..................................................................................................................TRIBUTE TO DMMY GRUCCI

(29 December 1940 - 26 November 1983)

Jimmy Grucci was an honored member of aremarkable profession - craftsmen whose artisticfunction is momentarily to change the face of theheavens themselves, to make the night sky morebeautiful than it is, and in the process give de­light and wonder to countless hundreds of thou­sands. It surely can be said that Jimmy Gruccidesigned, and prepared, and fired fireworks showsthat were witnessed by IlJore people in his life­time than any contemporary artist I can think of- including the great concert virtuosi, even themost fashionable of the pop stars: over a millionpeople watch the annual Venetian Night showalong the Chicago waterfront; over two millionwatched the Brooklyn Bridge Centennial this pastMay; Fireworks Night at Shea Stadium has in­variably filled every seat. Countless millions watch­ed this last Inauguration's fireworks on television.And Jimmy Grucci, of course, has been an integ­ral part in making Fireworks by Grucci responsiblefor these beautiful and mammoth displays. Oneof them, designed by him, won his family thechampionship of the world in Monte Carlo.

But I don't think these honors and renown ­the fact that Grucci has become a household word- mattered to him as much as the simple andwonderful art of fireworks themselves. Of his fam­ily Jimmy was the one involved to the point truly ofpassion. He worked in the fireworks assembly areafor as many as ten hours a day, six days a week.He loved making shells. He turned and admireda fireworks shell in his hand as a collector mightrelish a statue of jade. His favorite was the splitcomet - perhaps the most famous Americanshell ever made . . . in the sky tendrils of goldthat split at their ends, and then once again,until the entire night sky seems like lattice-work.He also liked noise, of course. Big reports. Hewould be letting the tradition down, certainly theItalian tradition, if there weren't a loud report ortwo, preferably nine or ten, to accompany things.He understood that curious resthetic balance thatcomes with the combination of beauty and harshconcussion.

In the evening, after work, after all those hoursof making fireworks, Jimmy would reach homeand immediately telephone his brother just downthe street to talk . . . fireworks. His recreation

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PYROTECHNICA: OCCASIONAL PAPERS IN PYROTECHNICS wasfirst published in October, 1977. It is an irregularly appearingserial dedicated specifically to the fireworks art, craft and science.Issues appear as soon as enough suitable articles are submittedby authors for publication. Therefore, there can be no certaintyas to when each issue will appear, but sustaining subscribersare notified of each new issue as it is published. Since the pub­lication has no control over the number of articles received ina given year, the number of issues published yearly will also vary.

Articles submitted to PYROTECHNICA may be on any aspectof pyrotechnics: chemistry and mechanics of devices and effects,design of devices or entire shows, background on chemicalsused, economics, history, book reviews, literature reviews andthe politics and law of pyrotechnics. Typewritten manuscriptsare given priority.

Much of the information published in PYROTECHNICA is ofa technical nature which could be dangerous if misapplied. Theeditorial staff and the publisher of PYROTECHNICA cannot be

after dinner was to relax, and on the great curvedextra-sized television screen at the foot of his bedsit and watch tapes of his favorite Grucci fireworksshows. What awoke him in the morning - and Imight add everyone else in the Grucci household- was an alarm-clock system rigged to that sameTV screen. At the wake-up hour it burst on andshowed the climactic moment of the Tchaikovsky1812 Overture as played outdoors by Arthur Fied­ler and the Boston Pops - the fireworks boomingand echoing over the Esplanade. There was noyawning and stretching in the Grucci household,his brother, Felix, once told me, no wiping the sleepfrom one's eyes: at the first sound of that alarmsystem, everyone was up!

What joy fireworks gave him, and what joy hegave us with them. Perhaps the most remarkablecharacteristic, I think of Jimmy, was not only hisenthusiastic nature but his attitude about fireworksand the public - his abhorrence of even thethought of not giving the public their mon~y's

worth. In a profession where it is easy to short­change the populace, how often I have seen himput an extra four or five shells in a show to givehis audience just a bit more than what was neces­sary. It was as if he were saying, perhaps theseextra shells will ignite something in you whichwill make you understand what the sheer wonderof it is - to take an inanimate object, a canister,a thing of chemicals and minerals, and like a ma­gician, an alchemist at his astonishing best, illumi­nate the skies with its performance.

There is a famous early nineteenth centuryessay by William Hazlitt about the death of a greatathlete of his time, John Cavanagh, in which Haz­litt says that when a person dies, who does anyone thing better than anyone else in the world,it leaves a gap in society. While this may be so,it is also true in reference to Jimmy (who madefireworks so beautiful that I have seen peoplebrought to tears by what they see in the sky) thatfireworks are an on-going and perpetuating art.Jimmy is one of a great tradition. He is one withClaude Ruggieri, Martin Beckman, Peter the Great,Vigarini, Brock - artists all. His family will con­tinue in that tradition. They will not allow a gapto be left in our society.

(Continued on Page 6)

.................................................held responsible for results, accidents or injuries occurring fromany applications of directions or formula:: published herein. Norcan any guarantee be made that all information, hypotheses,theories published herein are correct, or have been verified.Published information represents only the thinking of the authorsand does not necessarily reflect the opinions of the editorialstaff or the publisher.

The material in PYROTECHNICA is copyrighted under theU.S. Copyright law in effect since 1 January 1978. The pub­lisher provides extra copies of PYROTECHNICA to authors whosearticles appear therein, but in all other cases this publication isnot to be sold, reproduced, or generally distributed withoutwritten consent of the publisher, as under the new copyrightstatute.

Distribution of this publication is limited to paid sustainingsubscribers, those who request to remain on the mailing list andthose who subscribe on a per issue basis. Inquiries should beaddressed to the publisher.

REACTIONSReaders' forum and feedback center 4

CLASSIFIED ADVERTISINGAccess to fireworks and pyrotechnic supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

CONTENTS

George Plimpton . . . . . . inside front cover

Robert G. Cardwell .... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2

On the Covers: Front - Two 8" Grucci crossette (split comet) shells overCambridge, MA. Back - A Ruggieri Tableaux courtesy of Fireworksby Grucci. Photographs courtesy of Ken Clark, Boston, Massachusetts.Copyright Ken Clark © 1980; © 1978.

LITERATURE AND BOOKS IN REVIEWDr. Takeo Shimizu reviews the most important titles of Jap­anese pyrotechnic literature, and R. Cardwell reviews one ofthe most recently appearing American pyrotechnic books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

ROADSIDE STANDS TO STATE FAIRS:FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS Jim Wommack

A nostalgic account of a Carolina "fugey" - his odyssey froma boyhood of bunting-draped stands and mail-order fireworksto manhood as a professional shooter and maker of fireworksfor state fairs, carnivals and country clubs on the East Coast. 55

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELLCONSTRUCTION, Part I A. Fulcanelli

In this first of two parts, the traditional !talo-American methodof making single-break cylinder shells is covered. The first partbegins with a discussion of materials employed in the manufac­ture of cylinder shells and a step-by-step account of the methodof making a single break shell follows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7

FROM THE PUBLISHER

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL-A CONCEPT WHOSE TIME HAD COME M. P. Vander Horck

The founder of the Pyrotechnics Guild International recountsthe events leading to the creation of the PGI in 1969, and thengives an account of the first 13 years of this organization, inwhich it grows from a small, rather structureless club to a largeand highly structured organization 35

THE PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND PERCEPTIONOF COLORED FLAMES, Part II K. L. Kosanke

In the second part of this three part monograph, the chemistryof colored flames is discussed. Fundamental principles of chem­istry are reviewed for the benefit of pyrotechnists without formaltraining in chemistry, followed by sections on pyrochemicalflames for color production, the role of flame temperature, colorproduction in flames, flame reactions, control of flame chem­istry, and individual treatment of red, green, orange, blue, yel-low and purple flames 42

TRIBUTE TO JIMMY GRUCCI

From the Publisher""'il"=========~=========I"'"

Pyrotechnists in the United States have been fortu­nate enough to see the publication of much pyrotechnicliterature for about the past twenty years, consisting ofeverything from pamphlets, "chap books" and amateurserials (many of them quite good, albeit reaching avery limited audience), to the classic reference workssuch as Weingart (reprinted in 1968), Ellern and Lan­caster. Many of the former type of publication havebeen advertised in the classified ad sections of scienceand gun magazines and are to this day available aspyrotechnic instruction to the interested general public.

It seems the appearance of Max Vander Horck'sPyronews in November 1966 was one of the earliestexamples in American pyrotechnic history of a muchbroader phenomenon then just getting underway inAmerica, which contemporary "social forecasters" suchas Alvin: Tomer and John Naisbitt have referred to asthe "information explosion" and "networking." Groupshaving a common special interest discovered the "smallpress" and "co-op" in increasing numbers in the 1960s,and in a field as highly arcane and sparse of informa­tion as was amateur pyrotechny at that time, the merediscovery that there were many others "out there" withthe same interest enabled a great increase in activity,communication and information exchange. Once amateurpyrotechnists discovered that there were others sharingtheir rather peculiar hobby, a communications networkdeveloped amongst them which continues to this day.It was perhaps no coincidence that back in the veryearly days, so many of the subscribers to Pyronews andAmerican Pyrotechnist were ham radio operators!

Not only was there a certain psychological securityin numbers, there was also a market. Since the 1960s,a veritable mini-industry has evolved to supply thepyrotechnist's need for information, chemicals and othersupplies, finished goods and even camaraderie. Cama­raderie, of course, came to be supplied by the Pyrotech­nics Guild International, Inc. (PGII), conceived andbegun by Vander Horck in 1969. Vander Horck, if notthe father of American amateur pyrotechny, is thefather of amateur pyrotechny's premier organization,the PGII, and so we are greatly pleased to publish hisown account of the PGII to its earliest days, whichwill intrigue those readers who don't know about theguild as well as those who joined the later, more matureguild of recent years. The PGII has perhaps finally be­gun to achieve recognition in the national media andin many ways is thus at a crossroads in its evolution.It seems to be an appropriate time therefore to examineits history, in order to get an idea of what it is becoming.

Like many of the procedures in the assembly of anypyrotechnic device, much of the pyrotechnic literatureis also repetitive. Reading the pyrotechnic literature ofthe past, there is always a certain amount of "reinvent­ing the wheel," which is perpetuated each time a newpyrotechnic text or article is published. Introductions ofnew materials and procedures are few and far between,yet this phenomenon of seeing essentially the same in­structions published and republished is probably im­portant to the continued existence of the rank amateur,because most of these publications, whether books orserials, have small press runs and are not long in print.And as we all know, finding pyrotechnic references in

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public libraries nowadays is about as easy as locatinga personal copy of Kentish or Brock in the rare booktrade!

Where possible, we try to make PYROTECHNICA avehicle for the innovations in pyrotechny, or at leastnew ways of looking at old problems. We are fullyaware that there are any number of texts and articlesalready published (and still in print) from which onecan get the "basics." We are also aware that we some­times publish articles on controversial or at least greatlydebated topics, such as the use of potassium perchloratefor color stars in lieu of potassium chlorate, the use ofnon-aqueous solvent systems for binding stars, etc. Afew readers sometimes may even write to say that some­thing we have published is "ill-advised" or "impossibleto duplicate." These controversies bring to mind Alex­ander von Humboldt's remark about inventions, whichseems to apply equally well to pyrotechnic innovations,viz., an invention goes through three stages: doubt ofits existence, denial of its importance, and, finally,proper credit for its discovery going to the wrong person!

One criticism some have leveled at PYROTECHNICAin the past has been that it contained too much theoryand not enough practice. I would respond that we dotry to cover new areas of the science where possible,rather than simply "reinventing the whee1." If there hasindeed been a paucity of "how-to-do-it" articles, it isonly because so few of them have been sent to us, orwere sent elsewhere. I feel that a happy medium can bereached between being the very dry reading of a collegephysics library and the chatty ebullience of the back­yard amateur. If I am proven wrong, at least these nineissues have been an experimental attempt to arrive atthis golden mean. With this in mind, we are pleased topublish in this issue Part I of A. Fulcanelli's "Tradi­tional Cylinder Shell Construction," which should warmthe heart of any pyrotechnist who could not read theaccounts of Izzo, Di Maio or De Francesco (all in Ital­ian) on this subject, or were left (literally) "holdingthe bag" by the short descriptions given in Davis, Wein­gart and more recent literature in English on cylindershells. It is ironic that the first published accounts ofthe traditional Italian methods covered in the Fulcanelliwork occurred almost a century before the eventualdecline of the technique in America. It is true that manyfine shells using the techniques described by Fulcanellican be seen today in both Italy and America, but avail­able evidence indicates that this occurs much less fre­quently than in the less complex and less industrializedperiod before World War II.

Although an account and illustration is given ofrudimentary cylindrical shells in Alberti's La pirotech­nia 0 sia trattato dei fuochi d'artificio (Venice, 1749),the first published accounts of the methods approximat­ing those in the present work are Di Maio's Pirotecniamoderna (Milan, 1891) and Antoni's Trattato teorico­pratico di pirotecnia civile (Trieste, 1893). Most of thenow-basic technique for both single and multiple-breakshells appears (taking into account changes and omis­sions) in these books and later Italian books; the sectionon shells in Izzo's book of 1950 is a facsimile of the DiMaio text and the figures are reproduced from the

PYROTECHNICA • IX

earlier book as well! Antoni mentions that multiple­break shells had been popular for "a few years." Thusmost of the techniques known today were in use in Italybefore the mass migration of Italians to America from1890 to 1910.

The factors leading to the mass exodus of Italiansfrom their newly unified nation are numerous and com­plex and are covered adequately in books on Italianhistory. Extant immigration statistics show that themajority of Italians who came to America were fromthe impoverished southern part of the peninsula (fromNaples southward) and from Sicily. Most of the immi­grants leaving the more affluent northern parts of Italywent to Northern Africa or South America, especiallyBrazil and Argentina. Such considerations become veryimportant to the pyrotechnic historian because (untilsuch time as Italian pyrotechnists become less secretive)these immigration statistics, variances in Italian jargonrelating to shell nomenclature (paired with some aware­ness of regional Italian dialects and linguistics), andknowledge of the origins in Italy of the particular fire­works families who emigrated to America, are whatevidence we have to indicate that the current "Italo­American" techniques of making cylinder shells mostlyoriginated in southern Italy'.

Newspaper records show that a few of these Italianimmigrants went into the fireworks business sometimebetween 1893 and 1895. Considering the economic de­pression which began in 1893, one wonders if even thenfireworks were considered as an occupation only of thelast resort, when all else had failed. Most of the Italian­American firms began as small, family-run businessesand many to this day use a "cottage industry" approach.As the Italian immigrant became more integrated intoAmerican society and new opportunities arose for hiseducated children, many of these families were leftwithout anyone to carryon the business. Other firmsdisappeared forever in the Great Depression.

1 The Italian immigrants who established companies in Americawere mostly from the southern Italian regions of Campania,around Naples (e.g., Zambelli, Rozzi, Vitale, Presutti, Girone),or Puglia around Bari (e.g., Lo Russo, Grucci). A few otherswere from Sicily or Sardinia (e.g., Porcheddu). The Italianinflux into America coincided with the decline of the manu­facturers of English, German and American descent.

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Certainly many of the new generation preferred togo into a profession with a steadier, more secure income.Some fireworks men forced their sons out of the fire­works business into what they considered more "re­spectable" professions. The old Italian-American fire­worker would no doubt be bewildered by the contempo­rary phenomenon ot younger people leaving occupationsaffording job security and high incomes to make a "go"of it in the fireworks business!

With the modern realities of the minimum wage,worker's compensation, OSHA regulations, etc., themost beautiful and complex of the Italian shells are notprofitable to produce; they are too time-consuming andlabor-intensive. One does hear an occasional story ofthe wealthy Italian-American fireworks man, but if thereis such a thing, it is more the result of shrewd market­ing, promotional and public relations efforts, and im­porting large quantities of cheaper Oriental goods, ratherthan any role played by the popularity of a three-breakcrossette, a large rosette, timed report, or other fancyshell. Considering the waning of the fancy cylindricalshell, the Fulcanelli work is especially timely and im­portant.

Finally, readers will also find in this issue Part IIof Dr. Ken Kosanke's three-part work, "The Physics,Chemistry and Perception of Colored Flames." Part IIdeals with chemistry and will be of great interest tothose who have recently purchased Part II of the Eng­lish translation of Dr. Shimizu's Fireworks from a Phys­ical Standpoint, which we also recently published.

I have received some comments about the long leadtime between Nos. VIII and IX, but would call atten­tion to the size of the present issue, which is almosttwo issues in one! Preparation of the translation of Dr.Shimizu's Feuerwerk took up much time during 1983,there were other irons in the fire at all times, and someon our staff chose to divert much of their attention andlimited time to preparing the PGI Bulletin. Be that asit may, No. IX is now at hand, and I hope all ourseasoned readers will find it worthy of the rather longwait.

ROBERT G. CARDWELL

1 January 1984

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REACTIONS

REACTIONS is the readers' forum and feedback department in which amateur and professional fireworkers from all overthe world exchange ideas, opinions and information on pyrotechnic theory and practice. They can also share descriptionsand photographs of their more spectacular displays or devices with readers. Ideas and opinions expressed in REACTIONS

receive no implied endorsement from the editorial staff, reflecting only the thought or opinions of the writer. Sufficientexplanation or description should accompany all submitted photographs.

Part of the success in using strobe formulre dependsupon the manner in which the "stars" are made. Compo­sitions which contain a water soluble binder such as dextrinmay be moistened until quite wet and putty-like and thenshredded through a grate onto a tarp or other flexible sur­face which has been dusted with meal powder. Some of theparticles or "stars" will appear to be wormlike extrusionsapproximately 118 -inch in diameter and have a somewhatscaly surface. Their lengths vary from 1;8 -inch to an inchor so. These are then dusted again with meal powder andafterwards the tarp or flexible surface is folded back onitself gently several times to further distribute the mealpowder and to allow the longer pieces to fall against them­selves and break into smaller lengths. It is important thatone does not prepare too much material at one time onone tarp so that the weight of the stars falling against them­selves reduces the stars to fine particles. Three or fourpounds of composition may be prepared on a 3 x 3 foottarp. The stars may be more or less evenly redistributedupon the tarp to allow drying. This requires a little finesseas the little pieces are rather easily crushed. Drying occursrapidly at 70° to lOO°F. When dry the stars are ready foruse. They may be successfully added amongst other starsin starshells or to a centrally located bursting charge. Theyignite easily and generally flash from three to seven times.Because of their size, they descend less rapidly, hence littleproblem is encountered with ignited material hitting theground.

I should add that when dry, the stars should be placedon an 8-mesh screen and the fines sifted out. Do not how­ever throw the fines away as these tiny particles may beadded to fountains, gerbs, etc., or may even be used in thesame way as the larger pieces.

GARY FossFoss Fireworks, Inc.

Salmon, Idaho

Following Joel Baechle's suggestion (ELectric SpreaderStars, PYROTECHNICA III), I made up a batch of electricspreader stars using potassium perchlorate instead of po­tassium chlorate. I used the same weights as in the chlor­ate formula, merely substituting the perchlorate for chlor­ate. This "pound for pound" substitution worked quite wellfor me, both in pyrotechnics and in the chemical industry.

All the chemicals were mixed as described by Baechle.The charcoal all passed 35-mesh and was all retained upona 20-mesh sieve, carefully sifted to remove any minus 40­mesh dust. The charcoal mesh size is an important para­meter - if air-floated charcoal is used, an entirely differenteffect is obtained. The mixture (one kilogram) was cut upinto rather large cubic stars, about % -inch on a side.

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The effect, as Weingart says, is quite surprising. Whenignited on the ground, a small piece will 'spatter over anarea of 15 feet. Spreader stars made with potassium per­chlorate behaved similarly. However, when shotfrom shells,this effect was absent, much to my chagrin. In this respect,they behave much like glitter stars, giving one effect on theground and a quite different one when falling through theair. Each star resembled a sort of unique hummer, emittinggreenish, spidery or spindly type sparks. The stars gave avery audible humming noise as well, similar to the Class Cdevice known as "jumping jacks." All the stars appearedto ignite, even though they were not primed. This is un­doubtedly because of the presence of the charcoal and thepotassium dichromate, both of which enhance ignition(Shimizu, 1982).

There is an interesting little book entitled Zinc Dustand Powder, which does not contain much specifically onpyrotechnics, but is well worth the price. It is available for$3.00 from the International Lead Zinc Research Organi­zation, Inc., 292 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017.This book is a "must" for spreader star aficionados!

ALEX SCHUMANLatexo, Texas

This letter concerns ferro-aluminum and its potentialuse in glitter mixes. My first experiments with ferro-alumi­num (200 mesh, 50: 50 alloy) were conducted in blackpowder type gerb mixtures, and it was with these that Ifirst noticed one of this material's unusual characteristics:the sparks produced were orange-gold in color when theyinitially left the case, but changed to a white color justbefore burning out.

The next logical step was to try the material in a starcomposition, and the first decent formula I arrived at wasone which is essentially a modified willow formula:

Pts %Meal powder (D) 8 38Charcoal (fine) 4 19Potassium nitrate . . . . . . . . . .. 4 19Ferro-aluminum 4 19Dextrin 1 5Water As required

I made this into cubical cut stars, 112 -inch on a side. Theyburn quite fast, and could, perhaps, be made a little larger,but are quite handsome in a three inch or larger shell witha fairly heavy break charge. The effect is a dense, fine­grained, blonde willow, the dual-colored sparks blending togive the overall impression of blonde or "straw." Severalpersons have commented that it appears to be two colorssimultaneously, which, indeed, seems to be the case. I haveheard that ferro-titanium can produce similar effects, though

PYROTECHNICA • IX

I had none of this material with which to compare ferro­aluminum alloy.

Shortly after I began using the mixture mentionedabove, I had the opportunity to read your paper on glitter(PYROTECHNICA II) and, naturally, began to wonder howferro-aluminum would perform in such compositions. Imade up the same mixture you used to screen the variousmetals in your study. With this, my powder gave only avery sparse glitter with quite a long delay, not a usableeffect.

I subsequently tried substituting the ferro-aluminumdirectly for aluminum in the following glitter formula,which I had previously used successfully, as follows:

%Potassium nitrate 48Barium nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10Charcoal IISulfur 16Ferro-aluminum 10Dextrin 5

This mixture produces a very interesting effect, if not en­tirely a full-fledged glitter. The dual-color effect is accen­tuated and my impression is that the orange (iron) phaseof the sparks occurs as usual, while the white (aluminum)terminal phase is delayed, as would be straight aluminum.This results in the stars resembling tube inserts while theyare falling through the air, with an orangish head trailingback several feet before changing abruptly to a fine-grainedblonde or cream color. The "white" in this effect, as in theforegoing formula, is what one would call "soft," ratherthan a brilliant "electric" white.

Doubling the amount of ferro-aluminum in the lastformula results in a dramatically different effect. In thiscase, the effect is a true glitter, and the aluminum reactionbecomes coarser and brilliant white.

I think that ferro-aluminum, as evidenced by just thesethree randomly selected formulce, is an unusually versatilematerial. It can be used to produce a variety of effects, therange of which I have only begun to explore. No doubtthere are better ways of using it waiting to be discovered,and other interesting effects to be had from powders withvarious particle sizes and alloy metal ratios. It seems totolerate water very well, and I have not had trouble withcorrosion or short shelf life.

JOHN BERGMANJanesville, Wisconsin

Two recent comments in PYROTECHNICA VIII have im­pelled me to hasten to the typewriter to reply. The firstconcerns the Royal Wedding. Until now I have kept ratherquiet about this but now that an anonymous letter hasappeared in your Reactions, and since it has come to myears that many people in the U.S. think that I was in chargeof the Royal Wedding display in London, I thought thatI ought to set the record straight. I did not do it, it wasPains.

In 1976 when preparations were being started for theJubilee celebrations, I was still doing consultant work forthe large firm of Pains-Wessex Ltd. of Salisbury. TheLondon Celebrations Committee was formed at that timeand I was invited to join it in order to advise them aboutthe firework displays. This Committee was quite an inde­pendent body and five major displays were planned forJubilee day. About this time the young man who had beentrained and who made much of these displays and I both

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left Pains-Wessex and fireworks were phased out of theSalisbury production.

... Regarding the Royal Wedding, one cannot be cer­tain about the politics but when I heard that the man incharge of the display intended to re-create the originalRoyal Fireworks and build a giant facade, I realized thatthey were on a hiding to nothing. Anyone with real experi­ence of the business could have made the point that yousimply cannot put fireworks against a wall. The smoke willeither come forwards and rise or go sideways. Whicheverway it would obscure many of the fireworks and there wasno way in which we would have wished to be involved insuch a doubtful enterprise.

I felt rather sorry for the man organizing the displayand it became increasingly obvious that two other peoplewere keen to do the show and we were keen to do our owntype of display. In the meantime, the most tremendousclaims were coming out in the media to the point of em­barrassment - yet we knew that the money available forfireworks was not much more than, for example, the displayin 1978 for the anniversary of the Coronation. I was askedto go to Jersey to put on a show which was approachingthe same size as the one in Hyde Park and we did, even­tually seeing the Hyde Park display on TV.

In the end, our fears were realized. The truth is thatthe Royal Wedding show in Hyde Park was not properlyorganized, there was a lack of the right kind of materialand many of those involved simply did not have experienceof the type needed.

At the risk of being offensive to some, I do feel thatwe have too many people now who think that because theyhave done a few firework displays that they are "experts."Many call themselves "professionals" but the fact is thatthey do not make fireworks. Anyone can go so far but theyget ideas which are too big and they overstretch them­selves; motives vary, it may be egocentricity, the need toget to the top, or simply just money. However, I was an­noyed for two main reasons:

(1) There were three of us in the old U.K. fireworkindustry with a hundred years of experience between usand not one of us was involved.(2) Few displays have had such publicity in recenttimes and I feel that personal ambitions should not beallowed to play a part in such great occasions. Some­body did not do his homework properly, and in anycase, the show should not have been entrusted to justone man.The second point I wanted to make concerns the review

of Dr. Shimizu's new book which appeared in PYROTECH­NICA VIII. I suppose it is the duty of a reviewer to statethe facts as he sees them but it might be of interest to knowwhy the English in the book is in the form it is. I havea tremendous admiration for Dr. Shimizu who has gone toenormous lengths to learn both English and German andthe fact that the book is in English is due to his efforts.When I agreed to correct the English for him I had tomake a very clear decision. Either I completely re-wrotethe book in a new style or I did the best I could with theexisting style. It took many weeks to correct the existingstyle but at least the book is more or less as Dr. Shimizuwrote it. I thought the readers might like to know this.

