory to the topic of the thesis, skin colour, then whites have been privileged over

non-whites, leaving the Taiwanese people in the role as second class citizens. White skin colour is

perceived as prestigious, powerful and desirable.

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7. Analysis

The next part of this thesis will contain the analysis of the American and the Taiwanese

commercials, both promoting skin-colouring creams.

First Barthes’ denotative and connotative level will be used to decode the visual signs of the

commercials. The denotative level will identify what is seen in the commercials. Subsequently, the

connotative level will be applied to interpret and describe the messages, symbolic meanings and

associations found. The linguistic messages will also be decoded in accordance with Barthes’ two

levels. Hence, the linguistic messages are analysed in order to identify cultural signs and elements

in the commercials, if any can be detected.

Next, the objective is to analyse how these signs can be explained in accordance with the theories of

Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall. By doing so, it will be possible to determine if the commercials

reflect national values. Also De Mooij will be included in this part, since she describes which

elements advertisers use to reflect the values.

Conclusively, after having analysed the commercials, a brief comparative analysis will be made,

based on the results found. The purpose of this is to establish possible similarities and differences in

the cultural values found.

Then a brief discussion of product syntax will be presented.

7.1. Analysis of the American Commercial: Revlon

The Denotative Level:

In the American commercial, the head of a beautiful brunette is portrayed. She looks very natural

even though mascara and lipstick can be detected. Her skin colour is very natural but a bit tanned -

like was it summer. Her head is turned to her left almost touching her shoulder, but her eyes are

looking directly at the camera. She is wearing big, squared, gold earrings and she is wearing

something that could be a dress in a grey-blue tone. The colour used as background is a very

delicate light blue that is almost turning white. To the woman’s left a thick blue stripe runs down

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through the commercial containing a linguistic message and a picture of the product. In the bottom

of the commercial a black stripe with the logo of the company is presented together with a small

text.

The Connotative Level:

In connection with the model depicted in the commercial, most Americans would quickly recognise

that the model is Jessica Alba, a famous actress. Furthermore, in the black box in the bottom of the

commercial, her name is written. When observing the commercial, it becomes evident that the main

focus is on Jessica Alba, and the secondary element is the skin-colouring cream. At the connotative

level, the product hence demonstrates that wearing the skin-colouring cream makes you as beautiful

as her. Therefore, the product is lifted from a simple product to an object of desire. This is often

seen in commercials based on images, as opposed to product features and price.

In relation to the models appearance, she looks very pleased and content; she looks like she is

comfortable in her own body. Her facial expression is very neutral but she does have a suggestion

of a smile, which may indicate that she is satisfied or content with her situation. Furthermore, there

is something in her eyes, a special expression, which, from the connotative level, could be

translated as contentment about the fact that she has achieved the American dream.

The model’s clothing is not that visible, but it could be a dress. The colour is a grey-blue tone and

the fabric could look like it is silk. It looks very fashionable and expensive. Furthermore, by

wearing gold earrings she underlines the expensive and glamorous look. She is not only a beautiful

woman but she also shows signs of wealth, status and power. The fact that the model is a celebrity

emphasizes that the product really is a symbol of a high-class lifestyle.

The colours used in the commercial have a symbolic meaning, which according to Peirce are

referred to as indexical signs. As mentioned earlier the colours in the background are different

shades of blue, which matches the colour of the model’s dress. Blue is described as a calming and

peaceful colour; the colour of the sky. Blue can also be a symbol of distance and thoughtfulness. At

the connotative level, blue in this particular commercial creates a peaceful atmosphere, like the

model has made peace with herself and her life. However it also creates a certain distance, leaving a

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gap between her and us that can only be bridged via the product. The sense of distance between the

model and the rest somehow makes her someone to admire and look up to.