REV. RONALD LANCASTERKimbolton Fireworks

Kimbolton, England, U.K.

REACTIONS

The report in the Reactions section of PYROTECHNICAVIII of the death of Mr. Cost Mifsud which was attributedto his working with a potassium chlorate-antimony trisul­fide salute mixture raises questions as to the sensitivity ofvarious compositions to static ignition.

There is little in the literature as to the spark sensitiv­ity of pyrotechnic compositions other than those used bythe military. Recently, however, information has been pub­lished on two mixtures used in the production of fireworks:black powder, and the potassium chloride-antimony trisul­fide salute mixture.

Work has been performed by Li and Wang, at theBeijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, People's Republicof China, as reported in the Journal of Electrostatics, 1982,11(3), 319-32, (also see Chemical Abstracts, 97:25936a).They found the minimum value for energy required tocause the ignition of black powder 50% of the time to be26.4 mJ (millijoules).

K. Lovold and T. Middleton, in their article "Ignitionof Explosive Powders by Electric Sparks" (Foredrag vidPyroteknikdagen, 1977, pp. 137-171) report that "of partic­ular interest is the result obtained for the meal powder,which ignited at energies down to 45 mJ ... The resultsof these tests cannot be considered minimum ignition ener­gies for the tested samples."

It has been reported that the human body is capableof generating sparks with energy in the 20 mJ range withease; therefore, one would be wise to exercise caution whendealing with meal powder or with compositions containingmeal powder ingredients, such as fountains, rockets, driv­ers, etc.

Potassium chlorate-antimony trisulfide mixtures havelong been known to b..: dangerous. Faber (1919) points outthat "... it is also of such susceptibility that extraordinarycare is required in the handling of it, or a premature ex­plosion may result." K. Lovold and T. Middleton in theirarticle, "Characterization of the Sensitivity of ExplosivePowders to Electric Sparks, a Proposed Testing Method"(Pyroteknikdagen, 1980, pp. 49-85) noted that "... twoof the compositions (2 and 5; 2 = Sb2Sg + KC10g , 5 =Zr + Pb02 ) showed high frequencies of ignition for shortduration (1-10 microseconds) sparks with energies in therange of 0.1 - 1.0 mJ . . . Spark energies in this rangewould be barely noticeable as static electric discharges froma person."

There would appear to be little excuse to use potas­sium chlorate-antimony trisulfide salute mixtures since goodsubstitutes are available. The use of meal powder and mealpowder-type mixtures is another problem and is best han­dled by making sure that all guards against the generationof stray sparks are in place; i.e., non-sparking tools, elec­trical grounds to all metal in the shop, cotton socks andclothing, maintenance of high humidity, and not pettingthe cat while working!

DONALD J. HAARMANNFlushing, New York

Regarding the editorial by Dr. Winokur in PYROTECH­NICA VIII: I appreciate that the BATF has become a loteasier to deal with, but we need to ask why. It is not be­cause they are really nice guys, or that they would be soif left to their own devices. Rather, political pressure fromCongress and the Reagan administration has forced themto behave more reasonably. Absent that pressure and thereis every reason to believe they would conduct themselvesjust as they did in the bad old days. If fireworks enthusi-

6

asts and the POI are to do anything, they ought to joinforces with the NRA, NMLRA, APA, and other organiza­tions to keep the pressure on.

J. F. HELVETIUSNew Cothen, PA

... You are so kind to send your beautiful fireworksjournal to this firecracker enthusiast. Warm good wishes.

DR. JOHN ARCHIBALD WHEELERDirector, Center for Theoretical Physics

The University of Texas at AustinAustin, Texas

Tribute to Jimmy Grucci(continued from inside front cover)

Jimmy Grucci and Donna Gruber with his favorite shells.17 August 1983

Jimmy Grucci with W. R. Withrow at Bellport plant.17 August 1983

(Photo credits: W. R. Withrow)

Artists are perhaps fortunate in that they leaveevidence after they have gone - books, concertos,paintings, ballets, and who here in this church will notremember Jimmy Grucci and what he brought to thisart when they see an especially lovely shell blossomin the night sky.

In the ancient Greek scheme of things mortals werepenalized by the Gods when they went beyond thebounds and became God-like themselves. In those times,the people would have said about the terrible tragedyof last week that the Gods were taking exception, ven­geance, because Jimmy Grucci was doing better withthe heavens than they could ever dream of.

GEORGE PLIMPTON30 November 1983

ED. NOTE: George Plimpton delivered this eulogy at Mary Im­maculate Church, Bellport, New York, on the event of thefuneral of Jimmy Grucci, who was killed along with familymember Donna Gruber 26 November 1983 in a tragic explosionat the Grucci factory at Bellport. - RGC

PYROTECHNICA • IX

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

Part I

A. Fulcanelli

Siccome alla fucina in MongibelloFabbrica tuono il demonio VulcanoBatte folgori e foco col martello ...

- Berni, Orlando lnnamorato

INTRODUCTION

The present work describes the construction of theItalian (or, more properly, Italo-American) style cylin­drical shell. The Italian style shell seems to have devel­oped sometime shortly after the introduction of potassiumchlorate had greatly improved and expanded the rangeof pyrotechnic colors about the mid-nineteenth century.

The Italian pyrotechnists used empirical methods toarrive at highly complex and sophisticated shell effects.Although most pyrotechnists were without a scientificapproach and many were no doubt illiterate, it must beremembered that the human eye is an optical instrumentwith incredible resolution which can perceive vast rangesof light magnitude. The human ear can detect a WIderange of sounds, pitches, frequencies and intensities,and when these sense organs are combined with thebrain's miraculous capacity for logic and memory, muchcan be accomplished without a knowledge of the scien­tific method, a notebook, stopwatch, or formal study ofphysics and chemistry. Thus there is often more to ac­cumulated folk wisdom than would meet the analytical,scientific eye.

For most all of pyrotechny's recorded history, therocket has been the predominant aerial firework. Beforechlorate colors were introduced, shells were used muchless frequently in recreative fireworks and were consid­ered mainly for military applications. Most all shellsdescribed in English, French and German pyrotechnicliterature before the mid-nineteenth century were spher­ical. They were often constructed from wooden hemi­spheres filled with cut stars and a small amount ofbursting charge. They usually broke -into a disorderly"heap" with no consistency in the results. Using lessexpensive and less sophisticated materials, the Italianpyrotechnists were able to obtain more beautiful effects,more symmetry in the breaks and more consistentresults in the effects desired by relying on a cylindricallyformed shell design. In addition, by bringing the spoletteto its full potential as a timing device, they succeededin producing an almost infinite number of complex com­binations of color and sound.

The Italian style shell was well developed by the endof the nineteenth century. Unfortunately, economic andpolitical upheavals in Italy came to a head at this time,forcing many Italians, especially those from southernItaly, to emigrate to the United States, bringing theirfirework skills with them. They went into business,

7

mostly in small shops like the ones they had in Italy.Most of these Italian immigrants were very secretiveabout their methods of manufacture and passed thistradition on to their sons. Many of these descendantswould probably scoff at an attempt to put techniqueinto print, feeling that not only would it be unwise, butalso impossible. They point to the fact that two workersgiven the same instructions, tools and materials moreoften than not will produce two very different results,proving that it is not so much the information which isimportant as it is that the worker have a "feel" for whathe is to do. There is some truth to this argument, whichthe tyro will readily discover should he be lucky enoughto observe an old, Italian master craftsman build a com­plicated shell. The tyro returns to his own workshopconfident that he will duplicate the work he has seen,and is often greatly disappointed with his first trials.

Nevertheless, this argument against the publicationof technique weakens with the passage of time becausethe technique is passed on to fewer and fewer familymembers with each successive generation, and now risksbeing lost entirely. Many of the more complex shellsare rarely (if ever) seen at displays by the generalAmerican public. Thus it was felt that a detailed writtenaccount should be made in English, before a time comeswhen these techniques are impossible to reconstruct.Materials change and memories fade, yet one must knowwhat came before in order to create what will follow.

While it is the purpose of this work to preserve thehigh art of multi-function shell construction, one muststart at the beginning. Therefore the assembly of single­break shells will be treated in this first published in­stallment.* The pyrotechnist should be familiar with thematerials and nomenclature which are used in shellconstruction and this is discussed in the first section. Thetraditional procedure for assembling a single-break starshell then follows, with each step of the assembly des­cribed in detail. Finally, reports or salutes are discussedas well, since they are an essential part of so manyItalian style shell effects. The methods described, thoughItalian in origin, have evolved to become thoroughlyHalo-American in nature and the materials employedcan be readily obtained throughout the United States.

*Multiple-break and more complex multi-function shells will betreated in Part II.

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS AND NOMENCLATUREThe construction of traditional Italian style cylindri­

cal shells requires that the pyrotechnist be familiar withmany raw materials which have numerous other purposesin industry. Such materials as black gunpowder, papers,cordage and glue come in many different varieties andgrades and the pyrotechnist must know which type topurchase for making shells, or run the risk of buyinglarge quantities of unusable supplies. Therefore, a sur­vey of the materials used in shell making and the nomen­clature to be encountered follows.Burst and Lift Powders

The most common powder in use for shell burstand for shell lift in the United States is FFA Blasting,which is commercially manufactured and can be pur­chased by the pyrotechnist through dealers in industrialexplosives. It should be pointed out that the standardU.S. grades of black powder have varied widely inquality through the years, and formerly the granulationof FFA powder was more uniform in size, with less ofthe finer-grained powder it is now often found to con­tain.

FFFFA Blasting powder is occasionally used forlifting smaller shells and it is also used in making variousshell components.

Meal D powder is used for charging the tubes forspolettes. In some countries, manufactured black pow­der is too costly or difficult to obtain, and pyrotechniststhere have made a practice of making meal powder byball-milling, later making the meal into grain powderby damping, pressing and screening it.

Black powder grades also vary from country tocountry. The U.S. system of grading has often confusedpyrotechnists in other countries. For the sake of clarity,the table below, from Lancaster (1972), describes themesh sizes of the powder granulations unique to theAmerican system, offered as a comparison with foreignpowders.

Table 1. U.S. black powder grades(from Lancaster, 1972)

Type U.S. Sieve NumbersFFA 4/12FFFA 10/16FFFFA , 12/50FFFFFA , " 20/50FFFFFFA 30/50FFFFFFFA 40/100Meal D ,........... + 50Fine Meal . . . . . . . . . . . . .. + 100Extra fine meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. + 140

Some blasting powders are glazed with graphite pow­der during manufacture and this is usually destined forsale to the black powder firearms market. Unglazedpowders are preferred for use in shell manufacture.

"B" Blasting powders are not used for shell manu­facture because they are too weak and slow-burning,as well as hygroscopic (being made with sodium nitrateinstead of potassium nitrate as used in "A" Blastingpowders).Rough Powder

A rough, home-made powder is sometimes used inthe manufacture of shells, often called polverone (liter­ally, "large powder" or "coarse powder"). This is asieve-mixed composition of saltpeter, charcoal, sulfur,and dextrine to bind it, made without milling or grind-

8

A. FULCANELLI

ing, dampened and granulated by rubbing through acoarse screen.

The mixtures in use approximate traditional gun­powder proportions, often with a slight increase in thepercentages of charcoal and sulfur. The following re­ceipts in Table 2 are typical.

Table 2. Rough powder formulae1 2 3

Parts % Parts % Parts %Potassium

nitrate ... 18 68.6 20 65.6 24 65.8Charcoal,

air-floateddust ..... 4 15.2 5 16.4 61/2 17.8

Sulfur ...... 3 11.4 4 13.1 4 11.0Dextrine .... lY4 4.8 IVz 4.9 2 5.5

After breaking up any large lumps that may haveformed in the saltpeter, the ingredients are hand-mixedand sieved two or three times through a 20-mesh screen(common window screen is quite adequate)., The re­sultant mixture is dampened with water' until it is wetenough to cohere in clumps when squeezed together inthe hand; it must neither have a tendency to flake apart(not enough water) nor be muddy, like powder slurryfor priming (too wet). Because the moisture contentof the charcoal, local atmospheric humidity, and suchconditions vary so greatly, it is almost impossible tospecify moisture content to be added, but it will befound that from one-tenth up to one-fifth the weightof the dry mixture of water may be required. Someshell makers add more or less water to the compositiondepending upon the use to which the powder is to beput. Less water makes a softer grain, more likely tocrumble to powder; more water makes a harder grain.

Work the water into the composition with the hands(rubber gloves are desirable in this dirty operation)until it is uniformly damp and can be worked into alarge, coherent mass. It is necessary to have a granu­lating screen at hand, made with 4 x 4 hardware cloth(wires form 1;4" squares) and I x 2 lumber for a rim.Star-drying screens are also required, of approximately2 x 3 feet, and are to be lined with 30-lb. kraft paper.Lay the granulating screen atop a paper-lined star­drying screen, so it is supported by the rims of the dry­ing screen. Break off a chunk of the dampened compo­sition about the size of a softball, and rub it throughthe screen. When all the composition has passed through,rub the screen with the hands, shake it, invert it, ruband shake again to clear as much of the damp compo­sition that may be adhering.

Proceed to another screen and repeat the operationsuntil all of the composition has been granulated. Thepowder should not be much deeper than 1/2" on thebottom of each drying screen, as the granules have atendency to stick together under their own weight. About21/2 - 3 lbs. of composition (dry weight) per screen isa desirable amount.

If dried in a well-ventilated, shady, warm location,the rough powder should be dry in 2 - 3 days. Avoidplacing it in the sun immediately after granulation, lestthe saltpeter leach to the surface of the granules. Whendry, it should be taken up off the kraft sheets lining thescreens, any large caked masses of granules broken upwith the hands, and finally sieved through one of thegranulating screens.

PYROTECHNICA • IX

Some of the rough powder, all of which has passedthe 1,4" openings when wet, will not pass the screenwhen dry. This powder should be set aside and keptseparately from the powder which passed through thescreen. The coarser powder is used for filling the topsof shell casings until level after the stars and powdercores have been put in them. It is suitable for this pur­pose because it does not all sift down between the inter­stices amongst the stars, sitting instead on top of themand acting as an even "packing" material.

The finer powder, which has passed the screen, isused for all other purposes: filling the interstices betweenthe stars in multiple-break shells, where a solid fill isindispensable to the shell's structural integrity; fillingaround serpents, whistles, and other tube-type garni­tures, and as a burst charge (either alone or in a mix­ture with commercial FFA powder) where a gentlerbreak is desired than that obtained with commercialpowder alone.

GarnituresThe general term "garniture" refers to the contents

of a shell (e.g., cut stars, pumped comets, serpents,whistles, reports, tourbillions; essentially anything thatwill fit in a shell). A method for making cut stars, themost commonly used shell-filler, is given in PYROTECH­NICA I ("Cut Star Making - A System and Its Uses"by Jim Stone, 1977, pp. 4 - 8). Most other compon­ents are well described in the existing literature.

PapersPapers of several types are used in the construction

of shells, and all share common characteristics. Amongthe most important of these is grain. Paper is in effecta thin web of cellulose fibers derived from various vege­table sources, such as wood, cotton, flax, sugar-canewaste (bagasse), manila hemp, etc. These fibrous plantsare treated either mechanically or chemically (or byboth means) to remove (more or less) the non-cellulosecomponents, leaving cellulose fibers in water suspension.A paper machine consists essentially of an endless beltof wire cloth travelling at high speeds with a hopperfull of this cellulose suspension ("pulp" or "furnish")at one end, and a series of hot steel rollers ("calenderstacks") on the other. It functions by feeding the pulponto the screen, where most of the water is drained,leaving at the other end a web of fibers of uniformthickness, which is further dried, compressed, and reg­ularized by passage between hot rolls. In this process,the fibers are aligned in the direction of the travel ofthe wire cloth belt ("Fourdrinier screen"). The resultis that the finished product, like wood, has a definite"grain" lying along the direction in which the fibersare aligned. The paper is thus more pliable with or

parallel to this grain, than against or perpendicular to it.The diagrams below illustrate this.

It should be mentioned that hand-made papers,which are not made by a process that aligns the fibersso markedly, have little or no grain direction; this isoften an advantage in specialized applications, but theexpense is prohibitive. Japanese hand-made tissue paper("Gampi") is thus prized for shell and rocket para­chutes because it has little tendency to become set inits folds.

In pyrotechnic case-rolling operations, it is impor­tant to roll with the grain, as in most situations, rollingagainst it is more difficult. It is often difficult for per­sons unfamiliar with paper to detect grain direction.Usually, paper folds or rolls with greater ease withrather than against the grain, but the difference is subtlein the lighter weights. An infallible test for grain is todampen one side with a sponge. The sheet will then curlso that the curvature is with the grain (see Figure 2).It also ought to be mentioned that when paper comesin rolls, the grain runs with the circumference of theroll, and when it comes in sheets, it is usually (but notalways) with the longer of the two dimensions of thesheet.

Paper is bought by the sheet or roll, and such char­acteristics as size, thickness (caliper), grade, color, andthe like, are meaningful to the customer in making hisselection. However, it is long-established custom in thepaper industry to sell paper by weight. The calculationof the weight of a given number of sheets of a givensize and thickness in a given grade requires some spe­cialized understanding.

Various sheet sizes are available in each grade(grades being, e.g., book, bond, index bristol, tagboard,wrapping, etc.), but in each grade one size is designatedas the basis size for that grade. This is the size of whichone ream (500 sheets for printing grades, 480 sheetsfor "coarse" grades) weighs the basis weight. The basisweight is that weight by which all paper of a givenweight, regardless of size, is described (e.g., 70-lb.wrapping, 20-lb. bond, 100-lb. tagboard). Thus, 500sheets of the basis size book papers (25 x 38 inches),basis 50 (50-lb.), weighs 50 pounds; 480 sheets of thebasis size of wrapping papers (24 x 36 inches), basis70 (70-lb.), weighs 70 pounds.

It will be evident that a ream of paper of somedifferent size than the basis size will not weigh the basisweight, although that basis weight continues to be usedto describe the paper. J<or example, a ream of 22V2 x28 1/2 inch tagboard, basis 100, weighs 74 pounds. Itsdesignation is thus 221/2 x 28 1h-74(lOO) - or some­times 22Y2 x 28V2-148M(l00), signifying that 1M

AL/GIV/1E;VTOr ngj(ES FOLiJ WIT/! C"f}!//11 rOLO AGA/AISTeM/IV

Figure 1. Property of grain in paper.

9

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

TOfJ SlOE iJAJl1PE/LIEfJ/

CtitfL /5 AT if/GilTA/I/GLE TO {iRA/IV

(;lfA/1V OF /fOLLC/lfCLlI'1FEREN7IAL

Figure 2. Paper grain detection.

GA'A/IV OF SIIFET WIT/ILON6EA' .0//11£#.5/0#

TAGBOARD - basis size 24 x 36, in 100-lb. and125-lb. weights (basis ream 500 sheets) and indexbristol, basis size 25 1/2 x 301h, in 90-lb. and 1l0-lb.weights (basis ream 500 sheets) are roughly compara­ble types of paper, tagboard being made with a longer­fibered furnish and slightly stronger.

One hundred-pound tag and 90-lb. index bristolboth have a caliper of .007"; 125-lb. tag and 11 O-lb.index bristol both have a caliper of .009/1. Other weightsare occasionally available but find little use in pyro­techny. The paper colors are white and manila, whichused to refer to the use of manila hemp in the furnish,but now refers to the light buff color of the unbleachedgrade of this paper (which is cheapest and quite ade­quate for pyrotechnic purposes). Table 4 indicates thestandard paper sizes.

These grades of paper are used where a thin, stronginner liner for small insert components or occasionallyshell casings is needed. Formerly, tagboard or press­board (an almost extinct grade) was used for hand­rolling shell fuse tubes.

CHIPBOARD is made from mechanically pulped news­print scrap, wood chips, and other cheap and lowquality fibers. It has completely supplanted strawboard,a thick yellow paperboard spoken of by Weingart andother earlier writers.

Chipboard comes in calipers of .018/1, .022/1, .026/1,.030/1, and .042/1, and occasionally in thinner andthicker calipers. It is not sold by the ream, but bythe 50-lb. bundle, denominated by "count," i.e., thenumber of sheets in a bundle. Thus, "26 x 38-70 countchipboard" would be a chipboard of which 70 sheetsmade up a 50-lb bundle; in this case, the caliper is.030/1. It is ordinary to denominate chipboard by cali­per as well, so ordering is uncomplicated. Commonsizes are 22 1h x 341/2, 23 x 35, 28 1/2 x 341/2, and 26 x38. Note well that in this grade (as opposed to thosediscussed previously), the lower the number followingthe size designation (the count number as opposed tothe weight), the greater the thickness of the sheet.

This grade of paper is used for inner liners for re­ports, occasionally shell case inner liners, and in theheavier weights, for end discs. A thinner chipboard,.010/1 - .012/1, is sometimes available in rolls and iscommonly used for various case liners or for case ro11-

(1,000) sheets weigh 148 pounds, i.e., twice what oneream weighs.

Although it may be in roll form, paper is still de­scribed by weight with reference to its basis sheet ream.This is particularly common with wrapping grades; e.g.,one might buy a roll of 70-lb. kraft wrapping, thickness(caliper) .007", and the weight reference would referto the weight of 480 sheets of 24 x 36 inch paper. Itshould be pointed out that thickness (caliper) is notan infallible clue to the weight of paper, since papermay be made of relatively greater or lesser density, yethave the same thickness.

The following types of paper are in wide use inpyrotechny:

KRAFT WRAPPING-basis size 24 x 36 inches, avail­able in 30-, 40-, 50-, 60- and 70-lb. weights (basisream is 480 sheets). It is available in sizes 24 x 36,30 x 40, and occasionally 36 x 48 or 40 x 48; also com­monly in rolls ranging from 12" - 72/1 wide. Generallythe lighter weights come in narrower rolls and theheavier weights in wider ones, but there is no standardroll width. The caliper (thickness) of the respectiveweights is in a neat correspondence as follows:

Table 3. Kraft paper weights and calipers.Caliper

Paper weight (thickness)30 lb 003"40-lb 004"50-lb 005"60-lb 006"70-lb 007"90-lb 009"

Kraft wrapping is normally brown (a wide variationis found in shades), and is used for many purposes inpyrotechny. The heavier weights, 60- and 70-lb., areused for rolling shell cases and for pasting-in largershells; medium weights, 40-, 50- and occasionally 60-lb.,for nosings and for pasting-in; and the light weights,30- and 40-lb., for match pipes, nosings, and pasting-insmall shells. The light weights are also used for "liftwrap" in finishing shells, and often colored kraft paperis used as well as the natural brown kraft for this purpose.

So-called "recycled kraft" papers (more appropri­ately called "bogus kraft," since they are not kraft atall) are sometimes encountered, and they should not beused as they tend to fall apart when wet with paste.It is wise to test the wet strength of paper, by wettinga sample thoroughly, crumpling it, then smoothing itout - if it survives this test, it will be suitable for shellbuilding.

10

Table 4.Tagboard

221/2 x 281/224 x 36

Tag and index sizes.Index bristol201/2 x 243,4 (rare)251/2 x 301/222V2 x 35

PYROTECHNICA • IX

Figure 5. Spolette, matched and nosed.

Figure 4. Spolette, before matching and nosing.

and ability to be wet with paste must be carefully de­termined.

Nomenclature of a finished shellDetailed coverage of various phases of shell manu­

facture will treat this subject in greater depth later.Figure 3 below illustrates the basic parts of a shell.

SPOLETIES AND OTHER SHELL FUSESEvery aerial shell must contain a timing element

that, having taken fire simultaneously with the liftcharge, provides adequate delay before passing fire tothe burst powder and garniture, such that the shellbursts at or near the apex of its trajectory. There areseveral varieties of delay fuses that may be used, de­pending upon the size and character of the shell.

SpolettesThe spolette is the oldest and most versatile type

of shell fuse. It consists of a small-bored and relativelythick-walled tube (usually but not always made frompaper) charged partially with pure commercial mealpowder. The powder charge is flush with one end ofthe tube and part, often half or more, of the tube isleft uncharged (see Figure 4).

Tubes for spolettes have in the past been hand­rolled, but because spolettes are used in such great vol­ume and because their perfect manufacture is essentialto the safe and successful functioning of shells, it isnow usual to buy machine-rolled tubes. These tubesare wet-rolled, convolute-wound, and made of high­quality, smooth finished paper which is rolled long and

The open end of the tube is filled with as manyshort pieces of high-quality black match as can easilybe put into it (without force); a nosing of strong, light­weight paper is rolled around the end of the spo1etteand tied snugly (but only enough to hold the matchfirmly in place - not so tightly as to choke off or breakits black powder coating). The pieces of match shouldbe carefully cut, with a very sharp knife or razor blade,because dull cutting tools crumble the powder from thematch leaving cotton fibers exposed without a powdercoating. The pieces of match should extend perhaps1 - 1V2" beyond the open end of the spolette, whenheld firmly in contact with the powder charge in thetube. Figure 5 depicts a spolette that has been matchedand nosed.

TUBE

rLLlS#ENIJ

Figure 3. Parts of a shell.

LIFT W,RAPfTO COAl7AINLIFT POW£JE-R)

ing. This supplants the groundwood "bogus bristol"spoken of in the past.

BINDER'S BOARD is a strong, heavy board, gray, andmade of laminated thicknesses of a chipboard-like papersaid to be made from pulped, industrial wiper rags,and is thus sometimes called rag board. It is availablein many calipers and sizes, for use primarily in thebookbinding industry as cover boards. Its main use inpyrotechny is for shell end discs. Popular thicknessesrange between 1/16" and lis". End discs are usuallynot made by the pyrotechnist himself, but purchasedfrom suppliers who die-cut the end discs.

CordageCordage is another important article in pyrotechnic

practice, and is conveniently often available from thesame dealers handling coarse papers. Many types areused, and choice is largely at the taste of the individualpyrotechnist, but the following are the most common.

UNSIZED COTTON STRING - Three- or 4-ply is com­monly used for making black match, usually 6 - 8 strandstogether. Eight-ply, lO-ply and 12-ply are used forspiking (stringing) shells. These grades are normallysold on cone-shaped spools and priced by weight.

FLAX TWINES - Three-ply and 4-ply (the plies arethicker than cotton string) are available from Americanand Belgian manufacturers. These twines are of arougher finish than cotton (knots made with them holdmore firmly than those made with the smoother cotton).They are a greenish-brown color with a characteristic, notunattractive odor. The fibers are longer, and the twineis exceedingly strong for its thickness. This twine isoften used for tying nosings, lift- and leader-tying, andoccasionally spiking large shells. It is more expensivethan cotton twine, and often comes in I-lb. cylindricalrolls. A 2-ply Italian flax twine, which was very thin andstronger than 8-ply cotton, was much favored for spik­ing shells, but is now almost impossible to find; it camein 5-lb. cone-shaped balls.

POLYESTER, POLY/COTTON, and HARD LAID COTTONSTRINGS - A variety of these are available and areoften favored for spiking shells because of their relativethinness and strength, but there are many pitfalls inselecting them. Breaking strength, tendency to stretch,

,PASSFIJfE !/1ATCIICO/'1/"1(/;1I/{'AT'I/liGRifE I"'lfoH 511£LLFL/SE To L/I"'TAT i30TTO/"1OF .5I1ELL

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11

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

Table 5. Specifications for spoletie tube dimensions and powder charges for single break shells.Inside Outside

diameter diameter Length

3" shells, single break ...... ~ ................... 5/16" .550" 2"

4" shells, single break .......................... 5/16" - Va" 11/16" 3"

5" shells, single break .......................... 5/16" - Va" 11/16" 3"

6" shells, single break .......................... , 5/16" - %" 11116" 3"

8" shells, single break .......................... 5/16" - %" 11/16" 4"

Powdercharge

1"-11.14"

Pis"

Pia" -1V:z"

1Vz "

13,4 "

NOTE: It is impossible to give accurate equivalents in seconds for these timings as such factors as ramming pressure andincrement size vary from one worker to the next. As a rough guide, one inch of powder rammed in a spolette burnsapproximately 3 seconds.

Special timings appropriate to multiple break and other special shells will be treated later.

later cut to length. It is the usual practice to age or"cure" the tubes after they are received from the manu­facturer as they are often still slightly damp and muststabilize. Spiral-wound tubes are unsuitable for makingspolettes, for obvious reasons.

Formerly, a "red-rope" tube was available, madewith thin red pressboard, but recently these have beensupplanted by a manila-colored paper. The tubes shouldbe hard, rigid and smooth. Dimensions of the tubes usedvary according to the size of the shell and also accord­ing to the purposes for which the spolettes are intended.Manufacturers have their own preferences in these mat­ters; Table 5 describes one such system.

One should have appropriate tools for the size oftube selected. These include a small scoop that willdeliver a charge of meal powder sufficient to form anincrement of 3/16" - 1;4" when very solidly rammedin the tube; a rammer or drift, of sufficient diameterto fit snugly in the bore of the tube (yet not so tightlyas to bind) and perhaps 2 - 21/2" longer than the tube;and a solid, flat surface, preferably metal, stone, or pol­ished wood, on which to ram. The ramming surfaceshould be supported by a sturdy workbench, or pref­erably by a post sunk directly into the ground, to mini­mize vibration. It is also desirable to have the rammermarked with a circumscribed line at such a point on itslength that when the line is parallel with the top of thecase, it indicates the desired height of the powder charge(thus, if ramming a 3" case with a 11/2" powder charge,the line should be circumscribed on the rammer 1V2"from its bottom end).

Holding the tube so that its bottom edges are firmlyagainst the ramming surface, charge one scoopful of mealpowder into it and carefully insert the rammer, pressingit down to the powder. Ram with 8 - 10 firm blows ofa rawhide mallet. It is better to control the mallet anduse more blows than to swing wildly and attempt ex­tremely heavy blows. During all this time, the tubeshould be held solidly in place by one hand against theramming surface. Especially with the first increment,it is imp0l1ant to make certain that no powder is pushedout of the tube between the bottom edge of the tube

and the ramming surface. Repeat the charging of powderand the ramming, maintaining the same number ofmallet blows with the same force, until sufficient in­crements have been charged to complete the powdercharge. It is wise to charge perhaps 1/16" - Va" morepowder than is desired in view of the next step.

At this point a variety of methods may be used toproduce a groove, hole, or depression in the inside pow­der surface for purposes of assuring the passage of fire.A common problem with spolettes is a failure to trans­fer fire from the powder train to the match, in what isoften called the phenomenon of having the flame "suckedout."* It is thought that the presence of this groove ordepression in the powder surface increases the surfacearea of powder in contact with the match and lengthensthe critical split second during which the match endsare exposed to flame.

Three methods are used:1) After inverting the spolette to empty any loose meal

that may remain, with an awl, carefully scratch orscore the powder surface on the hollow end of thespolette. The groove produced by this scratchingshould be about Va" deep. The awl may be usedas a rough sort of depth gauge by holding the thumb­nail to the awl and noting the difference in positionwith relation to the end of the tube when the tip ofthe awl is touching the bottom of the groove, as com­pared to when it is touching the rammed surface.

2) A small drill, perhaps 1/16" diameter, may be usedto make a hole from Va" to 1;4" deep in the insidepowder surface. The drilling may be done by hand,or (if volume of production warrants) by a drill pressoperating at very low RPM. If a drill press be used,great precision is possible, particularly where veryshort timings are involved.

*ED. NOTE: Practices and feelings about this problem varyfrom country to country, and from pyrotechnist to pyro­technist; Rev. Ronald Lancaster (private communication,1983) claims that "the shaped rammer is essential andshould be 111" deep at least ... I have often met failurein its absence." Lancaster reports that most Europeans nowpress fuses which include a recess in the powder charge.

Figure 6. Shaped-end rammer and cavity produced in powder charge.

12

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PYROTECHNICA • IX

3) !'" rammer with a shaped end may be used, produc­lllg a cone-shaped depression in the inside powdersurface (see Figure 6).

To nose spolettes, cut strips of paper from 1" - 2"wide (depending upon the size of the spo1ette) and 4" ­5" long (2 - 3 turns). Paper should be 20 - 40-lb. kraftwith the grain running the shorter of the two directions:~atch should be cut to appropriate lengths for insertionmto the spolettes prior to nosing. Four to five pieces ofmatc~ should suffice. Some pyrotechnists prefer to crimpth~ ~Ide wall of the spolette to hold match in place bydrIvmg a narrow screwdriver or chisel blade between~he turns of paper, prior to nosing. Lay a piece of nos-mg paper out, and smear with white glue all along thetop edge and the pasting edge; roll the spolette up intothe paper, with perhaps 1h" - %" protruding beyondt~e tube and over the match. This end ought then to betied around the match with a clove hitch of flax twineor strong cotton (see Figure 7).

2.-:3 Tt/R/IIS\

Figure 7. Nosing spolette.

It is advisable to pierce the nosing with an awl,beneath the tie. This relieves the gas pressure inside the~polette and permits the hot combustion gases to ventmto the shell, thus aiding ignition even if the matchshould be choked off by the tie (see Figure 8).

If it is found impossible to master holding the spol­e~te ~nnly against a flat surface while ramming, a usefulaid IS. a ramming block in which to support the tube.The SImplest and best form consists of a block of metal,perhaps 1" thick, with a hole slightly larger than theoutside diameter of the spolette tube drilled clear throughit. This block may then be set or clamped onto the ram­ming surface (see Figure 9).

Other shell fusesSPUN FUSES - Other time fuses in common use are

the Japanese and American Bickford style or "tape" fuses.These are spun fuses, made by complicated machinery,and most pyrotechnists must buy them from dealers,rather than making them. They consist of a modifiedblack powder core, surrounded by spun textile fibers,asphalt water-proofing layers, and an outer wrap. Acommonly-used fuse of Japanese manufacture is slightly

Figure 8. Tying and piercing the spolette nosing.

less than 1;4" in diameter and has a colored paper outerw:ap held on by helical wrappings of thread ratherWIdely spaced. Fuse manufactured in the United Statesis nor1?ally %" in diameter and has an outer wrappingof whIte cloth tape. The use of Bickford-type fuses isreserved mostly for one-break shells.

Preparation of these fuses for use in shells is rela­tively simple. Pieces of about 2" in length are cut fromthe rolls. The fuse must then be cross-matched. Thismay be accomplished either by punching the fuse withan awl (e.g.) Ih" from one of its ends, and threadinga piece of thin black match through the resultant hole,or by making a lengthwise cut, splitting the fuse (againperhaps for Vz" of its length), inserting a piece ofblack match in the split, and tying the split end to­gether above the match. Figure 10 shows these alter­natives.

When cutting or punching time fuse, it is most im­pOltant to have a sharp and clean tool lest asphalt besmeared over the powder core in the process. Attempt­ing to use a fine drill bit to make a hole for cross­matching will almost always insure that asphalt getssmeared into the powder core.

An arbor press is almost essential for punching thela~ger sizes of fuse. Two types of punching tools are inWIdespread use; one type, having an ogival point (likean awl) simply pierces and spreads the cross-matchinghole; the other, often a hollow tube (like a leatherpunch) actually removes a slug of fuse material, includ­ing a portion of the powder core.

Figure 9. Cross section of spolette in ramming block.

13

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

PUNCHEO WITHCI?OSS-!'1A Tell/NG

CRII1P j,/Irf!PLIERS OYER

,PI/NCIiING AFTERC,fo.sS -1'1/1TelilAlG

TO IIOLOIA! PLACE...

10.1

A. FULCANELLI

cur ANI) TIE/)ABovE

C!?OSS- /'1ATCII/#6

10.2

Figure 10. Two methods for cross-matching Bickford-type fuses.

FUSE/END DISC ASSEMBLY - Whatever fuse is se­lected for use in shells must be fitted through an open­ing in the top end disc of the shell. Discs are usuallypurchased with holes of the proper diameter alreadypunched, although they may be punched with an archpunch. Spolettes should be inserted so that only aboutY<t" of the tube proper protrudes through the hole onthe side of the disc which will be inside the shell (thisapplies to spolettes for single break shells and for thefirst break of multiple-break shells; special instructionsfor intermediate spolettes on multiple-break shells willbe treated elsewhere).

Japanese and American spun timer fuses should befitted in the discs with the cross-matching c10Ee to thedisc on the inside of the shell. The cross-matched fuseis pulled through the hole in the disc until the cross­match actually touches the disc, and is indeed slightlybent forward by the tension. Figure 11 depicts thevarious types of fuse in shell end discs. It is wise toglue the fuse well in place on the outside of the shell,either when making up disc/fuse assemblies in advance,or after putting the fused disc into a shell in the processof filling shells. If made up in advance, spolette-fittedend discs can be glued around the spolette on bothsides of the disc to assure a better seal; white glue isbest used.

S,POLETTE IN EN/) f}ISC

11.1

CONSTRUCTION ANDFILLING OF SHELL CASESCase rolling

The casing of a shell is constructed of an appro­priate number of turns of kraft paper rolled up dryon a cylindrical case former, pasted on the edge tosecure it from unrolling. Case formers should be pro­vided with the following dimensions:

Table 6. Specifications for case formers.Minimum length

Size Diameter of formerof shell of former (excluding handle)

3" 2Y2" 7"4" 31h" 9"5" 4Y2" 11"6" 5Y2" 13"8" 7V<i" 16"

Seventy-pound kraft paper is used for the shellcasings. The number of turns rolled around the formershould equal the nominal diameter of the shell in inches.These paper requirements work out neatly in terms ofstrips of standard length, given below in Table 7.

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11.2

Figure 11. Fuse! end disc assemblies.

14

Lighter paper than 70-lb. is occasionally used. Inthese cases, more turns must be used than the abovetable indicates. If the nominal diameter of the shellin inches be denominated by N, the formula N x .007"gives the thickness required for the wall of the shell inthousandths of an inch. For example, a 5" shell casemust have a wall .035" in thickness. If 50-lb., whichcalipers .005", were to be used in lieu of 70-lb. (cali­pering .007"), seven turns of 5O-lb. would be requiredto produce the required thickness as compared to onlyfive turns of the usual 70-lb. paper.

The grain of the paper should run parallel to theaxis of the shell former (i.e., the short dimension of thestrip). The width of the paper strips varies accordingto the contents of the shells. Longer casings are neces­sary when tube-type garnitures (serpents, whistles, re­ports, or the like) are to be used. These will be dis­cussed more specifically under the headings coveringthose special shells. The present discussion is confinedto a general technique for making simple single-breakshells of cut stars. For such a shell, the desired heightis usually the same as its diameter. Thus, a 3" shell,being rolled on a 2112" former, is to be filled to a heightof 211z"; a 4" shell, rolled on a 311z" former, to theheight of 3112"; and so forth. In practice, especiallywith large shells (economy and keen competition among

Table 7. Dimensions of paper stripsfor making shell cases.

Size No. turns Length ofof shell 70-1b. kraft paper paper strip

3" 3 1 - 24" strip

4"

5"

6"

8"

4

5

6

8

2 - 24" stripsor

1 - 48" strip

3 - 24" stripsor

2 - 36" strips

4 - 24" stripsor

2 - 48" strips

4 - 48" strips

PYROTECHNICA • IX

makers to produce the cheapest article being the over­riding concern), the fill level is often less than the diam­eter, leading to short, squat "pancake" or "hockey­puck" shells. The paper should in any event be cutwide enough to roll a cylinder that will fold down overthe top and bottom to leave an appropriate height forthe shell wall.

Having cut a sufficient amount of paper for the de­sired number of shells, roll up the appropriate numberof turns on the former for the shell of whatever sizemay be desired. If more than one sheet is necessary,roll up the first sheet almost completely: interleave thenext sheet with it, roll it up, add another sheet untilall have been rolled on; then paste the last sheet downat the edge. The rolling should be done with enoughpressure that the resulting tube is snug, but not so tighton the former that it cannot slip easily from it.

Now the end of the case must be folded down tomake the bottom of the shell. Two principal techniquesare used to accomplish this. In one, the tube is slippeda little less than half a diameter past the end of theformer, and a chipboard disc of appropriate size ispushed down onto the end of the former. The protrud­ing paper is then pleated in towards the center, leavinga little area of the chipboard disc exposed, as illustratedin Figure 12.1. The other method is sometimes calledthe "tongue fold" because of the "tongue" of paperthat is formed by the last paper to be folded down. Inthis technique, the paper width must be calculated to bea little greater. The tube is slipped almost a full diam­eter past the end of the former, the disc slipped in, andone side of the tube folded in over the center. Anotherfold, or even two, is made to the side of the originalfold until all that remains unfolded forms a large, pointed"tongue" sticking up; this is last to be folded down.Because excess paper will stick out to the sides of theend, making a bottom to the shell that is not com­pletely circular, these excess folds are tucked under thetongue, giving the appearance illustrated in Figure 12.2.

On larger shells, where the bulk of many turns ofpaper may be difficult to fold all at once, several innerturns may be turned down and pleated individually.This may be done either with the tongue fold method orthe method of pleating toward the center. Some makersdo this with all shells and claim it is more "fireproof."The choice of pleating toward the center or making the

,PA'pEIf 'pLEATELJ TOWAIfOCENTEIf !'cREASES AlfEE([:>VAL)

Fig. 12.1

&JT7CJ.H Or SA/ELL CAsECLOSELJ ,h//T# "To/f/6'G/E ';cOLLJ "

Fig. 12.2

Figure 12. Two methods of folding paper.

15

Table 8. Diameters of canulles.Size Diameter

of shell of canulle

Suitable thin-walled copper or brass pipe is stockedby commercial plumbing supply firms, although it is lesscommon at the smaller hardware stores than formerlywas the case. Canulles may also be rolled of two turnsof pressboard or tagboard if desired.

When filling the stars around the canulle, somemakers shake some rough powder in among the starsto fill the interstices; other do not. Generally, the shellcasing is patted, tamped, or shaken to settle the starsinto the most compact configuration. Often the shellmaker will half fill the case with stars, shake, pat, oreven tamp the stars with a wooden stick to settle them,sprinkle in a sparse handful of FFA powder or rough

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

tongue fold is also largely a matter of individual pref­erence. Pleating toward the center is held to make aneater bottom as each pleat subtends a much smallersection of the circle and the corners of the pleats do nottend to stick out from the circumference. On the otherhand, tongue folds do not leave any of the bottom insidedisc exposed and on this ground it is claimed they aremore "fireproof." Tongue folds are also faster to make.

Having folded the case in on one end, persuade thefolds to lie in place by pounding with a wood blockor a mallet, or by inverting the former and jolting it onthe workbench. The case may then be removed fromthe former and is ready to be filled.

Case fillingAfter the shell case is made, it is ready to be filled.

To make a simple shell of cut stars, one uses a brassor copper pipe, called a "canulle," which is insertedinto the case, centered on the bottom disc; stars arefilled around the tube and burst powder filled in thetube. The tube is then withdrawn, leaving a core ofpowder surrounded by stars. The diameters of thecanulles are shown in Table 8.

3"4"5"6"8"

34" - 1"I" -11;4"1112"-134"1:j,4" - 2"214" - 3"

A. FULCANELLI

powder; fill the rest of the stars, and likewise settle them.A word of caution is in order here. Great care

should be taken when consolidating the stars, especiallywhen chlorate color stars are being used. What onemaker considers to be "'tamping" stars may to anotherconstitute "pounding"; the novice shell maker shouldnever apply pressure directly to the stars with anythingother than the fingers. Sometimes it is better simply to"bounce" the case being filled on the workbench peri­odically during the operation. Grievous accidents haveoccurred in the past during this critical step of assembly.

Finally, the canulle is filled with FFA powder, thencarefully withdrawn, so as not to disturb the stars aroundit. This is best done by rotating (Vs" turn or less)back and forth with a slight jiggling motion, which willcause the powder to mDve into the stars rather than thestars moving into the space left by the canulle wall. Alittle more powder than will equal the height of thestars is used, so that it spills over the center just slightlywhen the tube is removed. Finally, coarse rough powderis filled over the stars and powder until the top of thebreak is level. This final addition of rough powder itselfis often then tamped until the corners of stars just beginto appear through it. The FFA core in the center shouldstill be a distinct entity, and it is tamped also. At thispoint the shell should be filled such that an appropriateamount of paper (somewhat less than half the casing'sinner diameter) extends beyond the fill level, to bepleated in toward the fuse at the center of the top in­side disc.

Top discs with spolette, made as described else­where, should be readily available as shells are filled.The disc is pushed down onto the powder and stars inthe shell casings, and settled firmly into place by tamp­ing with a wooden rod. This must never be done hardenough to break the stars. After the disc has beentamped down, it is held down with one hand while thecase is felt all around; it should be firm allover withno soft spots.

The paper extending beyond the disc is then foldeddown toward the center of the shell, i.e., toward thefuse. If everything has been well calculated, when thispaper is folded into place, it will fall just short of theshell fuse, just barely touching it. Another disc, piercedto receive the fuse, is pushed down over the fuse onto

STAR8

BoTTon//IISIOEDISC

_.=r~r----SIlELLFuSE

TO? ,J-K5/.oE/)ISC

TO? OOTSliJELJISC

80TTOH()OTSliJE .oISC---c====zaIII(A/)/)EIJ .ou;f'I;VCS'pI,K/iVG -IIELj) ON

!3r STRING)

.POAliJER__

Figure 13. Cross-section of filled shell case.

16

Variant methods of case construction and. fillingAlthough the method described above is usual, two

variations in case rolling and filling techniques are worthyof mention. In rolling the case, some fireworkers find itadvantageous to begin with a turn or two of thin chip­board or index, of a width equal to the height of theshell wall. The heavier paper is centered on the outer

Table 9. Corresponding shell and. star sizes.Size Cut Cut

of shell color stars tailed stars3" Y.4 " or smaller Y.4 " - :jig"

4" Y.4 " - :jig" %" - V2 "5" %"-lIz" V2"-%"6" %" - liz" liz" - o/g" or % "8"* V2" or larger %" or larger

*8" not normally made with plain cut stars.

to be blown blind, although this problem can be solvedusually by heavy priming. Problems associated with theperchlorates can doubtless be overcome with careful for­mulation and experimentation, but they are not yet recti­fied, which, along with the higher cost of the perchlor­ates, accounts for the industry's continued dependenceupon chlorate-based colors for the type of shells herebeing described.

The problem of sparse-appearing breaks may tosome extent be solved by mixing tailed stars with thecolor. An inexpensive charcoal mixture of saltpeter,charcoal in excess, sulfur, sometimes lampblack, anddextrine can be cut to about the same size as the colorstars, and mixed with them in a ratio of about 3: 1 or4: 1, color:charcoal. The charcoal composition producesa low light output and the stars are not perceived as aseparate effect when the shell bursts, being overpoweredby the color, but they "fill in the space" and give theimpression of a fuller burst. Flitter and electric stars,cut to normal size and mixed with color stars in aboutthe same ratio as the charcoal stars, also have a "filling"effect, but are perceived as an added effect, and gen­erally look most admirable.

Various types of tailed stars (charcoal, flitter, elec­tric, etc.) may need to be cut larger than color starsbecause they usually burn faster, and also because theyleave a spark trail. Tailed stars make a full-lookingburst when fired from a shell by themselves, and lessattention to cutting them small (to preserve burst den­sity) is required. Sometimes tailed stars are deliberatelycut smaller to give a pseudo-double ring effect with thelarger color stars.

FYROTECHNICA • IX

the folds of paper, settled into place by tamping with awooden stick. If desired, some makers apply glue aroundthe spolette between the two discs. Finally, the shell ismarked as to its contents and set aside. Figure 13 is across-sectional view of the filled shell casing.

When filling shells, attention must be paid that theproper size of star is chosen to fill a particular size ofshell. Because stars differ so broadly in burning char­acteristics, it might seem that this question cannot beaddressed without reviewing every star composition indi­vidually. In a sense this is true, and of course everyexperienced shell maker becomes aware of, and adjustsfor, these variations in making stars. However, smallerstars are usually used in smaller shells and larger starsin larger shells. The reasons for this are two-fold:

1) Aesthetic considerations - The density and sym­metry of effect produced are affected by the size ofstars used. Large shells obviously have more volume,spread wider, and so the burning time of the starscan be proportionately longer than for small stars.Thus the stars can be larger. On the other hand, asmall shell filled with large stars seems sparse in itsburst, because so few stars fit into a smaller casing;and they normally bum too long, destroying thesymmetry of the burst and leaving a "hole" in thecenter. Stars too small for a large shell bum out be­fore the shell burst spreads to its ideal diameter, andthe effect of the shell is disappointingly short-lived.

2) Structural considerations - The ratio of interstitialspaces between stars to the space occupied by thestars themselves must be small and relatively con­stant from size to size. Large interstices damage theshell's structural integrity; such a shell may collapseunder the pressure of the lift charge. A shell derivesits rigidity from the contents of its casing, and onemust have the stars settle into a compact, stableconfiguration. It is difficult to do this if the stars aretoo large for the size of the case. This quickly be­comes apparent on trying to fill a 3" casing with 3;.4"cut stars! Table 9 provides a very general guide toaverage star sizes for use in various sizes of shells.The color stars are here presumed to be made with

potassium chlorate, which is still overwhelmingly usedin the display fireworks industry. Potassium and am­monium perchlorate stars generally bum slower andaccordingly must be cut still smaller. Insofar as mostsuch stars have a smaller flame size than could be ob­tained with chlorate stars of comparable size, this resultsin a tendency for perchlorate shell bursts to look sparse.Furthermore, perchlorate stars have a greater tendency

STRIP ofCII/P.804RLJ f4130tlT 2. TVA'AlS)VA/COILS 127 RT A"/f'AFT

OUTERIr;PA.FT

Figure 14. Case rolled with inner liner.

17

lAINEif'LI/VE-f

f)/5C/

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

CASE FO/?/'1E;f#ITII IfECE5S

Fig. 15.1

A. FULCANELLI

CA/l/t/L.LE /N"p051770# Of/E-R

rOSE EAliJ

CASE

SHELLFUSE

IIOL£ /!VBEA/Chl

CASE BEING r/LLEO(/?S/OE- !JOWlV'

Fig. 15.2

Figure 15. Making shell case "upside-down."

kraft, and the case rolled up; or, the case is rolled inthe normal fashion, its end folded in, and then the chip­board or index band is rolled up by hand and insertedinto the casing (see Figure 14).

The claimed advantage of this technique is that itadds rigidity to the shell wall, making it possible to usefewer turns of kraft for the outer casing; the overlappingends on the top and bottom are thus easier to pleatdown. Furthermore, the chipboard establishes a uniform"fill level," as the case is always filled so its contentsare just level with the top edge of the chipboard liner.Since having a level top is especially important withmultiple-break shells, the liner is often used in makingcasings for breaks of such shells.

The other variant in technique requires that a holeor recess be made in the end of the case former to ac­commodate a shell fuse. After the kraft tube is rolled,the end disc with fuse in place is pushed into the endof the former, the inside end of the fuse fitting in theformer recess; the extending paper is folded down ontothis disc, and the outside disc fitted over the fuse andfolded-down paper. The casing with fused disc is re­moved from the former, set over a hole in the work­bench that accommodates the shell fuse, and filled, ineffect, "upside down." The shell is then closed as usual,except that the bottom disc is used to close it (seeFigure 15).

This technique is particularly adapted for single­break shells made with spolettes, as the matched andnosed end of the spolette fits up into the canulle, thepowder settles around it without force; rather than beingforced into the powder core as it is in the usual method,possibly breaking the match and causing its powdercoating to flake away. Indeed, some < makers use thismethod in making shells with spun Bickford or "tape"style fuses as well.

In order to prevent difficulty in removing the casefrom the former, the former is often "vented" with longnarrow holes as depicted in Figure 15. Also, in lieu ofmaking a hole in the workbench to accommodate the

18

shell fuse, two pieces of lumber may be laid parallel onthe bench or table, supporting the shells while allowingroom for the shell fuses between them. In this manner,many such cases may be set out for filling at one time.

SPIKING (STRINGING) SHELLSAfter the inner cases of shells are filled with stars,

or other garniture, and burst powder, they are reinforcedby longitudinal and circumferential (vertical and hori­zontal) windings of string, which produce a patternresembling latticework on the ends and walls of the shell(see Figure 16). This process, known as "spiking,"requires considerable attention, as the string latticeworkmust be both regularly-spaced and evenly-tensioned inorder to produce the desired results. An inadequateamount of string will result in the shell bursting throughthe opposite sides ("side splitting") or, if the case isthick enough, blowing out the ends ("bow tie" break).It is instead desired to cause all the side walls to blowout, this being the aim of the longitudinal windings.String irregularly spaced will cause one side or the otherto blowout, causing stars to be ejected from a hole inthe side wall, like water squirting out of a hose. This isthe so-called "hose break."