The Linguistic Message:

The linguistic message, “Naturally Glamorous, Never Overdone”, if read alone without looking at

the picture, makes little sense. In principle, this primary announcement could be coupled with any

beauty product, as it tells nothing about the brand or the products function - only that it looks

natural. However, together with the image the meaning of the text becomes evident. The linguistic

message and the illustration together create the idea that with Revlon’s skin-colouring cream you

will look naturally glamorous without it being too much. It looks like it is the real you, just even

better. Decoding here takes place on an interpretive level where the linguistic message serves as a

clarification of the connotations that the visual image holds. When looking deeper into the

connotative layer, the linguistic message could be analysed as a reference to the American dream

where being rich and glamorous equal success and when using the product you are one step closer

to achieve the dream.

As mentioned earlier, another linguistic message is present in the commercial. This message

contains a small description of the product and its function. Furthermore, the linguistic message

indicates that the product can help create a whole new you: “Start your look with skin matching

makeup”.

Cultural Values:

The commercial expresses several important American values. According to De Mooij, the detail

that the model is standing by herself and appears to be confident doing so symbolises the

individualistic nature of the Americans. Her own success and happiness are the most important to

her and she follows her own path. Also the use of personal pronouns like “you” reflects the

individualistic values, as it is all about the individual’s fulfilment and happiness.

Also the masculine values of the American culture are to some extent displayed in the commercial

as the model is a well-known and successful actress. According to De Mooij, winning, being

successful and making dreams come true are all masculine values that are often seen in American

commercials. Celebrity endorsement is often seen in masculine cultures as celebrities have achieved

26


success and therefore can be seen as role models. In addition, the linguistic message “Naturally

Glamorous” supports the importance of the American dream of a glamorous lifestyle.

In addition characteristics of an achievement-oriented culture are evident in the commercial. As

already mentioned, the model used as spokesperson is a famous actress and she is recognised for

her career. This is a status which she has achieved herself. And in the commercial she is portrayed

as a highly self-confident person, who is not afraid of displaying her success.

The fact that the model is a celebrity and not someone anonymous indicates that the consumers do

not feel threatened by people with power. Even though the United States is relatively low on the

scale of power distance, the world of advertising is somehow different in this regard and the display

of celebrities is an example of this. Rich and famous people are subjects of great admiration, as they

have achieved the American dream. Besides representing the American dream, celebrities are

symbols of an expensive taste, in which wearing expensive accessories and clothes or buying luxury

products are part of a person’s identity and lifestyle. Wearing gold earrings is therefore a status

statement. Also the textile she is wearing looks expensive and fashionable, which contributes to the

portrait of a successful woman.

The commercial does not display many feelings as the facial expression of the model is very

neutral. However, she does have a suggestion of a smile which may indicate that she is satisfied

with her situation. The same is present in her eyes; there is this special glimpse in them as have she

touched the clouds. To some extent her facial expressions creates a distance between her and us,

this is supported by the colours in the commercial. The blue creates a distance, lifting the model to a

higher level. Thereby she becomes an object of desire and admiration.

A detailed product description is common in low-context cultures like the United States as they

have a strong need for direct, explicit and detailed communication. This is also somewhat the case

in the American commercial as a short text with information about the product is presented

7.2. Analysis of the Taiwanese Commercial: Olay

The Denotative Level:

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In the Taiwanese commercial, the head of a beautiful Taiwanese woman is portrayed. She looks

very natural with only little traces of makeup, like lipstick. Her skin seems very delicate and light.

She is turning her head a bit to her own left, and her eyes are looking to the middle but somehow

also directly at the viewer. She is smiling in the picture. She is very neutral as she is wearing no

accessories. In the background there are warm golden shades and some dark stripes. To the

woman’s left, the product is displayed and above is the logo of the company together with a text.

Under the models face another linguistic message is placed.

The Connotative Level:

When observing the commercial, it becomes evident that the main focus is on the model portrayed,

and the secondary element of the commercial is the skin-colouring cream. At the connotative level,

the product hence demonstrates that wearing the skin-colouring cream makes your skin as delicate

and light as the skin of the model.

In relation to the models appearance, she looks very friendly and open. This assumption is further

supported by her facial expression, due to the fact that she is smiling. Furthermore there is an

expression in her eyes that could be translated in several ways. She looks happy; maybe just

because she discovered a product that can make her skin whiter, however it could also be because

she discovered the secret to changing her life, and she is ready to share it.

Furthermore the model portrayed is very neutral, she is wearing no accessories and the clothes are

not visible. She looks like an ordinary, but beautiful woman that you could meet in the streets. She

is someone that you can relate to, and even identity with. This somewhat emphasises that this

product is for everybody.

The colours used in the commercial can be described as having a symbolic meaning, which

according to Peirce is referred to as indexical signs. As mentioned previously the colours in the

background are different golden shades and dark stripes. Gold is seen as a symbol of the sun,

however golden colours also symbolises wisdom and wealth in Asian countries. The dark colours,

that appears to be almost black can symbolise several things, including evil influences. But black

also symbolises self-cultivation. At the connotative level the golden colours symbolise wealth or

power, that she, by applying the cream, belongs high in the hierarchy in Taiwan. And the dark, or

28


black, stripes could then symbolise self-cultivation. She simply improves herself and her life by

buying this product.

The Linguistic Message:

Due to the fact that I am unable to read the signs, I will not be able to make a complete analysis of

the linguistic messages. However one of the linguistic messages is written in English and will be

analysed.

The linguistic message, “total effects”, makes little sense if read without looking at the image. In

principle, the linguistic message could be coupled with many different types of products, as it tells

nothing about the brand or product – just that the effect will be total. However, when put together

with the picture the meaning of the text becomes clear. The linguistic message and the illustration

together create the illusion that with Olay’s skin-colouring cream you get the effect that you want.

The statement “total effects” can be analysed as having total effect on the skin, meaning that it will

colour the skin perfectly with total effect. Nevertheless if looking into the deeper layer, the

linguistic message could also be analysed as having total effect on the person’s life; that the product

will change everything.

Cultural Values:

Even though Taiwan is a collectivistic culture the commercial only contains one person, however

this is normal in this type of commercials. It is still possible to trace the collectivistic values in the

image as the model is portrayed as a normal woman, with whom, people can relate to. According to

De Mooij, it is very important for collectivistic people that they can relate to the spokespersons.

This could also explain why the model is smiling even though Taiwan, according to Trompenaars,

is a neutral culture that does not show emotions public.

Being a culture with a high power distance, the display of power and status is often seen in

Taiwanese commercials. The country has a clear societal hierarchy which also indicates that

symbols of status are common in commercials. However the model is not wearing any power

symbols. Her power is shown implicit via her light, almost white skin colour. Through several

centuries, white skin has been desirable in Taiwan of several reasons. The period of Dutch colonial

influenced the Taiwanese people and made white skin desirable, but light skin also meant that you

29


were rich as rich people did not need to work in the fields. Therefore white skin colour is a strong

symbol of status and wealth in Taiwan - even today. Another reason to the implicit display of power

in the Taiwanese commercial could be that Taiwan scores average on the scale of masculinity

meaning that they appreciate several feminine values, such as modesty. Therefore power is not

something you talk about; you just have it, and the white skin is a visible but modest symbol of

power.

Taiwan is a high-context culture which means that very little information is needed to decode

messages; however as Taiwan scores high on uncertainty avoidance, I imagine that a description of

the product and its features is offered in the commercial. According to De Mooij people from high

uncertainty avoidance have a high need for explanations of the product in the commercials.

7.3. Comparison of the Findings

In this section a small comparison of the findings will be presented to help establish the similarities

and differences of the two cultures.

The United States is a highly individualistic culture and this is depicted in the commercial as the

model is standing by herself and appears to be confident doing so. Also the Taiwanese commercial

does only contain one person, which is uncharacteristic for collectivistic cultures; however it is seen

frequently in beauty commercials. The collectivistic values are still detectable in the commercial as

the model is portrayed as an ordinary woman so people can relate to her, which is important in

collectivistic cultures.