String may be taken directly from the ball or cone,tied to the shell fuse, and tightly wound onto the shellby hand, with tension being applied by pulling on thestring with the hands. This procedure, however, is de­fective in several respects: it generates an irritating fric­tion against the flesh, which can be remedied only bywearing heavy and clumsy gloves; it is quickly fatiguing,causing an irregularity of results if many shells are tobe made at one time; and finally, it effectively precludestreatment of the string with tar or paste, which treat­ment offers many advantages both in ease of manipu­lation and in the quality of the product. As a conse­quence, it is preferable to apply string to the shells byone of several methods, in which string is fastened se­curely to a stationary binding point, and tension is ap­plied by pulling on the shell as it is turned in the hands,winding the taut string upon it.

Perhaps the simplest and oldest device used in ap­plying string to shells is called the spiking horse. It con­sists of two pegs (they may be bolts, spikes, dowels orwhatever is sturdy and convenient) fixed upright in aboard or bench. Between these rods the string is

F"§::

- .....~ ...........C"'".. :::::::::--J-" --.....:: .-tP

--- -I---l--'

-- I---~-

.....--- ~,/

'---... -,/

Irt, .... ~~

Figure 16. Spiked shell.

PYROTECHNICA • IX

stretched preparatory to winding it up onto the shell(see Figure 17).1

In use, the spiking horse is "loaded" with string,beginning by tying at one of the pegs and looping inback and around the opposite one, then looping in backof the other peg, and so forth until all the string has beenput on the horse, with the string crossing in the center("figure 8" fashion) so that tension may be appliedagainst either of the two pegs. Loading starts low againstthe bed of the horse and builds solidly upward and out­ward to prevent the load from slipping or giving slack.It is recommended that the workbench on which thespiking horse is mounted be firmly secured to the flooror wall.

It may be noted that a major difference in practiceamong pyrotechnists lies in whether or not to use pasteon the string. It is, of course, faster to use dry stringas the step of applying the paste is eliminated; however,pasted string adheres more closely to the shell walls,"bites" into the paper as it is wound on (if adequatepressure is applied), and thus is less likely to slip fromits position. Pasted string dries very tightly adheringto the shell, which is especially important with multiplebreak shells in which the breaks are held together withstring.

Paste may be applied to string in two ways: (1)make thick paste, take a handful and pull the stringthrough the hand while putting it on the horse; (2) loadthe horse with dry string and paint a thin paste liberally

Figure 17. Spiking horse.

A simple spiking horse may be made with: one piece of2 x 4 (nominal; actual 11;2" x 31;2") lumber 32" long; one pieceof 1x6 (nominal; actual %"x51h") lumber 32" long; two1;2" carriage bolts, 8" or 10" long, with approximately 2112"of thread or more; four 1;2" washers; and four 112" nuts to fitthe carriage bolts; in addition, one half-dozen 8d nails or better,2" x No.8 flat head wood screws. Tools needed are a 1/2 " anda 1\4" wood bit; a bit brace or power drill; a couple of C-c1amps;a hammer and screwdriver.

Measure in 1%" from the edge of the 2 x 4 at two points,close to the ends. Draw a line, using a straight edge, betweenthese two points; the line will then bisect the 31;2" width. Thenmeasure in from the ends, along this line, four inches fromeither end. Mark these points, and at them, center the 1;2" bitto drill a hole at each. The result will be a 2 x 4 with two 112"holes, centered on 24", and centered on the width of the 2 x 4.Now, measure in 1%" from one edge of the 1 x6 at twopoints, close to the ends; draw a line between these two points.Measure in 4" from each end of the 1 x 6 along the line justdrawn, mark these points, and at them center the 1\4" bit todrill a hole at each. The result will be a 1 x 6 with two 1\4 "holes, centered on 24", with the centers 1%" in from one edge.As is apparent, the centers of the 1\4" holes in the 1 x 6 willthus line up with the centers of the 1;2" holes in the 2 x 4, whenthe 2 x 4 is aligned flush with the edge of the 1 x 6 and flushwith the ends.

19

Clamp the two pieces, 1 x 6 and 2 x 4, together with thepair of C-clamps, one at each end. At this point, one shouldeither drill and countersink holes for the half-dozen screws (bor­ing through the 1 x 6 and into the 2 x 4), or nail the two piecesof wood together, making sure that the holes in each piece alignwith each other. Remove the clamps and give the resultantassembly two coats of polyurethane varnish (this will help toprotect it against paste sticking to the wood).

Now, put one of the nuts onto each of the carriage bolts,screwing it on about 2112", and over each bolt slip a washer.These bolts may then be seated through the 1;2" holes in the2 x 4, from the top. Underneath (where the bolt protrudes intothe recess made by the 1\4" hole in the 1 x 6), slip anotherwasher on over each bolt, and screw a nut onto each bolt justso that all of the threads are engaged. Tighten the top nutsdown onto the 2 x 4 firmly.

The steps described are illustrated in Figure 18. If properlyfollowed, the result will be a compact and portable spiking horsethat will sit flat on top of a workbench (as the ends of baItson the bottom, their nuts and washers, are accommodated bythe 1~" holes in the I x 6); the two-inch "lip" made where the1 x 6 extends beyond the 2 x 4 can be clamped firmly to theworkbench with C-clamps; and when not in use, the horse maybe removed and stored, freeing the workbench for other uses.

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

a---- CAtftf/AGE 80LT

-~-AIt/73' A/V.oJr/ASIIERS

ASSEI1!3Lr Or1.xb AAlt? 2x4

Sf'I,f'/;VO IIOtf'SECLAl1l'EfJ 70 8£#(',41

CROSS- SEC7/01V

Figure 18. Assembly of spiking horse.

Table 10. Typical spiking patterns.Size of shell No. side strings/No. strands each Material

3" 12/2 8-ply cotton

turned to eighths, and then to sixteenths, again withsuperimposed right angle crosses, the string being placed90° away from the previous wrap to keep the tensioneven. It is to be noted that the practice implied in somebooks, in which the windings are said to be advanced"ten degrees with each winding" or the like, in whatmight be termed a "clockwise" fashion, will result inboth uneven tension over the shell, and also unevennessof spacing of the strings. It is much less easy for thespiker to gauge what (e.g.) 1/24 or 1/32 of the shell'scircumference might be (unless end discs were actuallymarked for string placement before spiking), than forhim to see that he has formed a right angle as heredescribed. In any event, the patterns for longitudinalspiking of 5",6", and 8" shells follow the same scheme.

When the operator has completed the longitudinalspiking, he is ready to begin spiking circumferentially.The last longitudinal or vertical string passes the fuseand continues over the edge of the top disc as thoughan additional vertical string were to be added, but isinstead run diagonally around the shell until it is run­ning at right angles to the vertical strings - i.e., cir­cumferentially around the shell at the bottom edge. Thestring should run in a circle around the bottom of theshell, crossing itself and pinioning all the vertical stringswhich were previously spiked. After making this ringaround the bottom of the shell, the string should startup the side in a spiral, spaced so as to form squaresas it intersects the vertical strings. The spiral continuesto the top, where another circle is formed to pinion the

onto the string, making sure all is thoroughly wet. Awallpaper paste brush is useful for this purpose.

In order to begin spiking a shell, unloop a lengthof string from the spiking horse. The string is tied witha clove hitch to the fuse of the shell, and longItudinalwinding is begun. With the first longitudinal wrap, thebottom outside end disc is centered on the bottom ofthe shell, over the folds of paper, and spiked on. Thestring passes around the bottom of the shell, up to thetop, passing the fuse, and the shell is turned at rightangles and another longitudinal wrap wound on; thestrings divide the circumference of the cylinder intoquarters, forming a cross in the center of the bottomof the shell. The quarters are then subdivided accordingto the number of final strings desired. It is very impor­tant that the operator keep the tension applied to thestring constant as it is laid on (either as much tensionas the string will bear, or, barring that, as much as theoperator can apply steadily). The table below lists typi­cal spiking patterns. It is to be understood that "sidestrings" here refers to the number of vertical passes onthe side walls of the shell, dividing the cylinder's circum­ference, regardless of whether one, two or three strandsof string be used in each pass.

It should be noted that in addition to the 8-ply and10-ply cotton string most often recommended, varietiesof flax twines, polyester or polyester/cotton blends, andhard-laid cotton strings are frequently found; further,that much less string is often found on cheaper shellsmade with an eye to quick mass-production techniques.The table above is a guideline, based largely on tradi­tional practice.

Assuming a 3" shell with twelve strings, each quar­ter (formed as described above) is further divided intothree sections; ideally, a third is taken out of the firstpair of quarters, then a third is taken out of the otherpair of quarters 90° away from the first, and finally theother thirds are taken - resulting in three right anglecrosses being applied to the shell bottom. The stringpasses the shell fuse on opposite sides with each wrap- i.e., the first time it passes on the right; the second,on the left; the third time on the right; and so on. Fora 4" shell with sixteen strings, the quarters would be

20

4"

5"

6"

8"

1612

24/2

32/2

48/2 or48/3

8-ply or lO-plycotton

8-ply or 10-plycotton

8-plyor 10-plycotton

8-ply or lO-plycotton

PYROTECHNICA • IX

diameter of the shell in inches; save that, for large spe­cial effect or multiple-break shells, the number of turnsis often more. Table 11 lists typical paste wrap forsingle-break shells.

The width of the paper to be used of course varieswith the height of the shell, but in general should besuch that when the shell is wrapped up in it, the paperoverhangs by anywhere from a little more than one-halfthe diameter of the spiked shell to almost a full diam­eter on each end. For example, suppose a 4" single­break shell measuring 3%" from bottom end disc totop end disc, and having an outside· diameter a littlelarger than 3Vl"; the sheets of paste wrap would meas­ure anywhere from 7Vl" to 10" wide (depending uponpreference) and 24" long, with the grain running theshort direction. Two such sheets would be required.

Mix the wheat paste according to directions on thecontainer; the well-known brands such as "GoldenHarvest" usually call for something like nine pints ofwater for every pound of the dry powdered paste.Wheat paste which includes the gluten of the flour is

Sizeof shell Length of sheet

1 - 24" sheet

2 - 24" sheets

3 - 24" sheets or2 - 36" sheets

4 - 24" sheets or2 - 48" sheets

4 - 48" sheets

6 turns/60- or 70-lb.

4 turns/50-, 60- or 70-lb.

5 turns/60- or 70-lb.

8 turnsI70-lb.

Table 11. Paste wraps for single-break shells.No.oftums/

Weight of paper

3 turns/30- or 40-lb.

4"

5"

6"

3"

8"

vertical strings at the top of the shell. The string is thenformed into a loop by the hand and a half-hitch thrownaround the circumference of the shell and pulled tight(if the string is pasted, it will hold tightly after thestring has been cut; the loose end should be smootheddown with the fingers, using a little paste).

A consequence of the crossing of all the longitudinalstrings on the center of the bottom of the shell, particu­larly to be met with larger sizes of shells, is the forma­tion of a "lump" of string which may make it difficultto paste in solidly due to air pockets where the paste­wrap bridges over the string. A solution to this problemsometimes adopted is a style of off-center longitudinalspiking producing the sort of pattern illustrated in Fig­ure 19, which shows the bottom of a 4" shell.

PASTING-INAfter shells have been filled and spiked, they are

ready for pasting-in (pastewrapping), the process bywhich the walls and ends of the shell are covered withpaper that has been thoroughly impregnated with wheatpaste. This pasted paper wrap, when dry, becomes hard(contributing some rigidity to the shell) and acts toseal the shell from the influx of hot powder gases givenoff by the burning of the lift charge, which might other­wise cause the shell contents to ignite prematurely("flowerpot" or mortar burst).

Materials needed for pastewrapping include kraftpaper, wheat paste (wallpaper paste), and a large, flatsurface that can easily be cleaned of residual paste whenthe work is finished. A formica-topped table is ideal, asit can be sponged off with liberal amounts of water, andif any paste should dry on the surface, it may be chip­ped away cleanly with a metal straight edge.

Paper for pasting-in shells again follows the rule ofthumb that the number of turns equals the nominal

Figure 19. Off-center spiking pattern for 4" shell.

21

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

preferable to paste based solely on starch, as it has lesstendency to separate. Paste made according to packagedirections will usually suffice for all sizes of shells,though we like to think the ideal consistency is a lIttlethicker than spaghetti sauce. Sometimes there is an ad­vantage in using thinner paste on heavier papers, andthicker paste with lighter ones. When the paste is of ahomogeneous consistency, the paper is "broken" or sat­urated thoroughly with it so that the paper is soakedthrough and through, and the grain is broken. A goodmethod for achieving this is to take a handful of pasteand smear it all over one side of the sheet; then doublethe sheet on itself (so the pasted side is folded back onitself) and smear both sides of the doubled sheet withmore paste; then crumple the doubled pasted sheet intoa ball. The purpose of this is to break the grain of thepaper (making it more pliable) and help the paste tosoak into the paper. Set this crumpled ball of pastedpaper aside and repeat the operation until several havebeen done. At this point, the first one should be thor­oughly soaked and ready to be used.

Unfold and smooth out one of the paper "balls" andfold it over on itself lengthwise a couple of times. Atthis point any excess paste may be wrung out of thepaper by pulling it through the hand while squeezing it.Then it should be unfolded and laid out flat on the tableand smoothed out. Place the shell on one end of thesheet, roughly centered on its width so that approxi­mately equal portions overhang the shell ends. It is anaid in smoothing the paper down to the shell and mak­ing it adhere if the body of the shell is smeared with alittle paste before rolling up the shell. Roll the shell upin the pasted paper, rubbing it down very firmly onto theshell body while rolling. The pattern of string on thesides of the shell should show through clearly after thepaper has been well rubbed down. If more than one sheetbe required, they are rolled on successively.

When the shell is rolled up in the paper, the over­hanging edges are torn into strips (six or eight of them)and thece are carefully smoothed down on the shell'sends, first on the bottom, then on the top. A "collar"on which to set the shell, fuse end down (with the fuseinside the "collar") may be made of a piece of pipean inch or so smaller than the shell's diameter, and isa useful aid while smoothing the paper on the bottomof the shell. On the top of the shell, the paper shouldlap up onto the shell fuse and be pressed smoothlyagainst it.

The width to which the paper for paste wrap is cuthas much to do with the style of time fuse chosen forthe shell. Where a spun Bickford or "tape" style fuseis in use, the paper may be cut to overhang a little morethan half-a-diameter so that when smoothed down tothe fuse it just touches it. This is necessary with suchfuses as the thickness of the shell's top or "crown" isdictated by the distance between inside and outside cross­matchings; if the crown is too thick, it interferes withproper cross-matching. When a spolette is used, lessattention to the thickness of the crown is required. Cer­tain pyrotechnists, indeed, claim that a specially heavycrown is needed to seal and support the spolette inplace. These workers will cut the paste wrap paper tooverhang the shell's top by almost a full diameter. Intearing and smoothing down the strips of paper, thestrips are first torn as usual, then each strip is torn

22

A. FULCANELLI

halfway down the middle and rubbed down with thehalves "forked" on either side of the spolette. Such atechnique is quite time consuming, but it produces aheavy and almost conical crown around the spolette.Similarly, opinion differs on the proper amount of paperto overhang and smooth down on the shell bottom.Some operators believe a sufficient seal is obtained byhaving the strips meet in the center of the bottom;others, particularly with heavy and large shells, make itthe full diameter of the shell and in pasting-in cause itto overlap. Particularly with very large shells havingmany turns of pasted paper, such a technique leads toalmost hemispherical shell bottoms. Whatever techniqueis chosen, when tearing the overhanging paper, onestops just a tiny bit before reaching the body of theshell. This is done primarily to avoid "dog-ears" orrough corners on the top or bottom edges of the shell,but it is also claimed that "pin-holes" where hot gasesfrom the exploding lift charge could permeate the pastewrap are thus avoided. Finally, rub the shell with thehands to express excess paste and to smooth the paperdown firmly all over the top, bottom and sides.

Some pyrotechnists prefer, particularly on smallershells, to fold the pasted paper down on the bottomof the shell while rolling, at the same time pleating ortwisting the overhanging paper at the top around theshell fuse, one turn at a time, instead of tearing it intostrips. This is particularly feasible when lighter paperis used for paste wrap, as on 3" shells. Other makersmerely fold the inner layers of overlapping paper in onthe shell, and tear the outer layer or two as usual.These methods afford speedier production (when em­ployed by a practiced worker), and are also advocatedas means of preventing "'pin-hole" formation.

If more than three or four turns of heavy (60-, 70­lb.) paper are to be put on the shell, it is wise to pastein with two or three turns, let dry, then add two orthree more turns, until all the paper has been pasted onthat is required. In this way, the undesirable situationof having heavy masses of soggy pasted paper on theshell all at once can be avoided. Shells should be set todry in a well-dehumidified, heated room with circulat­ing air. Warm, breezy summer days are ideal for shelldrying out of doors. Air current is more important thanheat in drying; shells will dry faster at 70°F with abreeze than they will at 90°F when the air is stagnant.Wet shells should be dried on screens to assure air cir­culation above and below, or otherwise, turned fre­quently to give all surfaces equal opportunity to dry.

On shells with many turns of paper, particularly whentime fuse is used and there is no desire for a heavyshell top or "crown," often a band of paper just cover­ing the side walls of the shell is used. For example, a6" shell might be pasted with a band (24" long, widthequal to shell wall) and a sheet (24" long with 3"overhang on either end torn into strips and smootheddown on the ends), set to dry, then pasted with anotherband and another sheet. With a spolette, it is desirableto have a crown that is heavy and supports and sealsaround the tube. Thus all the paste wrap on such a shellshould overhang the top and be smoothed down aroundthe spolette, but it need not be built up with paper onthe bottom; half the sheets can be cut to roll up flushwith the bottom edge only, and the balance to be torninto strips and smoothed down (see Figure 20).

PYROTECHNICA • IX

('O.t11I'1EJlICIIVG TOW/fAP A S/I£LL

SIIEETOFPASTEDPAPER

Of/E/(IIA/vCIIVG f?APER iV;f';V#tiroSTRIPS TO BE S/'fOOTIIE./J ./)ow;VO//E,f' E11/,05

RIGflT.- BAiVO A;V.o 5/1EET 5CIIEI1E ;COl?.PAST£"-WI?APPING TO At/O/./)!3i//L./)t/P Or PAPER 0/11 TOPAIVO BoTTO/'1. ..

Figure 20. Pastewrapping procedures.

SII££TDrFASTEIJ,PAPEi(

8AiV.oOr

PASTEIJ,PAPER

•In some plants, where a need for econo:ny ?1akes

it desirable to accomplish all the pastewrappmg maneoperation, larger shells are pasted in with lighter paperthan is advised in Table 11. The same number of turnsare used, but (e.g.) a 5" shell might be wrapped in fiveturns of 40-lb. or even 30-lb. kraft. This expedientmethod produces shells faster, but with an offsettingdecline in appearance, and (to a lesser .extent~, lessquality of the product in'perfor~ance. It 1S poss1bl~ toget by with such cheapemng of smgle-break shells w~th­

out too much decline in reliability, but a poor paste Jobwill have considerably more telling effect on a multiple­break shell.

It is easier to work paste into the lighter weights ofpaper, and when many small shells are to be pasted-in,it is usual to prepare many sheets of paper at once. Todo so, using 30-lb. or 40-lb. paper, lay a sheet out onthe table and brush or smear one side, then the other,with paste. On top of this sheet, lay another, with theedge staggered about 1/2" in from that of the first sheet.Brush the top of this sheet with paste and lay yet an­other sheet atop it, again 1/2" in from the ed~e of thesheet below; brush with paste, and repeat untll a suffi­cient number of sheets have been laid out and pasted.It will be understood that the sheets of paper lie on thetable in a "lapped" pile, like shingles a? a. roof or theslats of a Venetian blind. When the pile 1S complete,it is picked up as a unit and turned over, and brushedwith paste on its bottom side. Then it may be brokenby wringing it, rather as one wrings out a wet cloth,the narrow way (that is, against the grain); and afterthis, perhaps even crushed into a ball. When s~oothed

out it is laid flat on the table so that shell pastmg canbegin. The shells may be rolle~ up one. aft~r .the otherright from the pile of paper. Th1~ operatlOn 1S .tllustra~ed

in Figure 21. The paper may either be torn mto stnps

23

and smoothed down on the shell ends, or folded andtwisted, as preferred.

The effect of the quality of the paste wrap and theamount and weight of the paper used on the appe~rance

of the break is uncertain. 2 A heavy paste wrap wIll cer­tainly lead to higher pressures within the shell beforeit breaks, and thus presumably to better ig.nition of thegarniture, and to a harder, more symmetncal burst. Itis the present .writ~r's opinio~, howeve:, .that. symmetr.yof burst is pnmanly a functlOn of sp1kmg m a tradi­tional shell with black powder burst. The importance ofpaste wrap is more in serving to seal the contents of theshell from hot powder gases, and as a reinforcement tohold the shell together as it is propelled violentl~ fromthe mortar. That this is so is proven by the eXistenceof an alternative traditional technique, called rinfascia­ture or dry pasting3 , in which paste wrap is dispensedwith entirely, but excellent, symmetrical breaks may yetbe accomplished.

When the paste wrap has dried on the shells, t~ey

will feel dry and rock-hard all over. Progress ?f drymgmay be checked by pressing with the fingernal1 aroundthe shell fuse (this is where drying takes longest). Oncedry, shells are ready to be equipped with lift and leader.

FINISHING (LIFT AND LEADER)The shell, following pastewrapping, is essentially

complete as a projectile, but (as opposed to some cur­rent Oriental practice, and much earlier Occident.a! pra.c­tice) is always equipped with its own self-contamed lift

2 No detailed published studies have been done on this pr~bl~m

for traditional Italian-style cylindrical shells, although ShimiZU(1976) investigates this problem with spherical shells in depth.-ED.

3 This technique will be described in Part II of this work.

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

I I I I I II I I I I II I I I I II I I I I II I I I I II I I I I I: I I I I I

A. FULCANELLI

RO.oU/Ne Sh'ELLS /AI' ;OASl;E ,WRAP/)/IfECTZY rA'~~qj) ~LE.

Figure 21. Procedure for pasti/'fg-in many small shells at once.

charge (propellent) powder, and a long quickmatchleader which will project from the mouth of the mortarafter the shell has been loaded, and by which both shellfuse and lift powder may be ignited. The process of fin­ishing a shell with lift and leader is more complicatedthan it might seem, and is worthy of special attentionbecause it is crucial to the success of every shell.

Required for shell finishing are black match, FFAblack powder (sometimes 4FA powder is used forsmaller shells), various sizes of match pipes, 30- or40-lb. kraft paper, string and paste. Although the tech­niques for making black match itself vary widely, andare outside the concern of this discussion, the matchpipes to be used are of special concern. Two types ofpiped match are used in shells: leaders, i.e., the match,typically two to three feet in length, by which the shellis fired, and passfires, the match that (as the name im­plies) passes fire from the top of the shell (where it istied in with the leader and the shell fuse) to the bottom(where the lift charge is located).

LeadersLeader pipe should be 1,4" - %" in diameter, and

sized to fit the shell and the mortar for which it isintended. A 24" or even 18" leader is ample for 3"single-break shells, while larger shells have 30", 36",or longer leaders. However, on a long multiple-breakshell, the top of which may stand only a foot from themortar muzzle, a shorter leader may be used. Somepyrotechnists use mass-produced bundled match for shellleaders, but this is not commended; such machine madematch is expensive, and furthermore hand-rolled leaderpipes are stronger, better withstanding the abuse thatshell leaders must take.

Many techniques are in use for making leader pipe;a simple one is as follows. First, strips of 30-lb. kraftpaper should be cut the length of the finished matchpipe, with the grain running the long way, and aboutfour to five inches wide. A straight rolling rod of thedesired diameter, preferably made of smoothly finishedmetal, is also necessary. Paste one edge of the paper

24

with a strip of paste about Y2" Wide; lay the rod on thepaper about an inch in from the opposite edge. Bringthat edge of the paper strip up over the rod and pushit down with the fingers as the rod is rolled forward.The hands, with the fingers against the paper, are movedoutwards longitudinally to the rod. The edge of thepaper strip is thus trapped between the rod and thatpart of the paper which is yet unrolled, forming a loop.The outward movement of the fingers draws the loop ofpaper taut; the advancing rod mashes the loop into a flatcrease, which with a little practice is quite straight (seeFigure 22). Finish rolling up the pipe and tighten itby continuing to roll for several revolutions, smoothingthe pasted edge with the hands. Finally, remove the rodcarefully and repeat the operations until sufficient pipesare rolled. Practiced workers usually fan out many strips(perhaps 100), paste all the edges at once, and roll upthe pipes very quickly.

If the technique described cannot be mastered, analternative method is to fold over about an inch ofpaper along the length of each strip in advance, thenturn the paper over so that the folded-over part liesfacing the work surface, and paste the opposite edge witha Y2 if strip of paste. Bringing the folded edge over andaround the rod, tuck the fold under the rod, and roll upthe pipe.

Fuse caps are also necessary in assembling theheads (as leaders not yet attached to shells are called).Some pyrotechnists simply cut up ordinary leader pipesinto pieces 6" - 8" long, folding, tying, or twisting oneend of each piece shut. Others prefer to roll special pipeon a rod about 1/16" larger in diameter than that usedfor the leader pipe itself. Often, white or a bright coloredpaper is used for the fuse caps, to distinguish them inthe dim light along the mortar line from the leader pipesrolled of brown kraft. Some makers use lance tubes forfuse caps.

Also roll on a 3,4" or 1" rod a large sort of pipeof 11/2 - 2 turns of light paper. This should be cut intobands or rings of about Y2" width with which to bind upthe folded heads.

PYROTECHNICA • IX

-;fot:'

~LOOj7 tJr r'A?EIf ~AS~IE,?J 72? A C/PEASf

i"':?"'-----STtf'I? OFPASTE

FOLf) NIiEIt/ Tt/CA"'EIJV/lIIJER ROt:'

CAj7

/1ATCfI

Figure 22. Match pipe rolling operations.

,P/,PE

?RE?AREIJ flEA/)

?A?Etf gAiV,o

/ruSE OJ? COI/Etf'//liG E,K?OSE.o

EX,PoSEIJ /'1ATCII I1A7l'1!Figure 23. Prepared head.

longer than the passfire pipe (two pieces for small orshort shells, three pieces for big or long ones) andthread it through the pipe so about %" extends fromthe end that will be tied to the spolette, and about11/2" - 2" from the bottom end which will communicatefire to the lift charge. Some makers prefer to flatten thepassfire pipe by rubbing it flat on the work surface priorto inserting the match. Be sure that the match lies flat,side-by-side, and does not cross or twist in the pipe.The resultant assembly is a complete passfire.

Bend the exposed ends of match on the top end ofthe passfire over the top of the spolette, which has pre­viously been prepared by scraping or scratching it toexpose a fresh surface of powder, removing any pastethat may have covered it during spiking or pasting-in.

The black match should be cut perhaps 6" longerthan the leader pipe, and threaded through the pipesso that about 4" protrudes from one end, and 2" fromthe other. Place the fuse caps over the 4" ends (pinch­ing the leader pipes to enable the caps to slip overthem), and fold all but about a foot of the leaders upin bundles perhaps 6" wide, and slip the bands overthe bundled match to bind the finished heads, as illus­trated in Figure 23.

Passfires and BucketsAlso necessary for shell-finishing are passfire pipes.

Passfire pipes may be rolled on a %" or even 1/2" rod,since these big pipes usually carry two or even threelengths of match, usually 6- or 8-strands of cotton perlength. These pipes are usually rolled in lengths of twoor more feet and cut to the size needed.

Buckets must also be rolled for the spolettes ofshells. These should be about 3" long, of three to fourturns of 40- or 50-lb. kraft, and of a diameter to fitover the spolette and the passfire (as will be shownlater); %" for small shells, and even I" for big shellswith big spolettes.

Cut the passfire pipes to such a length that the pipewill run from the top of the spolette (with which it willbe flush), down the side of the spolette, over the topof the shell, and down its side to about 1" below thebottom of the shell. Now, cut match about 2" - 3"

25

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION A. FULCANELLI

S'pOLETTEgARE /l'/ATCh/ BEA/T

----OYER TOP OFt=""'""'lhS'POL£7TE

P/PEL? .PARTOr

/J4SSF/..-f'E

8U'Ck'ET 77ELJ 0# OYE/?S'/OLE7TEA1/LJ /J1S'sr/RE

Sh"ELL -1-----

Slifl L wiT// ?ASS­fi/PE A77/!C/,/E.()

S//EZi. A//T//&!C/f'ET

Figure 24. Attaching passfire and bucket to shell.

Tie the match in this position with a clove hitch aroundthe spolette and the passfire down the side of the spol­ette. The presence of double or triple pieces of matchusually suffices to insure that the tie will not choke offthe passage of fire as it would if only one piece of matchwere used; however, it is a matter of practice and ex­perience to learn the appropriate firmness with whichto tie - tightly enough to prevent slipping, but not sotightly as to strangle the passfire completely. Bend thepassfire down along the crown of the shell, then downthe side, securing on the side wall with a piece of pastedpaper or paper tape (see Figure 24).

Next, smear the sides of the spolette with white glue,being careful not to get it on the exposed match on topof the spolette. Slide a bucket tube carefully over thespolette and passfire - if the bucket tube is of theproper diameter, it will fit snugly without being forced.Rotate the tube on the spolette to insure a good gluecontact, and tie firmly over the bucket tube at the baseof the spolette, with a clove hitch of strong twine.

Some workers are able, with a bit of dexterity, toeliminate entirely the step of tying the passfire to thespolette prior to fitting the bucket. The passfire is bentin place and the bucket slipped over it and the spolette,then the bucket is tied as usual.

Lift wrapThe shell is now ready to receive its lift wrap. Cut

30-lb. kraft paper (heavier paper is often used for thelarger shells) sufficient in length to go two turns aroundthe shell, and about twice the diameter of the shellformer (Le., 2Y2" X 2 = 5" strip for 3" shells; 31/z"X 2 = 7" strip for 4" shells, etc.). The grain shouldrun the width of the paper, i.e., parallel to the directionthe shell will be oriented as it is rolled up.

Paste half the width of a strip on one side with apaste brush. Lay the shell on the strip at one end, withthe passfire down the side, such that the pasted portionis in line with the shell, with the unpasted portion over­lapping (see Figure 25). Roll the shell up in the paper,making sure it goes on tightly. Shells so wrapped may

26

be set to dry and the paper will shrink down tightly onthe shell walls and over the passfire. The overlappingends of unpasted paper form the bag for the lift charge.

Lift charge

When the pasted-on lift wrap is dry, the lift chargeof FFA blasting powder may be measured (see Table12) and dumped into the lift bag, as the shell is heldin an inverted position. If the pasting has been donewell, the paper will adhere to the shell walls, andpowder will not sift down between the paper and thewall of the shell. The inner turn of paper may be foldeddown over the powder, making sure that the passfire endis bent over into the powder first. The outer turn isthen gathered, sack-style, into the center of the bottom,and firmly tied with a clove hitch of strong twine. Thegathered paper may be trimmed close to the knot withtinsnips or a knife. A well-sharpened, serrated knifeworks well, as it has a sawing action.

t/#/'ASTEIJ AREA

Figure 25. Shell ready for lift wrapping.

PYROTECHNICA • IX

firing. Often the method described is further elaborated.Instead of gathering in and tying the lift bag at thebottom, it is sometimes folded over, and then coveredwith a sheet of pasted 30- or 40-lb. kraft to hold thefolds shut and make a flat bottom. The walls of theshell are then covered with a band of thin paper (com­pletely pasted on both sides) ,perhaps 11/2 turns of30-lb. kraft, sometimes ordinary brown paper, but oftencolored kraft or even Christmas wrapping paper. Such afinish is ordinarily reserved for large and elaborate shells.

A much more common finish for shells is for theshell to be handled as described, up to the point wherethe passfire is tied to the spolette. Instead of merelybending the match over the end of the spolette (as shownin Fi~ure 24.1), the match is cut somewhat longer, sothat It can be bent down the opposite side of the spol­ette and tied as illustrated in Figure 26.

2 oz.2V2 oz.

3 - 3V2 oz.4 - 5 oz.

4 - 5 oz.41/2 - 6 oz.

8 - 12 oz.

Typical lift charges for3" m 8" single break shells.

Weight of FFAfor lift

1 oz.IlJ,; - 1V2 oz.

Table 12.

Description

I-break color or saluteColor and special garnitures

(whistles, serpents,saettines, etc.)

I-break color or saluteColor and special garnitures

I-break color or saluteColor and special garnitures

I-break color or saluteColor and special garnitures

I-break color

5"

4"

6"

8"

Shellsize

3"

NOTE TO TABLE:

The above table indicates lift charges for the simpler shellsdescribed in this first part of the present work. Appropriate~harges for more elaborate and heavier shells will be suggestedIII the second part, which will treat the manufacture of suchshells. It is impossible to list the entire variety of shells that itis possible to make, so ultimately it will be necessary for thepyrotechnist to arrive at lift charges for his large and specialshells by experience.

A rule of thumb often used is to allow I oz. of FFA foreach pound of shell weight up to 10 lbs., and ~ oz. for eachpound in excess of 10 lbs. Especially with very large shells, suchfactors as the fit of a shell in the mortar, the mortar length, andthe length of the shell, assume importance which they do nothave in the case of smaller and more routine shells.

Sl'oLETTE

Sf/ELL

I34RE/'fATe/'! 8E#TaYE/(7Of7 o~-SI'OLETTE AAll)TIEl) Q1I O,P/?:/Slff SIAE

f?I?Ei/ /'A;f'TOr J?ASSfiI?E

The shell is turned upright, with the bucket on top;the head (previously prepared) should at this pointhave an extra piece of black match (perhaps 3" - 4"long) inserted into its open end, and that end then thrustinto the bucket (contacting the match from the passfireon the top of the spolette), and the bucket gatheredaround the pipe, and firmly tied with a clove hitch. Atthis point, it is usual to smear a little white glue overthe knots at the bottom of the shell, at the bottom ofthe spolette where the bucket is tied on, and at the topwhere the bucket is choked onto the leader. As previ­ously mentioned, the doubling of the match (where it istied into the bucket) is insurance against failure, as asingle length of match tied too firmly in its pipe maybe delayed, or even choked off in burning. The shellis now complete and ready to fire.

Table 13 describes the dimensions of mortars suit­able for firing cylindrical shells of usual dimensions andlift charges as prescribed in Table 12.

Table 13. Mortar lengths for cylindrical shells.Diameter Length

3" 18" for single-break coloror salutes only

24" for all uses

4" 30"

5" 30"

6" 36"

8" 48"

Variations in finishingThe method described above is an old, traditional

one that makes shells which slide smoothly down themortar and leave few glowing embers in the mortar after

Figure 26. Shell prepared for dry-wrap finish.

The shell is then wrapped up in a sheet of dry paper,pasted onto the body of the shell only at its edge, longenough for two or three turns around the shell body,and extending several inches beyond either end of theshell. The wrap is then gathered in around the base ofthe spolette and tied, the shell inverted and the lift pow­der put into the "cup" formed by the paper extendingbeyond its bottom. This paper is then tied off close, andthe shell is completed by tying the leader in at the top,treating the extended gatherings of paper sticking uparound the spolette (from the place where tied at itsbase) as a sort of "bucket." In dealing with a shellwith a spun type fuse, this method is the only one suit­able to use, because it is impossible to have a separatebucket for the timer fuse.

On 3" finale shells, it is possible to dispense en­tirely with the passfire pipe, making passfires with nakedmatch. The confinement afforded by the tight turns oflift wrap suffices in lieu of a pipe. Cut lengths of goodmatch, perhaps three times the height of the shell.Holding the shell in one hand, lay the match along theside so that perhaps one inch protrudes beyond thebottom. Bring the match up over the cross-matchingof the time fuse, around it in back, under it on theother side, doubling back and crossing over the matchwhere it runs along the top, and down the side paraIlelto the first strand. Secure with a square of paper tape;roll up the shell in a couple of turns of 30-lb. kraft,extending perhaps 3" - 4" beyond either end of theshell. Empty the lift charge into the bottom and closethe lift wrap with a clove hitch; invert the shell, insertthe head (with doubled match) and tie once above thetimer fuse. Figure 27 shows this expedient method ofmaking a passfire.

27

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

Shell (ready for lift wrap)Figure 27. Finale shell with passfire of naked match.

It is usual to use a passfire pipe on larger shellsmade with timer fuse, with the match extending fromthe end "forked" under the cross-matching, as shownin Figure 28. The outer lift wrap is essentially similarto that described for the small shells. Sometimes, whenusing a dry paper wrap, powder from the lift chargewill sift up between the wrap and the side walls of theshell, particularly if the wrap has been put on loosely.Some shell makers tie a ligature around the bottom ofthe shell (or just below it) to prevent this. This in effectchokes the lift wrap and prevents powder migration (seeFigure 29).

In summarizing the advantages and drawbacks ofthe dry lift wrap (as opposed to the pasted lift wrap aspreviously discussed), it is obvious that the dry wrap

!tATell FORKEfJAA'OClIVO ,FUSE tW.oEfi'

C,fOSS-I'1ATCflIAIG

\

'pIECE Or //ASTEO PAPEROR P,A,PER 7?/PE TO /TOL/J

PASSRRE //V PLACE

?A5SF/RE,PI?E

Figure 28. "Forked match" on large shellsusing timer fuse.

28

A. FULCANELLI

LIGATt/,fE5 to I'..fBlEIVTI"OJ1l'PEA' /'1IGRAnON

Figure 29. Shell tied off with ligature.

is more expeditious, and thus less costly; but burningdetritus is blown into the air, posing a hazard to opera­tors and materials in the area around the mortar. Fur­thermore, remnants of these wrappings often remain,glowing or burning, in the mortar, and m~st be removedperiodIcally. This is why the dry wrap IS used .by .thefastidious pyrotechnist only for finale shells or I.n SItu­ations (e.g., electric firing) where each mortar IS usedonly once during the display and will not need to bereloaded or repeatedly approached by the display op­erator.

SINGLE BREAK SHELLSWITH SPECIAL GARNITURES

The successful achievement of consistently-perform­ing single break shells of cut stars may logically befollowed with efforts including various special garnituresother than cut stars, or shells containing cut stars incombination with such garnitures. The list of these gar­nitures is lengthy, and only some of the simpler typesare described here (other, more complex garnitures willbe described in Part II).

CometsComets are large pumped stars, usually ranging from

%" to I~" in diameter, but they may be even largerin large shells or where some special effect is sought.Generally they are of a tailed composition, .such ascharcoal flitter, or electric types, but on occaSIOn theymay be 'of a colored or fancy "colored electric" type.

Large pumped stars such as these mu~t be pumpedwith heavier pressure than can be applIed by hand.Ordinarily, they are rammed by means of a heavymallet applied to the pump's plunger. In order t? assurethat they are of uniform size, so that they WIll stackproperly inside the shell, normally they are raI?medsomewhat longer than usual and then the exce?s IS cutoff with a small knife or spatula. If the pump IS of thetype equipped with a pin or stud on the side, and a slot

The careful pyrotechnist may have pumps made tomake comets of special sizes to fit snugly in his shells,or may have case formers of slightly smaller or largerdiameter than standard to make comets of standardsizes fit. If a slightly larger former than usual is usedto make the shell casings, or if the technique of rollingon chipboard, then removing it after the case is rolled,to achieve a slightly larger shell case, is employed, thenit should be ascertained that the resultant shell will stillfit in the mortar of appropriate size after it is finished.The table given above is for use with cornets and shellcasings of standard size.

A small, roughly triangular space is left between theinside shell wall and each pair of comets (see Figure30.1). After each ring of comets is laid in place, thespaces must be filled with either rough powder or aninert filler such as sawdust, so that no empty air spacesjeopardize the integrity of the shell wall. Whatever filleris chosen (rough powder and sawdust each have advo­cates among experienced fireworkers), it must be sifteddown into these spaces and then rammed with a smallstick. Some makers have found it of advantage to carvea special, roughly triangular, tool to fit on the end ofthe rod employed for this purpose. Lacking such, how­ever, an ordinary dowel serves quite adequately.

Table 14.Size

of sheD.

5"5"5"

Patterns for comet rings in shells.No. of comets Comet

per ring diameter10 1"9 IVs"8 lw"

PYROTECHNICA • IX

to accommodate this in the sleeve, the procedure is asfollows: holding the pump with the pin perhaps 1;2" - 1"above the top of the sleeve, fill the pump with the dampcomposition, and place the bottom of the pump on asmooth surface sturdily supported on the floor. Withthe mallet, ram until the composition is thoroughly com-pacted. At this point the pin should stand maybe 1;4"above the top of the sleeve. The plunger is pushed untilthe pin contacts the top of the sleeve, and the excesscomposition protruding from the sleeve is cut off, fallingback into the tub of damp composition. Finally theplunger is turned until the pin engages the slot, and thecomet is pumped out and set to dry. Pumps may bemade without the pin and slot, and in this case an indexmark is made on the plunger to serve a similar purpose;the composition is rammed, and the excess eiected bypushing the plunger into the sleeve until the index markregisters with the top of the sleeve; finally, the excessis cut off and the comet ejected.

Comets are laid in the shell casing so that they forma circle around the periphery of the case. The cometstouch the case on its inside wall, and touch each other;the circle or ring of comets should fit snugly in thecase. If the circle fits loosely, a chipboard liner rolledup and inserted inside the case may be used to reduceits diameter to tighten the fit. On the other hand, if itshould arise than an extra comet could be made to fitby slightly enlarging the inside diameter of the case, thismay be done by rolling a turn or two of chipboard onthe former prior to rolling the kraft on it. After finish­ing the case in the usual fashion, the chipboard is re­moved, leaving a case with a circumference just enoughlarger that the extra comet may be added, making asnugly fitting ring of comets. Each pyrotechnist has hisown preferences, which depend upon the choice of com­positions and their burning properties, as well as onthe effect desired. However, the following schemes inTable 14 suggest typical patterns:

6"6"

8"8"

1210

14 (loose)15 (tight)

IVs"lw"

lw"lw"

Figure 30.1. Top viewof comet shell.

Figure 30.2. Side view of cometsas stacked in shell.

Figure 30. Comet shell details.

29

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

Having laid the first ring of comets, and rammedthe spaces with rough powder or sawdust, the next ringmust be added. This ring is staggered by half the diam­eter of the comets, so that when viewed from the side,the stacked rings of comets have the appearance of abrick wall laid in "running bond." Normally at leastthree rings, and perhaps four or five (depending uponthe size of the comets and the size of the shell) areused, and the height of the comets is so determinedthat when the desired number of rings or layers are laidin place, the shell is more or less the same height asits diameter. As each ring is laid in place, the emptyspaces are rammed with rough powder or sawdust andthe next ring added, and so forth until all have beenput in place (see Figure 30.2).

When all comets have been put in place, the entirecentral space is filled with FFA powder until it is levelwith the top of the topmost ring of comets. The shellis then closed with a fused end disc, the excess paperpleated down, and another disc added over the folds asusual. Spiking, pasting-in, and finishing with lift andleader all follow as for a shell of cut stars. Variationssometimes observed are: (1) In the spiking, a closerpattern is occasionally used; typically, the number ofside strings employed is increased to that normally usedon the next larger size of shell. For example, a 5" cometshell might be spiked with 32 side strings (the patternordinarily used for a 6" shell) instead of 24. Circum­ferential spiking is also closer, to match the closervertical spiking, making small squares on the side walls.(2) Because comet shells are sometimes heavier thanplain star shells, and also because the comets may belonger-burning than cut stars, the lift charge must oftenbe increased to account for these factors. Such altera­tion is a matter of experience with the effects in question.

A double-ring effect may be procured by filling theshell case with comets as described, but rather thanfilling the central space or core entirely with FFA pow­der, centering a canulle in this space and filling aroundit, between the comets and the canulle, with small cutstars. The canulle should then be filled with powder asin making a cut-star shell, and withdrawn. The top ofthe shell is made level with rough powder, and it isclosed, spiked, pasted-in, and finished as usual. Thesuccess of such effects is greatly dependent upon thecompositions chosen for the comets and the cut stars,both in terms of color contrast and relative burningspeed. Ideally, the comets, being larger, are thrownout the farthest by the shell burst, while the small starsstay closer to the center of the burst; the appearance

A. FULCANELLI

made is of a large outer "ring" made by the comets,with a contrasting dense center made by the small cutstars. Figure 31 depicts the cross-section of a double­ring shell.

Serpents, whistles, and other tubular garnitures

Serpents, whistles, and similar garnitures consistingof composition rammed in paper tubes are well de­scribed elsewhere and detailed instructions for theirmanufacture need not be given here. The possibilitiesfor variation are almost endless and for purposes ofshell-filling, all such garnitures are treated the same.Typically, they are rammed in %" to 112 " i.d. tubesand are anywhere from 2Yz" to 5" long depending uponthe effect. All must be carefully matched and nosedprior to being put in shells.

The effect desired when such garnitures are used inshells is that of a symmetrical break of color, like thatobtained from a normal shell of cut stars; the garnituresappear to fall from the center of the color break. Tobegin, a long shell case must be rolled, to allow for theheight of the garnitures and above them, the usualamount of colored stars that would be used in a star­shell of the given size. For example, presuming a 3" colorand whistle shell using whistles 2~" long, the papershould be cut to allow a finished shell wall height ofapproximately 5" (21/2" for the whistles, 2~" for thecolor). The normal number of turns of paper used forany shell of the given size are used, as previously de­scribed.

Having rolled the shell case, proceed to arrange thegarnitures, matched end up, in a ring around the ?ottomof the shell case. They should fit snugly, touchmg theinside shell wall and each other. If for some reasonthey do not, an empty tube, flattened by laying it on thefloor and stepping on it, may be inserted in the ringand this will generally tighten the fit. Now, rough pow­der should be added to fill the entire central space orcore, and shaken down to fill the spaces between thegarnitures and the shell wall. A small rod is useful toconsolidate the rough powder in these interstices. Therough powder must be filled to a level just above themouths of the cases.

Place the canulle of the appropriate size for theshell in the normal central position, its bottom restingon the rough powder already filled. As for a regularstar shell, fill cut stars around the canulle to the properdepth, then fill the canulle with FFA powder. and rem~)Ve

it; consolidate the stars as usual by shakmg, pattmg,

Figure 31. Double-ring shell.

30

PYROTECHNICA • IX

CIRCuI'1FE,.fEIVn'ALSPIKIA/G 8E6//11S

......... AT&J'77"'Z:¥"faccur S77IRS

n

GAI</II17?/IfE8

VJ...--cur Sl:4RS

Figure 32.1. Cross-sectionof shell.

Figure 32.2. Spiking patternof shell.

Figure 32. Shells with tubular garnitures.

and so forth. Level the top of the case off with coarserough powder and close as usual with a fused disc,pleat the overhanging paper down on the top of theshell, and add another disc over the folds.

When spiking the filled and closed shells, a varia­tion from the normal practice is observed. The longi­tudinal or vertical strings are put on as usual, spikingthe outside bottom disc on in ordinary fashion withthe first wrap; the number of strings is that prescribedfor a normal shell of the size in question. However,when all vertical spiking is finished, the string is rundiagonally not to the bottom of the break (as in a plainstar shell), but only to the bottom of that area wherethe color stars are filled; i.e., just above the mouths ofthe garniture tubes. Circumferential spiking proceedsupward from this zone in the usual fashion, making apattern of squares with the vertical strings, and finallythe vertical strings are pinioned at the top of the shelland the usual half-hitch loop thrown around the top totie off the string.

The spiked shells are then ready to be pasted-inwith the normal number of turns and weight of paperfor a shell of the given size. Finally, they should befinished with the lift charge and leader as usual. Figure32 depicts a sectional view of the shell alongside a viewshowing the spiking pattern on the shell walls.

Saettines (siatenes, dteens) or lambettiA favorite shell is a break of color and saettines or

lambetti. These are a variety of small insert reports

typically made only for shells (although they may beshot from small mortars by themselves qr used as groundreports). Their identifying characteristic is that they arefused with black match, around which bran or sawdustis rammed to provide a delay. The explosive effect isfurnished by a flash powder or dark report composition,the case being very light in construction. The sizes mayvary widely, but the most common sizes are %" and1" diameters by 1liz " or 2" long. Described here is themanufacture of the 1" size.

Paper to roll cases for saettines is cut from sheets of22l1z x 34l1z chipboard, .018", .022", or .026" in cali­per (depending upon preference), and 24 x 36 30- or40-lb. kraft. Cut the chipboard into pieces 7Y2" longby 2" wide, cutting the 7Y2" into the 22 liz " and the2" into the 34 liz " dimensions. This results in 51 piecesfrom each sheet. Cut the brown kraft into pieces 12"long by 4" wide, cutting the 12" into the 24" dimen­sion, and the 4" into the 36" dimension, giving 18pieces from each sheet. Thus, to make (for example)1000 saettines, 20 sheets of chipboard and 56 sheets ofbrown kraft are needed. The grain of the paper is cus­tomarily in the long dimension, thus cutting in accord­ance with the above instructions will result in the grainrunning parallel to the short dimension of the pieces,or parallel with the former during rolling.

Using an inch dowel as a former, first lay the 2"wide strip of chipboard on the 4" width of the kraftsheet, centered on its width and flush with one of its

r:'O/(H/A/1$ T/f/A/VGLE ~OL.IJ

<65tep 1 Step 2 step -3

Figure 33. Saettine case rolling and closing.

31

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

ends; roll the two up together, pasting only the edgeof the kraft (see Figure 33). Slip the tube thus formedup over the end of the former so that the edge of thechipboard is flush with the end of the former, with onlythe I" width of kraft overhanging. Fold this down withthe "triangle fold," i.e., beginning by folding one sidein with the thumb or fingers, then the other side so asto form a sort of triangular tongue which is folded downlast. The folds are secured by beating with a mallet orby jolting the former, folded end of the case down, onthe work surface. The complete case may then be slip­ped off of the former, and another rolled and closed(see Figure 33).

In order to fill the cases thus formed, first select ascoop of sufficient capacity that when charged into thecase, the flash powder fills it about half full. Any "hot"flash powder, generally made without filler (i.e., branor sawdust) may be used. 4 Having filled the cases halffull with flash or other report composition, introducethe pieces of match. One or two pieces are normallyused, according to the preference of the pyrotechnist.Two pieces will result in a shorter delay, insuring ignitionin any event.

In one technique, the pieces of match lie close tothe side wall of the case. Enough bran or sawdust isnext introduced, so that it fills the case to almost over­flowing the top edge of the kraft. A dowel, or even theforefinger, is then used to ram the bran or sawdust downto the level of the chipboard liner; the cases are thenclosed by folding the overlapping kraft paper down,making the triangle fold with the pieces of match pro­truding from the points of the triangles (see Figure 34).

In another technique, the match is centered in thecasing as it is filled with bran or sawdust. A rod witha central hollow to accommodate the match, or even asturdy paper tube (such as a wheel pusher case), maythen be used to compact the filler material down to thelevel of the chipboard liner. Finally, the match is bentover to the side of the case, and the triangle fold formedwith the match sticking out the point of the triangle asbefore. Figure 34 illustrates this alternative method.

It is important to note that the pressure necessaryto ram down the bran or sawdust is one of the factorsin establishing the delay - the more pressure used, thelonger the delay. Some workers prefer bran, otherssawdust; and the wide variance in grades of either ma­terial makes some trial and error necessary to procurejust the desired delay. Some makers forgo ramming thefiller material entirely, merely filling the bran or saw­dust slightly higher than the chipboard inner liner, andrelying on the pressure of folding the ends in to compactit. This very light compaction results in very short delays.

A final variant in the filling of saettines is worth not­ing. This is the practice of filling a small amount ofbran or sawdust on the bottom of the casing, before

Before aluminum powder was available, "dark" report compo­sition was used (consisting of potassium chlorate, antimonysulphide, sulfur, and sometimes other ingredients) to give noiseonly, leading to the name of saettine ("little shot"). After alu­minum flash powders were introduced, these articles began tobe described as lambetti ("little lightning") because they gaveboth flash and sound. Today there is no real distinction, sincethe method of manufacture is the same, and "dark" reportcomposition is rarely used. Some manufacturers call the itemsaettine, and others call it lambetti, depending upon their pri­vate custom.

32

A. FULCANELLI

adding the flash powder. The reasoning behind this isthat while the triangle fold, if properly made, should begas-tight, the layer of filler protects against prematureexplosion of the saettine if a hastily, imperfectly formedfold allows fire to penetrate.