The need of identification with the spokesperson could maybe explain why the model is smiling

even though Taiwan is an emotional neutral culture. Contrary to the Taiwanese commercial, the

American commercial does not display many feelings and the facial expression of the model is very

neutral. There is only a suggestion of a smile detectable; however this may indicate that she is

satisfied with her situation. Somehow this creates a feeling that the American model is a role model,

someone to look up to.

The fact that the model is a celebrity in the American commercial is paradoxical as the United

States is a culture of relatively low power distance. However, in the world of advertising other rules

30


applies as rich and famous people are subjects of great admiration. Being a culture with a high

power distance, the display of power and status is often seen in Taiwanese commercials. The

country has a clear societal hierarchy, however in this commercial power is displayed implicit via

the skin colour.

The implicit display of power in the Taiwanese commercial could be related to the mixture of

feminine and masculine values present in the Taiwanese culture, as power and status is important,

but being modest about it is also important. In the American commercial the masculine values of

the culture is openly displayed as the model is a famous actress. Celebrity endorsement is often seen

in masculine cultures as celebrities have achieved success and they are therefore symbols of

winners.

The United States is a low-context culture. This can be detected in the commercial as a clear

description of the product is available to the reader. In reality Taiwan is a high-context culture and

therefore little information is needed. However since Taiwan has a high uncertainty avoidance, a

strong need for product explanations is detectable.

7.4. Product syntax

Product syntax determines the choice of products. In connection to this thesis product syntax

determines what the right type of skin-colouring cream is and what it should do to the skin. When

applying Foucault it becomes evident that syntax is deeply influenced by the power relations in the

societies. In the United States being successful and wealthy is desirable and by using the bronzing

skin-colouring cream people can create the illusion of just having returned from a vacation. Thereby

that they create an illusion of being successful and powerful, travelling the world and living the

good life. Applying Foucault to the Taiwanese commercial, it becomes evident that the Western

creation of the Orient still creates unequal power relations. The Taiwanese people are caught in the

reflection of “them” and “us” and therefore white skin colour becomes desirable.

However one must remember that, according to Søderberg and Hall, everybody can create their own

identity. Therefore there could be several reasons for applying these kinds of creams besides the

cultural values. In our modern societies identities are fragmented and changes to fit different

situations. A person contains several identities e.g. the student, the daughter, the girlfriend etc.

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Therefore it is not impossible that a person would apply whitening skin-colouring cream one day

and then bronzing skin-colouring cream the next, as long as it fits into the context.

8. Conclusion

The aim of this report was to investigate if any cultural values could be found in American and

Taiwanese commercials for skin-colouring creams. Further it was the aim to analyse differences

between the two countries values. Finally it was the aim to examine if the product itself could be

inscribed any cultural value.

Based on the analyses of the American and Taiwanese commercials, I can conclude that cultural

values are revealed in the commercials. By applying Barthes’ denotative and connotative levels it

was possible for me to analyse the deeper meaning of the commercials and thereby discover the

cultural elements of the commercials, e.g. that the American model is a symbol of the American

dream.

Hofstede’s and Trompenaars dimensions have been a useful set of tools for uncovering cultural

values of the two countries. The cultural elements found in the American commercial are values of

individualistic, masculine and achievement-oriented cultures. These dimensions were expressed via

the display of a single model in the commercial, who additionally is a famous actress. However, it

seems paradoxical that a celebrity is used as spokesperson, as low power distance cultures normally

have little tolerance for authorities; but celebrities are objects of great admiration and therefore

often used in advertising. Celebrities are symbols of success, wealth, winners, and the American

dream. This is also expressed in the facial expression that is very neutral, however she looks very

content. There is created a distance between her and “us” in the commercial and thereby she

becomes someone to look up to.