After the cases have been filled with flash and fillermaterial, matched, tamped, and the overlapping paperclosed with the triangle fold, they must be tied. Usinga spiking horse to hold and dispense the string, pastethe string well and unloop a length of it. Some makersprefer to lay a length of string underneath the top tri­angle flap, then cast a half-hitch over the flap aroundthe length of the casing, then another half-hitch, finallytying the ends with an overhand knot (actually, thisprocedure results in a clove hitch secured by an over­hand knot). Others simply tie a clove hitch around thelength of the saettine, and secure by tying on the side,rather than the end, of the case. In either instance, theresult must be a knot that holds the flaps shut on bothends of the case and that does not slip off. Figure 34illustrates the general appearance of the finished andtied saettine.

It is desirable that the position of the apices of thetriangles be opposed on the top and bottom of the saet­tine, so that viewed, as it were, from the top or bottomof the case, they would, if superimposed, form the Starof David. This configuration makes the casing assumea shape from which it is less easy for the string to slipthan if the points of the triangles were aligned.

Suitable string for tying saettines must be strong,not too thick, and able to take paste easily. The Belgianflax twine works well, as also do 8- or lO-ply cotton.A single strand is sufficient, although some like to usetwo strands running together for extra strength. Whenthe paste is dry on the string, the saettines are readyto be loaded into shells.

Saettines are filled in shells in a manner much likeother tubular shaped garnitures. They are arranged ina ring around the shell wall at the bottom of the case.In a 3" shell, only three I" diameter saettines fit andthese leave no central space to speak of. In a 4" shell,six I" saettines fit in a more usual sort of ring. Thematch is pointed inward toward the center of the case.Rough powder may be used to fill around the saettinesin the spaces between them and the shell wall; often,sawdust is used. In the 4" and larger sizes, the centralspace or core is filled with rough powder. Three inchshells do not allow this, but it does not seem importantwith saettines to have a central burst core in the saettinesection. When the shell opens with color, the bottom ofthe case "peels" open like a banana, and the saettinesdrop out of the center of the break. The desired effectis for the saettines to explode just as the color has reachedits full spread. If they explode just as the shell is open­ing, or if they hang fire for a prolonged period, thesaettines are not functioning correctly.

Whether sawdust or rough powder is chosen to berammed in the interstices, after the saettines and roughpowder core (if any) are in place, a little more roughpowder is added just to cover over the saettine match,the canulle lowered into its central place, cut stars filledaround it to their customary depth, the canulle filledwith FFA powder and withdrawn; the stars and powderconsolidated as usual during the filling process, toppedoff with coarse rough powder and the shell closed with

PYROTECHNICA • IX

-BLAC/(/"tATe/!

CJt/TE/?kMFTLI/tIER CII//'­

:l:/AiER

/'PITCh" //VCE/VT~AL

......_____POS/770#

Ch'/?&?AR~

L/AlE~---

AL TER/lATIt/E /'1ATC#I#C7FC#M'~E FOR S4ET77A1E8

TO? FOLOEtJCLasEf) WITH

/'1A7Z'1I ?,Rol/f't/O,WG

SAETT/Iv'ETIEOC'LosEfJ

Figure 34. ~aettine charging and finishing.

Heavy chipboard end discs, perhaps twice the thicknessemployed for ordinary star shells, are also required. Ifsuch heavy end discs cannot be procured, two or morethinner discs may be glued together to form one thickdisc. The discs are equal in diameter to the outsidediameter of the salute casing, thus being the same indiameter as the discs called for in ordinary star shells ofthe given size. Two such thick discs, one solid for thebottom, the other pierced (in the usual manner for anyshell) to receive a shell fuse, are required for each salute.

The casing may be loaded either from the top or thebottom, depending upon preference. If it is to be loadedfrom the top, the bottom (solid) disc should be ce­mented onto one end of the casing, using liberal amountsof white glue; if to be loaded from the bottom, the shellfuse.is first well cemented into the top (pierced) disc,then the fused disc cemented onto the casing. A con­venient way is to pour the glue into a shallow tray, anddip the ends of the casings into it; then to apply the discs.

the fused disc, top folded down, and extra disc overthe folds.

Spiking follows the usual procedure for tubular gar­nitures illustrated in Figure 32. Pasting-in, lift, andleader follow the standard procedures for any shell.

SALUTES (REPORTS)The salute, or report, is an important object of the

shell-builder's work, both for use as an effect by itself,and as a component in multiple-break shells. In con­struction, the salute is a special type of shell in whicha heavy-walled case is used to contribute both rigidityto the projectile and confinement to the flash powder,which it contains in place of the usual shell contents ofstars and powder. The cases may be either hand-rolledor machine-wound by the spiral-winding process. Hand­made salutes are almost exclusively used as components("bottom shots") in multiple-break shells, and will bediscussed in Part II of this work. Single-fire salutes insmaller sizes are used in such quantities that they aremost economically and speedily made with machine­wound cases. Techniques for using these are discussedhere.

Spiral-wound casings may be purchased from a vari­ety of manufacturers who furnish paper tubes for alluses. Dimensions typically called for are summarizedin Table 15.

33

Size ofsalute

3"4"5"

Table 15. Salute casing dimensions.Inside diameter Outside diameter

of casing of casing1%" 2V2"21/2" 3Y2"3V2" 41h"

Casewall height

2V2"3"3Y2 "

TRADITIONAL CYLINDER SHELL CONSTRUCTION

SPOLET7Z:

--------------

SP/ML-wot//VLJSALt/TE

C4S//ilG

CA"4SS-OEC770/l/ALY/EIV OF SALt//'C

,.--

......... ........

WEN C)C SALt/7EAS S/'//fELJ

A. FULCANELLI

Figure 35. Single-fire salute construction with machine-wound casings.

After the glue has dried, flash powder is chargedinto the casings. If they are being filled from the bot­tom, it is convenient to set two pieces of lumber on theworkbench a short distance apart, inverting the casingsso that the fused disc is supported on the pieces oflumber, while the fuse is accommodated between them.Flash powder is dirty and has a tendency to become"airborne," so the charging must be managed so as toavoid spilling or getting the flash powder where it shouldnot be - particularly avoiding getting it on the edgeof the casing to which the remaining end disc is to beglued after filling. A wide-mouthed funnel, such ashousewives use in canning preserves, is a useful tool inthis operation - it is ideal if the mouth is just wideenough to fit neatly inside the casing. Flash powdershould be filled into the casing until it is almost levelwith the edge; contrary to some published information,salutes are completely filled with flash powder.

Compositions for flash powder are many and varied,each maker having his own preferences for his ownreasons. Several are shown in Table 16.

The first composition listed is of a variety muchused with good effect in the past. Although thousandsof pounds of such composition have been mixed annu­ally without incident, mixtures of this kind are needlesslysensitive and their use has resulted in loss of life andproperty. The perchlorate compositions, nos. 2, 3, and4, are capable of making quite loud reports and arerecommended. For a silver cloud effect in conjunctionwith the loud report,S - 10% additional coarse titani­um sponge or turnings may be added to any of theabove compositions.

Flash powder for salutes is generally diluted withbran, sawdust, or other bulking filler, in volume ratios

3: 1 or 4: 1, flash powder:filler. This not only cheapensthe mixture, but prevents it from becoming caked orpacked, thus serving the valuable purpose of propagat­ing the explosion faster.

The filled casings are at last closed with an enddisc. Plenty of white glue to cement it in place shouldbe applied to the edge of the casing. After the glue hasdried, some workers prefer to seal around the joints ofthe discs to casing, top and bottom, with a band ofpasted paper; others proceed directly to spiking.

Salutes are spiked with the same number of verticalstrings as for any shell of the given size, i.e., 12 stringsfor a 3" salute, 16 for a 4", 24 for a 5", and so forth.The purpose of spiking is not, as it is with a star shell,to apply equal reinforcement over the entire shell wall,but is simply to hold the end discs on and afford greaterconfinement to the explosion (making it louder). Ac­cordingly, the string may be tied off on the fuse afterall vertical spiking is in place; or a couple of turns maybe taken round the side walls merely to pinion the ver­tical spiking, and the string tied off with the customaryhalf-hitch loop. Figure 35 illustrates salute constructionsteps through spiking, using the machine-wound casingsas discussed here.

The spiked reports are finally pasted-in with theappropriate number of turns of paper of the properweight, as for any shell of the given size. Finishing withlift and leader follows the procedure for any shell. Greatattention must be paid to sound and precise construc­tion of salutes, as malfunctions lead to serious accidents.

END OF PART I

Table 16. Flash powder compositions.1 2 3 4

Parts % Parts % Parts % Parts %Potassium chlorate ........ 8 61.5Potassium perchlorate ...... 4 66.7 8 66.7 7 70.0Dark pyro aluminum ...... 3 23.1 1 16.6 3 25.0 3 30.0Sulphur ...... ' .......... 2 15.4 1 16.6 1 8.3

34

PYROTECHNICA • IX

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL­A CONCEPT WHOSE TIME HAD COME

Max P. Vander Horck, Founder

Every year toward the end of summer a most peculiarphenomenon occurs somewhere in the United States­a happening that even the most avid fireworks buff wouldhave found unbelievable as recently as the late 1960s.From every quarter of the nation, people of all agesand in the most diverse walks of life assemble to spendan entire week discussing, learning about and shootingfireworks of every conceivable variety from the lowlyfirecracker to spectacular aerial shells, many of whichthey themselves have designed and constructed duringthe preceding months. All this happens at the annualconventions of the Pyrotechnics Guild International(PGI), and the amazing thing is that most of the mem­bers are not professional pyrotechnists who earn theirliving in the firework trade but rather, spend the restof the year engaged in occupations having nothing todo with fireworks. As soon as the time and place ofthe next convention is officially announced, those whocan see any possibility of attending begin planning andtrying to schedule their vacations or other activitiesaccordingly.

What is the fascination that draws hundreds of indi­viduals of widely varying backgrounds and pursuits intheir everyday lives to PGI conventions each year?That question can probably be answered best by exam­ining a typical convention schedule of events. Lectures,seminars and demonstrations by members who havethrough their own experience and research developedexpertise in some particular facet of pyrotechny are amajor attraction at conventions. Such topics as planningand shooting safe and effective displays, shell construc­tion, color production and general safety precautionsare commonly scheduled. In some cases, dramatic dem­onstrations have been used to illustrate what can hap­pen if certain safety precautions are not observed. Thepyro-hobbyist quickly learns that certain mixtures havebeen responsible for most of the fires, explosions andcasualties in the long history of fireworks, but once hehas actually seen and heard the violent flashes, crack­lings, and bangs that result when a lecturer grinds aminute amount of potassium chlorate and sulfur orfinely-powdered metal with a mortar and pestle, he willbe convinced that such mixtures and manipulationshould be avoided at all costs.

During and at the end of these presentations, theattendees have an opportunity to pose questions on anyfacet of the subject covered by the lecturer that maynot be clear to them. These sessions enhance understand­ing of both the theoretical and practical aspects of thatlecturer's particular specialty. Fascinating, instructiveand edifying though these seminars may be, they cannotsubstitute for the actual "hands on" experience withlive fireworks that characterizes most of the scheduledevents and makes the PGI conventions unique.

35

From early afternoon until long after dark on mostconvention days the members gather at a designatedsite, usually within a few miles of a hotel which servesas a headquarters facility, for what has become knownas the Class-C Shoot. As the name implies, here PGImembers fire and compare various brands of the smallerretail fireworks ("shop goods"), from firecrackers tosmall skyrockets and aerial shells, which are classifiedby federal law as safe enough for sale to the generalpublic. Most of these items are provided, at near­wholesale cost, by members regularly engaged in sellingfireworks. Although the laws of most states prohibitretail sales of many of these items, and all fireworkssales are usually restricted to specific times of the yearwhere they are permitted at all, a special blanket permitcovering the entire convention period allows them tobe legally sold to bona-fide Guild members.

Other events that have become traditional at thePGI conventions are the "Flea Market," where mem­bers offer for sale everything from usable pyrotechnicsupplies and implements to rare antique firecracker andfireworks labels, posters, catalogs and books; the annualPGI Auction, at which donated items of every imagi­nable description, including those mentioned above butnot necessarily all of a pyrotechnic nature, are sold tothe highest bidder, with the proceeds going into theGuild treasury; slide and motion-picture presentations ofnotable firework displays and events as well as picturestaken at past conventions and, most recently, giant­screen videotaped "instant replays" from the conventionin progress, and the annual PGI Awards Banquet.

Without doubt one of the strongest incentives formembers to attend conventions is the annual fireworkscompetition. From rather hit-or-miss beginnings, thishas developed into a carefully scheduled and program­med exhibition of what talented pyrotechnic hobbyistscan do when given a chance to pit their skills againstthose of other innovative members. At the earliest con­ventions, the entire competition used to be confined toone night, following the public display, which was gen­erally staged on the last or next-to-Iast evening; but asthe number of contestants grew, the word "planned"would have been more appropriate than "confined" be­cause, with the order of shooting dependent upon whichcontestants were ready to shoot first and no strict timelimits enforced, it was not unusual for some contestantsto be lighting their pieces in the early hours of thefollowing morning.

As a result of these problems, it became necessaryto establish various competition categories, namely:ground pieces, aerial shells, rockets and special effectssuch as comets, fountains, candles, etc. and further tosubdivide the entries. in each category according to theprofessed or known experience and skill of the contes-

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL

tant: novice, intennediate or advanced. These sub­divisions were of course made to avoid matching lessexperienced members against seasoned entrants in thecompetition for awards which include nearly two dozentrophies and plaques, with an additional Grand Mastertrophy going to the contestant earning the highest over­all score. Professional members and guests are invitedto participate but are not eligible for awards.

Because of the ever-growing interest and increasingnumber of competition entrants in recent years, a com­mittee was appointed to establish and publish guidelinesfor the event, which include rather specific rilles as tomaximum size, components and construction of devicesto be fired in a particular category and the amount oftime allowed each contestant. These guidelines are pub­lished well in advance of the convention because, aspreviously mentioned, many of the competitors constructtheir own shells, rockets and other entries, startingmonths before the announced time. Others who havenot yet attained enough ,skill and know-how to do thisbut still want to enter the competition, may assembletheir entries from commercially available componentsand rely on their own imagination, ingenuity and show­manship to make an impressive display, since there isa category for such entries. There has also been oneestablished for daylight effects in the past couple ofyears, so that now it has been found advisable to sched­ule the numerous competition events over several con­vention days, with the more spectacular entries beingfired just before the public display.

In order to trace the origins of the PGI, I mustbacktrack to the first monthly issue of the publicationPyronews, dated November 1966, a modest, mimeo­graphed newsletter written by myself and published bya mail-order dealer in northern California, in which issueI expressed the hope that the little publication woilld"become a clearing-home for the ideas, experiences, newformulas, and questions of its readers," adding "ourfield of interest is so poorly covered in books and otherpublications that many heads are scratched in search offairly simple answers."

To further this aim, I initiated a Question-&-Answerdepartment in that issue, at my wife Ruth's suggestiontitling it "Fire Away!" It was through this first ventureat writing for publication about fireworks that I devel­oped a corresponding acquaintance with ¢any otherpyro-hobbyists across the nation. I became convincedthat there was a need for a medium of regular and con­tinuing exchange of infonnation and ideas among them.Unfortunately, after preparing eleven issues by the endof 1967, I also became painfully aware that my pub­lisher was adding several pages of his own advertisementsto the material I sent him for each issue, for informa­tion on how to make pipe-bombs, improvised explo­sives, gun-silencers and other horrible things not evenremotely related to fireworks. For this reason, I severedmy connections with him and in January of 1968, beganpublishing monthly issues of American Pyrotechnist.Much of the material in each issue, then as in followingyears, was contributed by the readers themselves, mak­ing it the vehicle for exchange of information, ideasand experience in pyrotechny that was so badly needed.On the covers of the October 1968 and succeedingissues I added the legend: Dedicated to the Advancementof Safety, Skill and Artistry in pyrotechnics throughCommunication, which later became the motto of the

36

MAX P. VANDER HORCK

PGI and continues to be printed on the Guild member­ship cards.

The full realization of events foreshadowed by thatdedication, however, did not begin to materialize untilafter 14 issues had been mailed, and even then only asthe germ of an idea expressed on paper. I am temptedto call it an inspiration, as it seemed to come spontan­eously like a bolt out of the blue - typically about twoo'clock one morning as I was outlining the March 1969issue - but thinking back to that time, I now realizethat it must have been germinating for some time pre­viously. Until then, the only fireworks organizations inthe country were the American Pyrotechnics Associa­tion and a couple of related groups whose primary aimwas the preservation and advancement of the fireworkstrade and most of whose members were in the fireworksbusiness, with proportionately stiff annual dues to sup­port such activities. Not only were the dues prohibitivefor the average firework hobbyist, but the very idea ofan amateur pyrotechnist was anathema to the APA ­having the same ring, as somebody once remarked, as"amateur brain surgeon"!

By the same token, state and federal fireworks laws- a good part of them drawn up by members of the in­dustry itself - did not recognize and made no provi­sions for the making of fireworks as a hobby; to belegal, one must be engaged, employed or apprenticedin the business, with the appropriate state and federallicenses and permits, and woe to the unlicensed personwhose experimentation drew the unwelcome attentionof the authorities! Nonetheless, as I had learned fromcorrespondence with our readers, many single-mindeddevotees and students of the firework art and craft, farfrom being discouraged by their unrecognized amateurstatus, continued to experiment, even at the risk of being(ridiculously) called "basement bombers" when in factthey may have been trying to work out a new formula­tiOI~ for a cheaper, safer but still effective blue or purplestat composition.

Then as now, the basic "standard" fonnulas andfabrication methods were available to anyone with accessto a large library, and one had only to scan the classi­fied advertisements in such widely-read magazines asPopular Science, Popular Mechanics and Science &Mechanics, among others, to find numerous offerings ofinfonnation on how to make everything from crude fire­crackers and rockets to nitroglycerine, as well as manyfor fuse, casings, chemicals and other pyrotechnic mate­rials. These vendors had virtually no control over theage or knowledgeability of the purchaser. Finally, oneScience & Mechanics staff writer, probably seeking ma­terial for a sensational article, had his teenage son writeto a number of the vendors running such advertisements- including those carried by his own magazine. Whenthe boy's orders were filled with no questions asked,this man wrote a hair-raising expose published in theMay 1968 issue and titled: "Any 12-Year-Old With $3Can Build This Bomb!" - with that heading featuredon the cover beside a most inappropriate photo of abundle of sticks of dynamite! The writer noted, veryappropriately, that when "the brass" of the staff saw hisnotes for the story, they hurriedly sent down word todecline all future ads for fireworks or explosives, a policyadopted not long thereafter by other major circulationmagazines.

In a further attempt to stem the flow of fireworkingredients and supplies in interstate commerce, the

PYROTECHNICA • IX

Photo by Ben Harriman Photo by Ben Harriman

Photo by Ben Harriman

Snowball Comet shell by Bill Withrow, entered in 1974PGI Competition.

Jerry Taylor's finale at the 1974 PGI Competition.

Photo by Ben Harriman

Jerry Taylor's 5" Tremalon Crossette shell at the 1974PGI Competition.

Photo by Ben Harriman

Photo by Ben Harriman

Chuck Tenge (l), Mike Beyer (center) and Roger Presutti(r), hold an impromptu "seminar" on shell constructionat the 1973 convention. Information exchange was morespontaneous and less formalized than at later conventions.

Ben Harriman (1) and Jack Leonard (r), two ojest activists in the Guild, coordinated Guild activities onthe East Coast and organized thf; 1971 and 1972 "mini­conventions."

PGI Founder Max Vander Horck (l) looks on as JerryTaylor (r) humbly receives the Grand Master Trophyjor best competition entry at the 1974 convention heldin Grand Haven, Michigan.

37

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL

Photo by R. Cardwell

Attendees of the 1972 "mini-convention" in Marylandpose with the very first "Super String" containing only2,000 firecrackers.

Photo by Greg Gerstner

Hanging the "Super String" at the 1979 convention nearGrand Junction, Colo. Its size increases by geometricproportions each year.

38

MAx P. VANDER HORCK

Photo by Greg Gerstner

The late great Bill Hoyt (I) and Rob Berk (r) preside overa lively PG1 auction at the 1982 convention in Albu­querque, N.M.

Photo by Alex Schumall

Fireworks enthusiast-celebrity-writer-raconteur GeorgePlimpton at the 1982 PGl convention.

Photo by Greg Gerstner

Oreat Lakes Pyrotechnic Association members RichardSheard (l) and Al Colantino (r) with a 16" shell laterfired at the 1982 convention.

I.J,)

\0

Photo by Dave Penshorn

Group Photo of attendees at the 1981 PGl convention at Rochester, Minn.

~~ttl

IS<

THE PYROTECHNICS GUILD INTERNATIONAL

U.S. Food and Drug Administration, at that time chargedwith enforcing the provisions of the Federal HazardousSubstances Act, intensified its efforts to close down theoperations of known dealers in· such materials, particu­larly "fireworks kits" intended for making fireworks andmailable only because the oxidizers and fuels were pack­aged separately. (The "banger" kit offered by one mail­order dealer, for example, contained one plastic bag ofpowdered potassium nitrate and another of mixed char­coal and sulfur in the corresponding proportions formaking black powder when mixed by the customer.)The FDA's involvement in these actions elicited somerather sarcastic queries as to whether fireworks cameunder the heading of food or drugs, but the classificationwas really not too far-fetched, since all three blackpowder ingredients could be purchased at one's localpharmacy for medicinal purpo£es!

Thus, while our "benevolent bureaucrats" succeededin forcing a few suppliers of pyrotechnic materials outof business - at the taxpayers' expense - they wouldhave been unimaginative indeed to think they hadthereby put an end to do-it-yourself firework making.Moreover, this attempt to cut off sources of supply co­incided with proposed federal legislation to ban most,if not all, commercially-produced fireworks for sale tothe public. While such a drastic version of Prohibitionin the supposed interest of protecting us from ourselvesdid not actually materialize, the very threat of it hadpredictable effects.

Just as in 1919, when passage of the Volstead Actbanning the sale of alcoholic beverages to the Americanpublic became imminent, bootleggers began tooling upto provide illicit fireworks for our citizens. Fireworksbootleggers already knew from their experience in thenumerous states that had banned all fireworks, that somepeople were willing to pay excessive prices for "blackmarket" commodities - in short, that an unpopularlaw cannot be enforced. They also knew that it wasmore profitable to make and sell large salutes consist­ing of a heavy flashpowder charge in a tubular casingthan it was to deal in the more skillfully made and con­sequently safer firework items like tho£e made in theOrient to produce a wide variety of color and motioneffects, rather than just an ear-splitting blast. As I wrotemetaphorically in one of our issues: "When you pull allthe flowers out of your fireworks garden, the weedsproliferate."

I would like to think it was the realization that anationwide fireworks ban would indeed encourage theproliferation of bootleg traffic in the more dangerousbig-bang devices, causing more headaches than the"bathtub gin" of the roaring twenties, that led to thedefeat of that proposed legislation. There still existed,however, a ready and remunerative market in the manystates having total or quite restrictive fireworks prohibi­tions, for those individuals willing to risk discovery andpossible fines and/or jail sentences in pursuit of the fastif illegal buck. By this time, the Bureau of Alcohol, To­bacco & Firearms (BATF) had become involved inidentifying and prosecuting such individuals, againraising the question as to which of those three categoriesqualified as "fireworks"!

Further confusion was generated by the creation ofother governmental agencies and commissions, all ofwhom seemed to consider it their duty to enforce theexisting anti-firework laws, and by the fact that someof them attributed many completely unrelated incidents

40

MAX P. VANDER HORCK

involving fires, injuries and deaths to "fireworks" whenin fact they were caused by everything from childrenplaying with matches to home-made explosive devices.Most of this irresponsible and erroneous reporting wasdutifully repeated by the news media, so that the gulli­ble general public eventually became convinced that all"fireworks" must be too dangerous for anyone but the"experts" to handle. It was thought that anyone advo­cating their enjoyment by the average person must beeither crazy or immoral. It was in this unreceptive cli­mate that I launched the PGI by printing a CharterMembership certificate in our March 1969 issue andinviting all interested readers to join the Guild.

From the perspective of years it's hard to say ex­actly what impelled me to put out this "feeler" at thatparticular time; it was probably something akin to thehunch that nudges a fisherman to throw out his line ata certain time and place, who is then rewarded byalmost more bites than he can handle. It was definitelynot that I felt myself better qualified by knowledge andexperience of pyrotechny than the next fellow, to origi­nate and head up such a guild. Nevertheless, I couldstill hear that inner voice saying something like, "There'sa job to be done, and you are in the best position todo it." The truth of this was certainly borne out by thenumber of people becoming interested within the nextfew months; most of our 200-plus subscribers and somenon-subscribers who had learned of the new "brother­hood" (it could hardly be called an "organization" forseveral years to come) had asked me to enroll them asmembers and had received the wallet-sized identificationcards which I had had printed not long after announc­ing the existence of the PGI.

Although I hoped and believed that the cause ofamateur pyrotechny would be advanced by communi­cation and sharing of experience and knowledge amongthe members, never in my wildest imagination did Ienvision such communication taking place in the formof yearly conventions. I did know, and reported in ourpages, that small groups of firework enthusiasts in vari­ous parts of the country were getting together fromtime to time for discussions and, given· a hospitableenvironment, to stage small displays to compare theirhandiwork.

One of these groups, headed by a school teachernamed Jack Leonard, should in fact be credited withstaging the first unofficial PGI convention at a farm innorthern Maryland in 1971, and it was thus appropriatethat Jack became the Guild's first elected president threeyears later. Until then it had po organizational structure,dues, or requirements for membership. This ratherfree-wheeling and indiscriminate recruitment phase ofPGI history had its amusing aspects, as for examplewhen I discovered that I had enrolled not only the StateFire Marshal of California, but an entire family rangingin age from 9 to 35 years, with membership cards issuedin all their names, including that of Mike, their petbulldog!

The Maryland group staged another mini-conven­tion in 1972, this one featuring many Class-B displayfireworks in addition to Class-C items. The event wasduly covered by the required permit through the friendlycooperation of the local authorities and guidance of ahighly-placed state fire-prevention officer (himself aPGI member) who had also helped Jack to obtain hisstate pyrotechnic operator's license. While such thingsas exhibition-type aerial shells up to six inches in diam-

PYROTECHNICA • IX

eter and lancework featuring the green letters "P G I"were fired at this meet, one of the most enthusiasticallyreceived events was the shooting of a string of about2,000 inch-and-a-half firecrackers suspended from thetop of a telephone pole. The string was reported tohave gone on popping and banging for about eightminutes. The utilization of small as well as large fire­works became a traditional feature of conventions tofollow. The firecrackers were dubbed the "Super String"and in later years put this first use of this name to shame.

Another first, and one which was to become a mostpopular feature of the annual meets that followed, wasthe Amateur Firework Competition staged at the 1973convention in a suburb of Grand Haven, Michigan.Also there was a presentation of the first Grand MasterAward to the competitor judged to have demonstratedthe most ingenuity, skill and showmanship with his entry.This coveted award went to Dave Penshorn, owner andoperator of an electronics service shop in St. Paul, Min­nesota, for his IS-minute entry consisting of five "Pic­tures in Coloured Fyres.'" This was artistically assem­bled display containing lancework, gerbs and romancandles and synchronized with appropriate taped music.

An amusing sidelight of that convention was relatedto me by attendee Robert Cardwell (whose founding ofPYROTECHNICA was still a few years in the offing). Duringthe public display, attended by almost the entire popu­lation of this Grand Haven suburb, so brilliant weresome of the aerial shell effects that the nearby photocell­controlled street lights kept going out as they wouldhave at sunrise; during one such blackout the spectatorswere treated to a brilliant meteor shower, leading oneof them to shout: "Let's hear it for GOD!" This wasonly the first of several conventions to be enlivened by"celestial pyrotechnics."

The 1974 convention, also held in the Grand Havenarea, proved memorable in many respects. First, thanksto advance publicity, it drew a record attendance ofover 100 members, families and guests, both amateursand professionals like Jimmy Grucci of New YorkPyrotechnic Products on the East Coast and a goodlynumber of West Coast residents, including myself. PeteColonnese also attended that convention and surprisedthe members by passing around a copy of his latesteffort: the 1974 edition of his Fireworks Buyer's Guide.This was a directory of more than 200 domestic manu­facturers, importers, wholesalers, distributors, retailersand jobbers of both commercial (Class-C) and displayfireworks. It listed firms alphabetically by states andcompany names, with descriptions of their services andproducts and included names, addresses and telephonenumbers of each firm's principals, organizational affili­ations, etc., certainly the most complete and detailedsuch directory then available. Unfortunately, it has longbeen out of print and no new edition has ever beenpublished.

The most significant development at the 1974 con­vention, however, was the decision, unanimously ap­proved by the members present, to name a board ofdirectors, draw up definitive bylaws to govern futureGuild activities, and to elect officers. It was furthersuggested and approved that the Guild incorporate itselfas a not-for-profit organization, not only to obtain rec­ognition as a legal entity, but also to provide a "protec­tive umbrella" so that the membership as a whole couldnot be held legally responsible for the actions of anyindividual member. It also presupposed the granting of

41

tax-exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service, animportant consideration now that the Guild would beopening a corporate bank account, collecting dues anddisbursing funds as required for future conventions andother activities.

We were fortunate in having Chicago attorney Rich­ard Sikes as a member, who provided his services atno charge to draw up and file the incorporation docu­ments and act as the Guild's resident agent in the stateof Illinois. Because of misaddressed mail and othercommunications breakdowns, however, the tax-exemptstatus was not realized until late 1981, seven years afterincorporation! With "Inc." tacked on after PyrotechnicsGuild International, redesigned membership certificatesand cards were issued proclaiming, among other PGItenets, the Guild's aim: to channel the creative energiesof talented people into the design, production and dis­play of high-quality pyrotechnics by example of themembership and through the sharing of knowledge.

I left the 1974 convention with the feeling that thePGI was headed in the right direction and now ableto stand on its own feet. The brilliance, beauty andvariety of fireworks displayed at PGI conventions hasfar outclassed those to be seen at the usual profes­sionally-fired public display. I was totally dazzled bythe almost interminable succession of aerial and groundeffects set off at the 1974 competition!

I could fill many pages describing the eight annualconventions that followed: North Royalton, Ohio, 1975;Grand Junction, Colorado, 1976; St. Croix Falls, Wis­consin, 1977 and 1978; Grand Junction again in 1979;Jamestown, North Dakota, 1980; Rochester, Minnesota,1981, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1982, but I shallconfine my closing remarks to brief mention of whatI consider the highlights of PGI history not alreadymentioned.

The 1977 meet was distinguished, first, by the pres­ence of BATF agent Bob Dexter who, at our invitation,had flown in from Washington, D.C. to explain theBureau's regulations affecting both professional andamateur making and use of fireworks. Secondly, weelected a Lutheran minister as 1977-78 Guild president,Rev. Brian Bergin, already president of the conventionhost group called the Northern Lighters and himselfaffectionately referred to as the "Blaster Pastor." Nosooner had the public display begun than we weretreated to a display of the real northern lights. This wasfollowed by a colossal thunderstorm - those other "cel­estial pyrotechnics" mentioned earlier - despite whichthe members continued shooting in true "The ShowMust Go On" tradition.

Certainly another notable convention had to be thatof 1980, if for no other reason than that Mark Demp­sey of Astra Fireworks Ltd. in England became our firstattendee from overseas, who presented a talk on thefirework situation in his country. The 1981 Conventionsaw the fruition of a concept long advocated by myselfand numerous other members: a shooter's training pro­gram followed by a written test and the issuing of aPGI Certificate to members who made a passing grade.

Over the years, it has been most gratifying to betold: "Van, if it hadn't been for you, there wouldn't havebeen a Pyrotechnics Guild International." Well, maybeour fellowship would have had a different name, butI remain convinced that if I had not originated sucha Guild. someone else would have. The time was ripe!

THE PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY AND PERCEPTION OF COLORED FLAMES

FartH

Ken L. Kosanke

(Part I appeared in PYROTECHNICA.VII, 1981)

4.0 The chemistry of colored flames

4.1 A summary of general chemistry forcolored flame production

This paper is intended to benefit readers who do notenjoy a thorough understanding of chemistry. Thus, be­fore dealing with more advanced topics, a discussionof some aspects of general chemistry may be of benefit.Any reader with an understanding of chemical symbolsand the Periodic Table, chemical formulas and IUPACnomenclature, chemical equations, the idea of reversi­bility and Le Chatelier's Principle, stoichiometry andmole weights should skip ahead to section 4.2.

4.1.1 Chemical symbols and the periodic tableThe ancient Greeks believed that all material sub­

stances were composed of four basic elements: water,air, earth and fire. This idea, however wrong, showedprofound insight. Their theory of basic elements recog­nized the fact that there are not millions of differentfundamental substances, rather these millions of sub­stances are just different combinations of a few basicelements. This concept, basic elements in different com­binations, is what got the whole idea of chemistrystarted; if you knew the basic elements and how tocombine them, you could make anything you wanted.

Eventually, when the scientific method replacedphilosophic rationalizing as the manner of conductingresearch, it became apparent that the Greeks' four ele­ments didn't suffice, and the search was on for the realchemical elements. By the mid-nineteenth century, mostof the elements had been discovered, named and givena shorthand chemical symbol. The name and chemicalsymbol for those elements most often encountered inpyrotechnics are listed in Table 1. (The utility of thesechemical symbols will become increasingly clear as wecontinue working through this chemistry section.)

Early on, it was observed that there were groupsof chemical elements that had similar physical andchemical properties. For example, one group of elementswere all soft metals, another group were all gases. Alsoall members of a group combined with elements of othergroups in the same proportion, making compounds thatagain had similar properties. One of the groups, calledalkali metals, consists of lithium, sodium, potassium,rubidium, cesium and francium. If you know somethingabout the chemistry of ONE of these elements, you alsoknow a little about the chemistry of ALL the others.For example, you probably know that sodium combinesreadily with chlorine to make common table salt, sodi­um chloride. Because lithium and potassium are mem­bers of the same group of elements, you can be reason­ably certain that both lithium and potassium combinewith chlorine to make lithium chloride and potassium

42

Table 1. Element names and atomic symbolscommonly used in pyrotechnics.

Element name Atomic symbolAluminum........................... AlAntimony SbArsenic AsBarium.............................. BaCalcium............................. CaChlorine CICopper CuHydrogen HIron '" " FeLead PbMagnesium MgMercury HgNitrogen NOxygen 0Phosphorus PPotassium KSilicon. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. .. SiSodium............................. NaStrontium SrSulfur STitanium TiZinc................................ Zn

chloride. You can also be reasonably certain that bothlithium chloride and potassium chloride will have prop­erties similar to sodium cWoride, i.e., all will taste salty,all will be soluble in water and all will form crystalswith similar appearance, hardness, and melting points,etc.

Chlorine, too, is a member of a chemical group,called halogens, consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine,iodine and astatine. With this information and yourknowledge of sodium cWoride, you can be rather con­fident about the existence of sodium fluoride, sodiumbromide, potassium fluoride, etc., and you will knowsomething about the properties of these compounds.

A knowledge of chemical groups combined withonly a little other chemical knowledge gives you greatpredictive powers. A knowledge of sodium and chlorine,and the way they combine allows you to speculate onthe existence, manner of combining and properties ofa large number of compounds, in this case 30 (six alkalimetals times five halogens).

It was realized very early in the systematic studyof chemistry that the organization of chemical elementsinto relatively few groups would allow a great simplifi­cation of the subject. If all chemical elements could beorganized in this fashion, and you learned the way thegroups interact with one another, then you could specu­late about tens of thousands of possible reactions. Thiswould be a very great simplification indeed.

In 1869 Mende1eev successfully organized all thechemical elements known at the time into a table (inorder of increasing mass of the elements), in whichthe elements fell into the known groups. In fact, he wasso successful that he was able to predict the existenceof several then unknown elements because of unfilledpositions in his table of elements. With only slight modi­fication, Mendeleev's arrangement of chemical elementshas become known as the Periodic Table of Elements.It is called "Periodic" Table because, in a listing ofof chemical elements in order of increasing mass, chemi­cal and physical properties repeat periodically. In es­sence what Mendeleev did was to layout the elementsfrom left to right, as they increased in mass. Each timeelements seemed to be repeating properties of earlierelements, he started a new row. Thus the elementslithium, sodium and potassium all came to fall in thesame column, because they all behaved similarly.

Today we understand the underlying reason why thePeriodic Table appears as it does and why the proper­ties of the elements repeat themselves. The reason isrelated to the way electrons arrange themselves aboutthe nucleus of the different chemical elements. A dis­cussion of these different electron arrangements and whythey exist might be interesting to a few readers, but isbeyond the scope of this paper.

Before leaving the subject of the Periodic Table, itis appropriate to spend a little more time to make ita useful tool. Below is a summary of what has alreadybeen said about the Periodic Table, and some of theadditional information contained in it. (A copy of thePeriodic Table is included as an insert.)(A) Each vertical column is representative of a chemi­

cal group of elements, with generally similar prop­erties. This includes "physical" properties like melt­ing points, metallic or non-metallic character, crystalstructure, etc., as well as "chemical" propertiessuch as tendency to combine with other elements,the relative proportions in which they combine, etc.

(B) Molecules formed by combining different elementsof the same two groups will generally have similarphysical properties. Thus, sodium chloride, lithiumbromide and potassium fluoride, etc., all are crys­talline in nature, all are water soluble and all haverather high melting points.

(C) Some of the information contained in the PeriodicTable of Elements is:(1) Group number: The number of each chemical

group, IA to VIllA, is printed above the topchemical element in each vertical column.

(2) Chemical symbol: The shorthand symbol foreach of the first 103 chemical elements is printedin the center of the square for that element.Also in each square is the name of the element.

(3) Atomic number: In the upper left hand cornerof each square the element's atomic num.ber isprinted. This is the number of protons m thenucleus of each atom of that particular chemi­cal element. It also equals the number of elec­trons orbiting each neutral atom of that chemicalelement.

(4) Atomic weight: The atomic weight for eachelement is printed in the upper right hand cor­ner of each box. Atomic weights are propor­tional to the weight of one atom of that chemi­cal element.

PYROTECHNICA • IX

4.1.2 Chemical formulas and IUPAC nomenclatureUsing the chemical symbols from the Periodic Table,

a systematic chemical shorthand has been developed todescribe combinations of chemical elements formingmolecules. Use of that shorthand will simplify our dis­cussions as well as shorten this paper significantly. Forchemical elements in their natural atomic state, theshorthand notation is just to use the chemical symbol,instead of writing out the full chemical name. Thus, thesymbol Na is used in place of the name sodium; CI isused for chlorine, etc.

In the case of chlorine, the symbol CI means chlorineatoms; however, chlorine is a diatomic gas under normalconditions. Diatomic means that chlorine moleculesconsist of pairs of chlorine atoms bound to each other.Instead of writing this as ClCI, it is writen CI". Thesubscript 2 means that two atoms of chlorine have com­bined to form a diatomic molecule. All gaseous elements,except those in group VIllA, normally exist as diatomicmolecules. Some examples are hydrogen (Hz), oxygen(OJ, nitrogen (N 2 ).

In general, numeric subscripts are used to indicatewhen a molecule is composed of more than one atomof the same element. Another familiar molecule is water,H 20. Here two atoms of hydrogen and one atom ofoxygen are bound together to form a single molecule.

A chemical formula is the shorthand method ofdescribing the type and number of atoms in a compound(molecule). Above, H"0, C1 2 , O2 , etc., are all chemicalformulas.

In order to avoid possible confusion, let me pointout that sometimes when people talk about chemicalformulas, they are really talking about something qu~te

different. Sometimes "formulations" (recipes) are mIS­takenly called formulas. When someone tells you to mixone part water and one part dirt to make mud, theyare giving the formulation for making mud; they ha~e

not given you the chemical formula for mud. There ISquite a difference, the former is a recipe and the latteris the EXACT way in which atoms combine to formcompounds.

At the beginning of this section, I said. that eleme!1tsin their "normal" atomic state are descnbed by usmgtheir chemical symbol. This is true, but I should havebeen more specific and said "in their normal atomic stateunder standard thermodynamic conditions." Standardthermodynamic conditions are 25°C and one (1) ~t­

mosphere pressure. (This should not be con~use~ w~th

standard temperature and pressure (STP) WhICh IS a Cand one atmosphere pressure.) The reason to be morespecific is that by changing temperature and pressure,the normal state of elements and molecules changes. At25°C copper is a solid, above 1l00°C, it is ~ liqui?,and above 2600°C, it is a gas. When somethmg IS msome state other than its standard state, it is indicatedby the use of (g), (1) and (s) as subscripts. The paren­theses are normally used and g, I and s indicate gases,liquids and solids, respectively. Thus CU w indicates wemean liquid copper and Cu eg) in~icates gaseo~s cOPl?er.Sometimes, in order to make a pomt or to aVOId pOSSIbleconfusion even an element in its natural room tem­perature ;tate will have its state designated using thesesame symbols. It is not necessary to write CUes), butit is OK.

Another thing it is necessary to indicate in a chemi­cal formula is whether something is electrically charged,

43

K. L. KOSANKE

Table 2. Names and formulas of functionalionic groups frequently found in pyrotechnics.

Group name Chemical formulaAmmonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NH4+Carbonate COa-2Chlorate CIOa-Hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) HCOa-Nitrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NOa-Oxalate C

Z0

4-2

Perchlorate CI04-Sulfate. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. S04-2

Table 3. Names and formulas of chemicalscommonly used to produce colored flames.

OxidizersAmmonium perchlorate NH,CIO.Barium chlorateX

•••••••••••••••••••••••• Ba(C10~).

Barium nitrate Ba(NOs).Potassium chlorate KCIOsPotassium nitrate KNOsPotassium perchlorate KC10.Sodium nitrate NaNOsStrontium nitratex Sr(NOs).FuelsAluminum AlCarbon* CMagnesium MgMagnaliumxx Mg/ AlRed gum (accroides) ComplexShellac ComplexColor agents**Barium sulfate BaSO.Calcium carbonate CaCOsCalcium sulfate CaSO,Copper acetoarsenite (CuO) sAs,OsoCu(C,H,O,) 2

Copper (II) carbonate, basic CuCO,oCu(OH).Copper(lI) chloride CuC]'Copper metal CuCopper(lI) oxide CuOCopper sulfate CuSO.Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHC03Sodium oxalate Na.C,O.Strontium carbonate SrCOaStrontium sulfate SrSO.

NOTES:xThese oxidizers also act as color agents.*Charcoal has the composition 82% C, 13% 0, 3% H, and

2% Ash (from Shimizu, 1981).**Under high temperature conditions such as in strobe star

burning, many of these color agents can also act as mildoxidizers.

xxMagnalium is an alloy of magnesium and aluminum, mostoften in near equal proportions.

COLORED FLAMES - PART II

Le., whether it is a neutral atom or molecule, or an ion(charged). This is accomplished using a superscriptplus or minus after the chemical symbol or formula.For example, Cl- indicates a chlorine ion with a chargeof minus one; Na+ indicates a sodium ion with a plusone charge. If the charge of the ion is more than plusor minus one, a numeral is added after the sign. ThusCa+2 indicates a calcium ion with two units of positivecharge. Remember from the brief discussion of ioniza­tion (in Part I of this paper) that positive ions resultwhen atoms or molecules LOSE one or more of the elec­trons that orbit them. Similarly, negative ions resultwhen atoms or molecules GAIN one or more orbitingelectrons. When writing formulas for ions, it is neces­sary to use the superscript plus or minus. Atoms don'tnormally exist as ions, so when writing about neutralatoms or molecules, it is not necessary to indicate theirneutrality; however, sometimes to avoid possible confu­sion, a superscript 0 is used. For example, the chemicalsymbol Cuo indicates neutral copper atoms.

Sometimes neutral atoms or molecules have anelectronic structure that makes them unusually reactive.When this happens, they are usually called "free radi­cals" and are indicated using a superscript dot (in placeof the zero), e.g., Cl" or OH". Because free radicalsare so reactive, they usually are not found at room tem­perature, where they quickly combine with other atomsor molecules. However, in pyrotechnic flames, free radi­cals abound.

The final topic in this section is IUPAC nomencla­ture. When the International Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry (IUPAC) was formed, the first task under­taken was to standardize the method of naming chemi­cal compounds. Below is a short discussion of somerules of nomenclature.

(A) Molecules composed of a metal and a non-metal,have the metal named first followed by a slightlymodified non-metal name. The metal name is pro­nounced just as it would be for a metal powder.For example, Na in NaF is "sodium," Cu in CuCIis "copper." The non-metal name has its endingchanged to "ide." Thus fluorine in NaF is "fluoride,"chlorine in CuCI is "chloride" and oxygen in FeOis "oxide."

When a metal, like copper, is capable of com­bining in different proportions with the same non­metal elements, like chlorine, it is necessary to beable to distinguish between the different chemicalforms. This is accomplished by adding a Romannumeral in parentheses between the metal and non­metal name. The Roman numeral indicates the"valence state" of the metal. (The concept of va­lence is beyond the scope of this paper; suffice itto say that a metal's valence state determines theratio in which it will combine with other elements.)Gone are the frequently confusing names for coppersuch as "cuprous" and "cupric" in the names ofCuCI and CuCI2 , respectively. In the new namingsystem, CuCI is copper(I) chloride, CuClz is cop­per(II) chloride. When a metal has only a singlevalence state possible, it is not necessary to includethe Roman numeral. Thus NaF is just sodiumfluoride.

(B) There are several groups of atoms that stick to­gether rather well and often act as if they were just

44

(C)

a single element when forming compounds. Thesefunctional groups have each been given their ownnames. Some of these encountered in pyrotechnicsare: (N03 ) -, nitrate; (ClOJ -, perchlorate; and(NH4 ) +, ammonium (see Table 2 for a more com­plete list). Some compounds containing these func­tional groupings are: NaNO a, sodium nitrate;KClOa, potassium chlorate; CuS04 , copper(II)sul­fate; and NH4Cl04 , ammonium perchlorate.

Complex natural organic molecules continue to becalled by their historical names. Sometimes this isbecause the IUPAC name is very long and compli­cated; other times, this is because the natural sub­stance is not a single compound, but several com-

PYROTECHNICA • IX

pounds in a variable mixture. Thus names like let light if it has been vaporized. The chemical equationshellac, red (accroides) gum, and gum arabic are showing this vaporization isproper to use. CuCI(s) + Heat ~ CuCI(g). (5)

Occasionally in this paper the prefix "mono" will Another thing that can be shown in a chemicalbe used in a chemical name, to indicate that the single equation, to aid in clarity, is when an atom or moleculeatom is present in the compound. This is done to avoid is in an excited electronic state, capable of emitting apossible confusion. For example, at normal tempera- light photon upon de-excitation. This is usually indi-tures, strontium always combines with chlorine in the cated using a superscript asterisk. Decay from an ex-ratio of 1 to 2 to form the solid SrCI2 (s). Thus the proper cited state with the emission of a photon can be indi-name for the compound is simply strontium chloride. cated by listing the light photon as one of the reactionHowever, when SrCl2 is vaporized, the stable molecule products. Equations 6 and 7 are examples using CuCI:is SrCI(g). To avoid confusion, SrCI(g) will be called CuCI(g) + Heat ~ CuCl(g) *, (6)strontium monochloride. CuCI(g) *~ CuCI(g) + photon (450 nm).

The rules of nomenclature given thus far are a long (7)way from being complete; however, they should help Equation 7 also indicates the wavelength of the emittedavoid confusion. As a further aid, you can refer to photon in nanometers (nm).Table 3, which lists a number of the more common As an example of how chemical equations are a use-chemical names and formulas which are important in ful shorthand, consider the set of equations given above.a discussion of the chemistry of colored light production. They represent one possibility for generating violet light.4.1.3 Chemical equations In longhand, the process would be described as: "One

molecule of potassium perchlorate reacts with two atomsChemical equations describe chemical reactions, i.e., of carbon to generate one molecule of potassium chlor-

the way chemicals react to form new chemicals. Instead ide, two molecules of carbon dioxide and heat. Copperof telling you that hydrogen and oxygen can combine (I) chloride, which is also present in the composition,to form water, it can be done using a chemical equation: consumes heat energy and is vaporized; it then con-

2H2 + O2 ~ 2R,0. (1) sumes additional heat energy and becomes electronicallyIn addition to being shorter and easier to use, it also excited. Finally, the excited molecule of copper(I)chlor-gives more information. It tells the relative numbers of ide de-excites generating a violet light photon of wave-atoms and/or molecules involved in the reaction, i.e., length 450 nm." In the more explicit shorthand oftwo molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule chemical equations this becomes, simply:of oxygen to form two molecules of water. The numeral KCI0

4+ 2C ~ KCl +2C0

2+ Heat,

2 in front of H., and HoO indicates that 2 molecules are (4 )involved in the -reactiOIl. The arrow in a chemical equa- (5),CuCI(s) + Heat ~ CuCI(g)tion should be read as "reacts to form." The startingchemicals are called the REACTANTS, and the chemicals CuCI(g) + Heat ~ CuCI,g) * (6),produced are called the PRODUCTS. In the water equa- CuCl"n * ~ CuCI(g) + photon (450 nm).tion, H 2 and O2 are the reactants and H 20 is the product. (7)

To be a proper chemical equation, it must be bal- 4.1.4 Chemical reversibility andanced, just as a mathematical equation must be balanced. Le Chatelier's principleIn chemical reactions, elements are immutable; they All chemical reactions are reversible to some extent.are neither created nor destroyed. Thus there must be Thus, if two elements combine to make a compound,an equal number of each type of atom on both sides this compound has some tendency to decompose backof the arrow. If I had written the equation into the two original elements. For reactions involving

H2 + O2 ~ H 20, (2) only change of state, the idea of reversibility seemsit would be incorrect, since it is not balanced. There natural. For example,are two atoms of hydrogen on each side of the equa- H.,O(S) + Heat ~ Hc0(l)' (8)tion, but the left side has two atoms of oxygen while It is an everyday observation that the reverse reactionthe right side only has one. Note that Equation 1 is also takes place, i.e.:balanced. H ° H (9)He0(l) ~ 2 (S) + eat.

Sometimes, for emphasis, chemical equations will A convenient way to point out that this reaction is re-indicate whether heat energy is consumed or generated versible, is to use a double arrow in the equationsduring a chemical reaction. This could have been indi- ° H H ° (10)

b r' h f th d H 2 (s) + eat~ " (1).cated in Equation 1 y Istmg eat as one 0 e pro - For most other reactions, the idea of reversibilityucts, (3) may be hard to accept. Remember the example of po-

2H2 + O2 ~ 2H20 + Heat. tassium perchlorate reacting with carbon,An example from pyrotechnics, complete combus- KCl0

4+ 2C ~ KCl + 2C0

2+ Heat.

tion, where an oxidizer (potassium perchlorate) and a (4)fuel (carbon, i.e., charcoal) combine completely to It seems inconsistent with common experience togenerate reaction products plus heat, is suggest there is a tendency for the reaction products to

KCI04 + 2C ~ KCI + 2CO" + Heat. recombine again to make potassium perchlorate and(4) charcoal. In fact there IS a tendency to do just that,

In order for molecules in a pyrotechnic flame to emit even if the tendency is very slight at room temperaturetheir characteristic band spectra, they must 'first be and atmospheric pressure. At high temperatures andvaporized; this requires heat energy. Copper(I)chloride, pressures, the tendency for the reverse action to occurCuCI, has the potential to be a powerful emitter of vio- is increased, though still not great.

45

COLORED FLAMES - PART II

As a consequence of chemical reactions always hav­ing some tendency to go in both directions, they nevergo 100% to completion. Some of the reactants are al­ways left over at the end, because some of the productshave reacted in a reverse direction to remake some ofthe reactants. The final amount of reactants and prod­ucts depends on the relative tendencies for the forwardand reverse reactions to occur. If the tendency for theforward reaction to occur is much greater, then almostall the reactants will be consumed. On the other hand,if the reverse reaction has a much greater tendency tooccur, then very little of the starting material will beconsumed.

Later in this paper when discussing colored flameproduction, it will be important to understand the con­cept of chemical reversibility and something closelyrelated called Le Cbatelier's Principle. Le Cbatelier'sPrinciple states that when stress is applied to a reactingchemical system, the system will react in such a manneras to relieve that stress. In Equation 4, I said there wasa very slight tendency for the reverse reaction to occur,but when the pressure was raised, the tendency of thereverse reaction to occur became greater. This is anexample of Le Cbatelier's Principle in action. Note thatthe only gas involved is CO2 , one of the products. If weincrease the pressure, the only way to relieve the stressof added pressure is for some of the gaseous productto recombine to form the more compact KCl04 andcarbon, and this is just what happens. Another way toapply stress to a chemical reaction is to increase theamount of one of the reactants or products. If more ofone of the reactants is added, the reaction progressesto the right, using up more of the other reactants andmaking more of the products. If more charcoal is added,some of the left over KClO. will react with it to gener­ate more of the reaction products. If you add some ofone of the reaction products the reaction is pushed tothe left, using up some of the other products to remakemore of the reactants. Note in Equation 4 that heatenergy is one of the products of the reaction. Thus ifwe apply stress to the reaction, by raising the tempera­ture (by adding heat), we would expect that stresswould be relieved by some of the reaction products re­combining, consuming heat energy, and remaking moreof the reactants. This is just what does happen.