In contrast the cultural elements found in the Taiwanese commercial express the values of a

collectivistic culture with high power distance. However, also elements of femininity can be traced

in the commercial. Also this commercial displays a single model, which seems paradoxical as

Taiwan is collectivistic. Nevertheless this is normal for that type of commercial. Still the

collectivistic values are detectable as the model portrayed is someone ordinary that people can

relate to. This is further supported by the model’s smile, which is uncharacteristic for a neutral

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emotional culture. Moreover the high power distance in Taiwan is incorporated in the commercial,

even though shown very implicit via the models almost white skin colour. The fact that power is

shown implicit can be analysed as the feminine value modesty.

The results of my empirical analysis have proved that there are differences in the way the two

cultures reflect their values through advertising, but there are also similarities. The United States

employs a very explicit display of power and success by using a celebrity as the model. This

emphasises the masculine and individualistic values of the American culture and creates a role

model to look up to.

In contrast, Taiwan employs a very implicit display of power in their commercial. The power

possessed by the model is only indicated through her light and delicate skin colour. This seems

paradoxical since Taiwan scored high on power distance but it can be explained as a reflection of

the feminine value modesty that rules in Taiwan. The model in the Taiwanese commercial is

displayed as someone people can identify with and become, and not a role model as in the

American commercial.

However as earlier stated, similarities were also found in the commercials as both the commercials

emphasises that the product will improve life to the better. Further, in both cases, the linguistic

messages support the cultural values displayed in the visual.

Finally, I have found that to some extent the product itself can be analysed as inscribed with cultural

signs, since the different colours of the creams indicates the power relations of the societies. The

reason to wear it could be to create the illusion that you belong to the powerful. But the individual

can have her own reasons for applying skin-colouring cream.

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9. English Summary

It is very important for people to be seen as unique individuals with their own special identity, and a

way to reflect one’s identity is through clothes, accessories and make-up. Since the advent of

advertising, this has been applied by advertisers, as they in their commercials combine the

promotion of goods with positive images. Commercials are filled with products that promise

perfection and the people portrayed are all beautiful. However some argue that advertisements not

only promote different brands but that they also possess a more cultural role. According to the

critics, commercials tend to contain cultural elements and thereby they help to promote a particular

societal culture.

It is my belief that there are cultural signs to be found in national commercials and that cultural

differences can be found, even when the product represented is essentially the same.

Hence, it has been the purpose of this thesis to analyse an American and a Taiwanese commercial,

both for skin-colouring creams, to see if there are any cultural signs implied in them. Furthermore it

was an aim to examine if any cultural differences between the two commercials could be found.

Finally I aimed to analyse if the product itself could be inscribed by culturally significant signs.

In order to discover and interpret these cultural values, various theorists within the fields of culture,

advertising and semiotics have been applied. Within semiotics, the main theorist used was Roland

Barthes, who has created a helpful theory for decoding visual and linguistic signs in commercials.

By using his theory, I found that both commercials contain cultural signs. This became evident in

the way that e.g. the American commercial used a celebrity as a symbol of achieving the American

dream and the Taiwanese used white skin as a power symbol.

In order to clarify how the commercials are influenced by culture, I found especially Geert Hofstede

and Fons Trompenaars’ dimensions applicable, since they make it possible to separate one society’s

values from another’s. In addition, I combined Hofstede’s theory with Marieke de Mooij’s

examples of adverting appeals based on his dimensions, since this provides a link between culture

and advertising.

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The results of my comparative analysis have proved that there are several differences to be found in

the way the national values are reflected in the two cultures’ commercials.

The United States employs a very explicit display of power and success in their commercial by

using a celebrity as the model. This emphasises the masculine and individualistic values of the

American culture and creates a role model to look up to. Even though it seems paradoxical to use a

celebrity, in a culture with low power distance, it is seen frequently in the American commercials.

Celebrities are seen as people who have achieved the American dream and they are therefore

objects of great admiration. Thereby, the model becomes a role model.

In contrast, Taiwan employs a very implicit display of power in their commercial. The power

possessed by the model is only indicated through her light skin colour. This seems paradoxical since

Taiwan scored high on power distance. However the explanation could be that the implicit display

of power is a reflection of the feminine value modesty that rules in Taiwan. Furthermore the model

in the Taiwanese commercial is displayed as someone people can identify with and become and not

a role model as in the American commercial.

Also the facial expression of the two models differed considerable. In the American commercial

only a suggestion of a smile is detectable in the model whereas in the Taiwanese commercial the

model smiles. This seems paradoxical as Taiwan is seen as a neutral emotional culture that does not

show emotions in public. However, as it is important for people to be able to relate to the

spokesperson it seems appropriate that she appears friendly. In the American commercial it is more

important that the model is perceived as powerful and by only suggesting a smile, a certain distance

between her and “us” is created.

However, in my analysis, I also discovered similarities between the two commercials. Both

commercials emphasises that the product will improve life to the better. Furthermore, in both

commercials, the linguistic messages support the cultural elements displayed in the visuals.

Finally, I have found that to some extent the product itself can be analysed as inscribed with cultural

signs, since the different colours of the creams indicates the power relations of the societies. The

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reason to wear it could be to create the illusion that you belong to the powerful. But the individual

can have her own reasons for applying skin-colouring cream.

(The summary contains 3,998 signs without blanks)

(The thesis contains 54,986 signs without blanks)

36


10. Bibliography

Books:

Abercrombie, Nicholas; Hill, Stephen; Turner, Bryan S. (2006): The Penguin Dictionary of sociology. (5th edition) Harmondsworth, Penguin

Baldwin, Elaine; Longhurst, Brian; McCracken, Scott; Ogborn, Miles and Smith, Greg (2004): Introducing cultural studies. England: Pearson Education Limited

Barthes, Roland (1969): Mytologier. København: Duplex-Trykkeriet

Copper, John F. (2003): Taiwan. Nation-state or province? The United States: Westview Press.

De Mooij, Marieke (2005): Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.

De Mooij, Marieke (2004): Consumer Behaviour and Culture: Consequences for Global Marketing and Advertising. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.

Gudykunst, William and Kim, Young Yun (2003): Communicating with strangers. An approach to intercultural communication. Boston: Mcgraw-Hill.

Hall, Edward T. and Hall, Mildred Reed (1990): Understanding cultural differences. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press

Hall, Stuart; McGrew, Tony; Held, David (1992): Modernity and its futures. Oxford: Oxford U.P.

Hofstede, Geert (2001): Cultures Consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.

Hofstede, Geert and Hofstede, Gert Jan (2005): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill

Smith, Ken; Moriarty, Sandra; Barbatsis, Gretchen; Kenney, Keith (2005): Handbook of Visual Communication – Theory, Methods and Media. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Ting-Toomey, Stella (1999): Communication across cultures. Guilford Press

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Trompenaars, Fons and Hampden-Turner, Charles (1997): Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Articles:

Djursaa, Malene and Kragh, Simon Ulrik (1999): Product syntax and cross-cultural marketing strategies. In European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, No 11/12, 2001, pp. 1301-1319.

Jenkins, Richard (1994): Rethinking ethnicity: identity, categorization and power. In Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 17, Iss. 2, 1994, pp. 197-223. Routledge.

Søderberg, Anne-Marie (2004): Konstruktion af identitet og mening i en organisatorisk forandringsproces. In Kjærbeck, Susanne (2004): Historiefortælling i praktisk kommunikation. Denmark: Roskilde Universitetsforlag, pp. 53-79

Søderberg, Anne-Marie and Holden, Nigel (2002): Rethinking Cross Cultural Management in a Globalizing Business World. In International Journal of Cross Cultural Communication, Vol. 2(1), 2002, pp. 103-121

Internet addresses:

www.geert-hofstede.com

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http://www.geert-hofstede.com/


Enclosure 1: The American Commercial: Revlon

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Enclosure 2: The Taiwanese Commercial: Olay

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