The reason it is important to understand Le Cha­telier's Principle when attempting to generate good col­ored flames is that it gives us a way to shift chemicalreactions so that they produce more desirable lightgenerating species in colored flames, or so that theyproduce less undesirable light generating species.

4.1.5 Stoichiometry and mole weightsStoichiometry (pronounced sto-i-key-om'-a-tree) is

the detailed study of the exact manner in which atomsand molecules combine to form other molecules. When­ever we write a chemical equation that is properly bal­anced (and expresses reality), it is an exercise in sto­ichiometry. Equation 4 for the complete combustion ofcarbon using potassium perchlorate,

KCI04 + 2C --? KCl + 2C02 + Heat,(4)

is an exact description of one of the ways in which po­tassium perchlorate and carbon react in a pyrotechnicflame to produce heat. It tells you exactly how manyatoms of carbon combine with one molecule of potas­sium perchlorate. If this were the only way for the re-

46

K. L. KOSANKE

action to proceed, it would be a relatively simple matterto design pyro-reactions on paper that worked perfectlyin practice. Knowing that two atoms of carbon wereconsumed for each molecule of potassium perchlorate,you could (knowing about mole weights) calculate theexact weight of potassium perchlorate and carbon to usein a pyro-formulation. Unfortunately, Equation 4 isonly one of the possible ways for the reaction to pro­ceed. Two more equally legitimate possibilities are:

KCl04 + 4C --? KCI + 4CO + Heat,(11 )

KCIO. + C --?Ko + CIO" + CO2 + Heat.(12)

Equation 11 suggests that the proper ratio is four car­bon atoms to one potassium perchlorate molecule, nottwo to one as in Equation 4. Equation 12 suggests thatcarbon and potassium perchlorate will react one to one.In practice, when formulating, how can you be certainwhich of the three ratios to use? In fact, none of theratios are exactly correct. EACH of the reactions occursand is correct in a stoichiometric sense. The problemis that ALL THREE equations (and others) take placeto some extent at the same time in the flame reaction.It's not that stoichiometry doesn't work; it's just thatflame reactions are too complex to be represented com­pletely by a single chemical equation. To add to thecomplexity, the extent to which the various flame re­actions occur depend on such additional things as: grainsize of the chemicals, degree of compaction of the mate­rial, type and amount of color agents and other chemi­cals added to the formulation, pressure, velocity atwhich the composition is moving through air (i.e., flametemperature). It is just not possible to write a singleequation, no matter how long and complex, that willprecisely describe chemical reactions in a typical pyro­technic flame under all conditions.

In spite of this, stoichiometry can be a great helpin developing pyro-chemical formulations. It can pro­vide very good, although only approximate, startingpoints for amounts of chemicals to use. In addition,stoichiometry can tell you almost exactly how to makesubstitutions in your formulations.

Stoichiometry (balanced chemical equations) tells inwhat proportions atoms and molecules react. However,in your pyro-lab, you don't work with individual atoms,you work with grams, ounces or pounds. What is neededto know is how many ounces of this combines with howmany ounces of that. The concept of "mole weights"will let you work with amounts by weight instead ofnumbers of atoms. To explain mole weights, it is neces­sary to define a new unit, a "mole." A mole is a num­ber, a very big number; it is equal to 602 thousandbillion billion atoms (6.02 x 1023 atoms). This largenumber is the number of hydrogen atoms in a singlegram of atomic hydrogen. Instead of talking about6.02 x 102

:3 atoms of hydrogen, one can simply call ita mole of hydrogen. The unit "mole" is used in just thesame way as the unit "dozen;" just think of a mole asa "super dozen." In your kitchen you make recipes usingindividual eggs, but an army cook works in dozens ofeggs. Similarly in your pyro-Iab, you need to think interms of moles (super dozens) of atoms.

Equation 1, 2Hz + O2 --? 2H20, (1)gave the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen molecules thatcombine to make water. It told you that two moleculesof hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to

Figure 43. Flame temperature as a function of distancefrom burning surface.

are not. Remember that energy is required for excita­tion of electrons from their ground states to excitedstates, and that light is given off when those electronsfall back to lower energy states. If the temperature atsome point is high enough to cause electron excitations,then the molecules at that point can give off light. Atthe same point, if the temperature falls lower, suchthat there is no longer sufficient energy for electronicexcitation, no light is given off. Figure 43 is a graphof expected temperatures along the line in Figure 42on which points A, Band C fall. Included in Figure 43is a line meant to correspond to the approximate flametemperature necessary for the production of light fromthe molecules present. At point A, the temperature iswell above that value, at point B the temperature isslightly above that value, and at point C, slightly below.The molecular species that are present at point Barealso present at point C. As far as light generation isconcerned, the only important difference is tempera­ture and that difference is not great.

Thus an appropriate definition of a flame is thatregion surrounding a source of chemically generatedheat energy where the temperature is sufficient for theemission of visible light.

g- - -

C

£)/S7/4/v'CE rA'on8t1A'/WAiG StlA'rAC£

A

Figure 42. Typical pyrotechnic flame.

~-TE/"1.PEMTURE

REc:;?tI/R.& FoA'E.FrE~T7J/E ELECTRo/1/SC/TAT70H

PYROTECHNICA • IX

make two molecules of water. However, it is also truethat two dozen hydrogen molecules combine with onedozen oxygen molecules, or that two moles of hydrogenmolecules combine with one mole of oxygen molecules.If you want to make water, and want to use preciselythe right amount of hydrogen and oxygen, you stillneed to know how much a mole of hydrogen and amole of oxygen weigh. Remember from the discussionof the Periodic Table, that one type of informationcontained on it are atomic weights (the number in theupper right corner of the box for each element). Anatomic weight is the weight of one mole of that elementin grams. Thus one mole of atomic hydrogen (H) verynearly weighs one gram. However, because hydrogenis a diatomic gas (H2 ), the molecular weight of a molewill be twice its atomic weight, or 2 grams per mole ofmolecules. Similarly for oxygen, with an atomic weightof 16, one mole of molecular oxygen (02 ) weighs 32grams. From Equation 1 you know that 2 moles of Hzcombines with one mole of 02' Thus 4 grams of hydro-gen gas (2 moles x 2 grams/mole) combine with 32grams of oxygen gas (1 mole x 32 grams/mole).

Since the metric system is not in general use in theU.S., many people don't formulate using grams as aunit of mass. Well, the above information is still usefuland it's not necessary to convert units of weight. Theabove information indicates that 4 parts by weight hy­drogen combine with 32 parts by weight oxygen to makewater. The unit of weight can be anything convenient:grams, grains, ounces, pounds, kilos, tons, etc.

As a more relevant example demonstrating moleweights, consider a problem from pyrotechnics. Supposeyou wished to substitute metallic copper powder forcopper(II)oxide in a blue star formulation. It is rela­tively safe to assume that it is only the amount of cop­per that is important and that the presence of oxideions have only minor effect on flame color. The firstthing needed to be established is how much copper isin copper(II) oxide, CuO. The molecular weight of CuOis 79 grams/mole (63 grams/mole for copper + 16grams/mole for oxygen). The fraction of copper incopper(II) oxide is 63/79 or about 4/5. Thus every fivegrams of copper(II)oxide contributes four grams ofcopper. If the blue formulation called for ten partscopper(II)oxide, you should begin by using eight partsof copper metal (10 parts x 4/5).

4.2 Pyrocbemical flames for color production

4.2.1 Definition and function of flamesin color production

The most important characteristic one uses to de-termine whether something is a flame is the emissionof light. Other characteristics such as flickering, givingoff heat and apparent chemical nature are far less im­portant. The emission of light is in fact the best criterionto use. It is important to point out that in Figure 42(a drawing of a typical flame) the principal differencebetween point B (just inside the flame envelope) andpoint C (just outside the flame) is that the moleculesat point B are emitting visible light and those at pointC are not. For the most part, the same kinds of mole­cules are present at both points, and the temperatureat point C is only a little lower than at point B.

Even though the temperature difference between Band C is small, it is sufficient to account for the mole­cules at point B emitting light while those at point C

47

K. L. KOSANKE

NOTE: In each case the fuel is charcoal and it is oxidized toCO,. The results were calculated using data published in Shid­lovskii (1964, p. 24) and Douda (1964, p. 46).

OxidizerKCIO, .KCIO, .Sr(NO,), .Ba(N03)' .KNO, .

1981, p. 23) but are not the result of KC103 being thebetter heat producer. This will be discussed below.

Even though a formulation has the ability to gener­ate heat energy, it usually requires an input of energyto begin the process. For example, before a star givesoff energy in the combustion process, it is necessary toadd heat energy (i.e., to light it). Chemical reactionscan usually be broken into these two parts with respectto energy production. It is possible to think of the firststep as when old chemical bonds are being broken. Thisrequires energy, called activation energy in Figure 44.In a very real sense, this is an energy barrier that mustbe surmounted before the reaction can begin. Similarly,the second step can be thought of as when new chemicalbonds are being formed. This liberates energy. In termsof the amounts of energy involved, the two steps aremostly unrelated. The activation energy can be large orsmall and has little effect on the amount of energy pro­duced by the reaction. In Figure 44 the difference be­tween the activation energy (energy in) and the reactionenergy (energy out) is the net energy generated by thereaction. The energies in Table 4 correspond to the netenergy generated in Figure 44.

Activation energy is a measure of how difficult itis to initiate a reaction. If the activation energy is large,the reaction is difficult to get started, and is also diffi­cult to keep going. If the activation energy is small, thereaction is easily started and kept going. If the activationenergy is zero, the reaction will start spontaneously.Formulations containing potassium chlorate have ratherlow activation energy barriers to surmount. This has thedesirable effect of making these formulations easy tolight and they tend to stay lit when moving at highvelocities. However, this low energy barrier is also thereason KC103 formulations are rather friction and shocksensitive. Similar formulations containing potassium per­chlorate have a higher activation energy barrier, butalso produce more energy during the reaction. Figure 45shows chemical energy level diagrams for typical formu­lations containing KC10" and KC10•.

4.2.3 Flame temperature in color productionFor the most part, the flame temperatures produced

are a function of the amount of energy released in achemical reaction. The more energy released during afixed period of time, the higher the flame temperature.Thus, in Table 5, which is a compilation of flame tem­peratures taken from Shimizu (1976, p. 74), the orderof flame temperatures produced by the different oxidiz­ers should and generally does follow the same order asthe amounts of energy produced when reacted withcarbon (listed in Table 4).

Energy released by some common oxidizers.Energy released

kcallmole kcal/gram189 1.4146 1.2146 0.7131 0.5

42 0.4

Table 4.

COLORED FLAMES - PART II

In the generation of color in pyrotechnics, the flameserves two functions. The first is to supply the heatenergy necessary to vaporize the chemical color agent.(Remember only vaporized atoms and molecules canbe sources of useful flame color. Solid particles andliquid droplets emit undesirable continuous spectra.)The second function is to supply the heat energy neces­sary to excite electrons in the color agent in preparationfor their decay and consequent emission of light. Usingchemical equations for a strontium red flame, the proc­ess can be represented as:

SrC12 (s) + Heat --'? SrCI(g) + Cl·, (13)SrCI(g) + Heat --'? SrCl(g) *, (14)SrCl(g) * --'? SrCI(g) + photon (630 nm).

(15)

4.2.2 The source of energy in a flameThe energy for colored light production is the result

of combustion. The general formula for combustion is:Oxidizer + Fuel --'? Combustion

Products + Heat. ( 16)

As a starting point in this discussion, it is worthconsidering how the heat energy of combustion is gen­erated and why different fuels and oxidizers generatediffering amounts. When atoms come together to formmolecules, chemical bonds form between the atoms.These chemical bonds hold the atoms together as amolecule, and are the result of electronic forces causedby either a transfer or a sharing of electrons betweenatoms. It requires energy to break chemical bonds andenergy is given off when new chemical bonds form.The stronger the bonds, the more energy is required tobreak them and the more energy is given off upon theirformation. The strength of the chemical bond dependson the type and number of atoms forming the molecule.

During a chemical reaction, chemical bonds arebroken and new ones are formed. If heat is to be pro­duced during a chemical reaction, then, on the average,the chemical bonds formed must be stronger than thosebroken. This is the case with combustion, oxidizers andfuels have chemical bonds that are weak when com­pared with chemical bonds of the reaction products.When various fuels and oxidizers are used, differentnumbers of bonds will be broken and formed betweendifferent kinds of atoms. Thus it should be expectedthat varying amounts of energy will be produced in thesedifferent combustion reactions. The energy released bysome common oxidizers reacting with carbon (charcoal)to produce carbon dioxide (C02 ) is listed in Table 4.Here, the unit kcal (kilocalorie) is used as a measureof the heat produced in the reaction.

In Table 4, note that potassium perchlorate and notpotassium chlorate produces the greater amount of heatenergy. This is typically true for KC104 and is not anisolated result caused by using carbon as the fuel. Forthe most part, it is the result of KC104 containing oneadditional oxygen atom per molecule in comparisonwith KCI03 • The additional oxygen atom is available toform a strong bond with a carbon atom, thereby re­leasing more energy. The result is that KC10. is themore potent generator of heat energy. This may seemto contradict your experience. You may have observedthat formulations using KC103 are often easier to igniteand more resistant to being extinguished when movingat high velocities through the air than are formulationsusing KC104 • These observations are accurate (Shimizu,

48

PYROTECHNICA • IX

)

STEPSECOIVL?

--------f---------ACT/I/AT/ONEAlE.tfGY (Ed)

___1 _

/9;fST STE?

II

---------------t-----II

IIj

I

I

II

>t<<EIVE"f6'Y //11 E/vERGY OOT

,..fEACTIO/V PROG/?ES'.s

;VET EI1IE,fGY /,,,fOL?tlC£.t? fEn} = Er - Ea.

Figure 44. Generalized chemical energy level diagram.

The amount of energy produced in combustion, andtherefore flame temperature, also depends on the fuelchosen. Table 6 is a listing of flame temperatures ob­served for some non-metal fuels reacting with KCl04 ,

NH4Cl04 and Ba(Cl03 )2'

Flame temperature has important ramifications inthe production of intensely colored flames. Recall thatthe characteristic most different between points just in­side and just outside a flame was that molecules at onepoint emit light and those at the other point do not.The type and number of molecules at both points aresimilar; the difference is that inside the flame the tem-

perature is still high enough for visible light productionand outside, it is not. For the most part, at temperaturesabove that which is required for colored light produc­tion, the higher the temperature, the greater the amountof light produced. In addition, the relationship betweentemperature and light production is non-linear; a smallchange in temperature causes a large change in lightproduction. Thus one of the criteria for intensely col­ored flames is high flame temperature. Another criterionis to have a high concentration of the color generatingmolecules (atoms) in the flame. Unfortunately, as morecolor agent is added to a colored flame formulation,more energy must be used to vaporize it. The consump-

P.1'OGA'ESS :>,PROGRESS

;(C/0,J ;f"c/o~

Figure 45. Comparison of KClO. and KClO. formulations.

49

COLORED FLAMES - PART II

Table 5. Maximum flame temperaturesof oxidizers with shellac

(data from Shimizu, 1976, p. 74).

NOTE: All mixtures contained 10% Na,C,O,.

K. L. KOSANKE

NOTE: All mixtures contained 10% Na,C,O" necessary to meas­ure flame temperature.

Flame temperatures, in degrees Celsius,of oxidizers with various fuels(data from Shimizu, 1976, p. 74).

KCIO, NILCIO. Ba(CI03),

2465 2238 21772322 2092 22372245 2198 20322057 2025 1688

Table 6.

FuelPine pitch .Colophony .Shellac .Woodmeal .

Flametemperature

2247 c C220rC2177'C1697'C

%16141318

FuelShellacShellacShellacShellac

Oxidizer %KCIO, 74NH,CIO, 76KCIO, 77KNOJ 72

tion of this energy lowers flame temperature, loweringlight output. Thus a compromise must be struck, asshown in Figure 46, between too little color agent andtoo Iowa flame temperature. Obviously fuel/oxidizercombinations that produce high flame temperatures havethe advantage of being able to accommodate greateramounts of color agents and are thus capable of pro­ducing more vividly colored flames.

Some fuel/oxidizer combinations produce flame tem­peratures so low as to be virtually useless for the pro­duction of colored flames. For example, the only colorthat can be produced using KNOs and non-metal fuelsis yellow.

One way to partially overcome the loss of energytaken to vaporize the color agent is to use a coloragent that is itself an oxidizer. For example, usingKCI04 and red gum as the primary source of thermalenergy, considerably more strontium can be added tothe formulation, without seriously lowering flame tem­perature, in the form of Sr(NOs ) 2 than SrCOg • Thisis because Sr(NOS)2 can itself react with red gum toproduce additional heat energy.

Another way to increase the amount of color agentin a formulation without lowering flame temperature toa point too low for good color production, is to startwith a fuel/oxidizer combination that is capable of pro­ducing very high flame temperatures. This can be accom­plished using a metal fuel: aluminum, magnalium ormagnesium. A comparison of Tables 5 and 6 with

Table 7 demonstrates the ability of magnesium to sig­nificantly increase flame temperature. In terms of main­taining color purity, magnesium is the best choice, fol­lowed next by magnalium, and then by aluminum. Thisis because when aluminum is burned, aluminum oxide,a source of white light, is formed. This reduces thepurity of the colored flame produced.

Table 7. Metal fuel flame temperatures(data from Shimizu, 1976, p. 76).

Flame PercentOxidizer temperature magnesiumKCIO, 298rC 45KN03 2552'C 60Sr(NO,), 2902 c C 45Ba(NOJ)2 2717°C 45NOTE: All mixtures contained either 10% PVC or 10% shellac.

Fuel and oxidizer combinations capable of produc­ing high temperatures are important for producing in­tensely colored flames. However, the very highest flametemperatures are not usually the best. The chemicalspecies responsible for generating intensely colored py­rotechnic flames are almost always molecules. At veryhigh temperatures, these desirable light producing mole­cules decompose. This is a double-barreled problem;not only does decomposition result in a loss of desirablelight emitters, but the products of decomposition arealmost always undesirable light sources. This can resultin a serious loss of color purity in the flame.

)

ICOLOR TOO /"A/A/T I

<:

II ,FLA~E TOt? £)/~

I

RA~E TE/'1?E-f'AToRE7(::)0 LOW'

roo L/TTLECOLoR AG'E/o/T

IIIIII

&-- --L..-__J'- ~>

A/'10t/A/T or- COLoR AGE/VT

Figure 46. Optimum amount of color agent.

50

PYROTECHNICA , IX

4.3 Color production in flames

4.3.1 Desirable color generating chemical speciesTable 8 is a list of the metals commonly used to

produce colored pyrotechnic flames. Also included arethe chemical species actually responsible for the color.Nate that in all cases except sodium, it is molecularcompounds (not atoms) that are the color generatingspecies. For example, the red color generating speciesare SrOH and srCl. Strontium atoms not only don'tproduce red light, they interfere with the production ofintensely colored red flames; strontium atoms emit amixture of blue and violet light.

For example, the source of strontium is usually SrCOsor Sr(NOs ) 2' Thus it is usually necessary to form thecolor generating molecules in the flame itself. In general,the mechanism is first to break apart the color agent.Then, by providing a source of the proper non-metalatoms or atom groups, allow the desired chemical spe­cies to form. For strontium this can be represented as:

SrCOs ~ Sr(g) +C02 + 0', (17)Sr(g) + CI' ~SrCI(g), (18)Sr(g) + OH' ~SrOH(g). (19)

NOTE: CI' and OH' are not stable chemical species at roomtemperature; however, they can be formed and are stable at flametemperatures.

Table 9 is a listing of some other, rarely used, metalsthat can be used to produce colored pyrotechnic flames.The reason these metals are not used is their generallyhigh cost and technical limitations.

4.3.2 Typical flame reactions and detrimentalcolor generating species

It rarely occurs that color agents added to a formu­lation are the color generating species listed in Table 8.

Unfortunately, these reactions are not the only pos­sibilities in a strontium flame. Figure 47 is an attemptto summarize the most important flame reactions forstrontium. To some extent all of the reactions in Fig­ure 47 take place. The problem is that strontium mono­chloride (SrCI) and strontium monohydroxide (SrOH)are the only chemical species that generate good qualityred light. The light generating properties of all the othersare more or less detrimental (see Table 10).

Because of the production of chemical species thatseriously reduce color quality, and in order to optimizethe production of useful species, it is necessary to con­trol the reactions taking place in flames.

4.3.3 Control of flame chemistryAs discussed earlier, all chemical reactions are re­

versible; none go 100% to completion. Thus to someextent all those chemical species shown in Figure 47will be present in a strontium red flame. However, -it ispossible to preferentially form more of the desirablecolor emitting species if Le Chatelier's Principle is clev­erly used, i.e., when the proper stresses are applied tothe chemical system.

In Figure 47, each step moving to the right requiresthe input of energy. It is as though heat energy was one

Table 10. Partial listing of chemical species,present in strontium red flames, that have

undesirable light generating properties.Chemical species Detrimental effectSrCI2 (l) or (s) strong continuous spectrumSro blue-violet color

Sr+ violet color and continuous spectrumfrom ion recombinations

SrO(S) or2.nge color

ColorRedRedBlueGreenGreen

Table 9. List of metals rarely usedto produce colored pyrotechnic flames

(basic data from Douda, 1964).Color Approximate

generating (equivalent)species wave length (nm)

Li" 650Rbo 630Cso 460BO, 530Tlo 530

Barium

Copper

Calcium

Table 8. List of metals commonly usedto generate colored pyrotechnic flames

(basic data from Douda, 1964).Color Approximate

generating (equivalent)Color species wave length (nm)Red SrCI 630Red orange SrOH 610Green BaCl 520Green BaOH weak emitterViolet blue CuCl 450Green CuOH 540Orange CaOH 600Red orange CaCl 610

Sodium Yellow Nao (atoms) 589NOTE: In general, any of the halogens (group VIlA) can besubstituted for chlorine in the metal monochlorides.

MetalStrontium

MetalLithiumRubidiumCesiumBoronThallium

SrO(9)1~

5rel2. (5)~ SrC1 2(1) ~SrCl(B) ~Sr· ~ 5r +2. -t- 2e--It

SrOHcf?;)Figure 47. A representation of some of the possible reactions for strontium in a flame

(taken from Douda, 1964).NOTE: In order to simplify the figure, some reactants and products are not explicitly shown.

51

K. L. KOSANKE

Table 11. Percent chlorine of commonchlorine donors.

breaks down into H· and OH' radicals. The process isshown in Equations 24 and 25 for the simplest hydro­carbon, methane (CH.).

CH. + 202 s::::; CO2 + 2R,o(g) + Heat,(24)

H 20 (g) + Heat s::::; H· +OH". (25)It is worth noting that B. Douda (private communica­tion) reports only having observed SrOH in relativelylow temperature flames, never when metal fuels wereused. He conjectures that SrOH is unstable at high tem­perature.

Chlorine donors and hydrocarbons aid in the pro­duction of useful red color emitters based on strontium.As such it is appropriate to consider both of them"color enhancers" for strontium reds. Much of the sameis true for barium greens, copper blues and calciumoranges. This is true because in each case the usefulcolor emitters are monochlorides and monohydroxides(see Table 8).

In cases such as sodium yellows or lithium reds,chlorine donors and hydrocarbons do not act as colorenhancers. In these cases, it is neutral metal atoms(NaO and Lio) that are the desirable color generatingspecies. Sodium and lithium monochlorides and mono­hydroxides are undesirable light emitting species. Thusthe addition of chlorine donors or unnecessary hydro­carbons do not enhance the color, they weaken it byconsuming desirable species and generating undesirablespecies. This is not much of a problem for sodium yel­low, because sodium is an unusually powerful coloremitter and the weakening will not be noticeable. How­ever, for the weaker lithium reds, these so-called colorenhancers must be avoided.

I still need to discuss what can be done to furtherlimit production of the undesirable species, Sr+ 2 andSrO (g)' I intentionally said "further limit" because thosethings mentioned above that foster increased produc­tion of SrCI and SrOH also help limit production of Sr+ 2

and SrO. This is because all four are competitors for Sroin the flame. The more SrCI and SrOH made, the lessSro is available to form strontium ions or oxide.

One way to limit strontium ionization,Sro + Heat S::::; Sr+ 2 + 2e-, (26)

is to stress the reaction in the reverse direction. Thiscould be done by removing heat energy from the flame,but remember this has the undesirable effect of loweringflame temperature, thereby reducing light output. Abetter way is to provide a source of free el~ctrons, oneof the reaction products. Although this may sound diffi­cult, it is not. In fact you normally provide for this,without realizing it. The introduction of any easily ion­izable metal into the flame will supply electrons to the

COLORED FLAMES - PART II

of the chemical reactants. This is shown in Equations20 to 23:

SrCI2 (s) + Heat s::::; SrCI2 (1) (20)SrCI2 (1) + Heat s::::; SrCI(g) + CI·, (21)SrCI(g) + Heat s::::; Sr(g) + CI·, (22)Sr(g) + Heats::::;Sr(g) +2 + 2e-. (23)

Flame temperature is an approximate measure ofheat energy available in a flame, thus you can appreci­ate the importance of flame temperature. It is SrCI(g)that we wish to have present in the flame, not SrCl2 (8)

or SrCI2 (1)' If flame temperature falls too low, this isequivalent to removing heat (one of the reactants). Thisis a stress on the reacting system. The stress is relievedby some of the SrCI(g) combining with CI·, condensingas liquid SrCl2 droplets. With the loss of SrCl(g), the redcolor generating molecule, the purity of the red flameis reduced. On the other hand, if the temperature risestoo high, more of the SrCI(g) decomposes into Sr (g) ° andCI·, again reducing color purity. This high temperatureproblem is unfortunate because the brightness of a col­ored flame increases significantly with relatively minorincreases in temperature. Thus it would be desirable tohave the flame temperature as high as possible.

One way to allow a higher flame temperature, with­out a loss of SrCI(g) by decomposition, is to balance thestress caused by adding heat, by adding more of one ofthe products, CI· for example. One benefit of usingKCI03 or KCIO. as the oxidizer in this type of coloredflame production is their ability to contribute some CI·to the flame. Substantially greater amounts of CI· (orHCI which is equivalent) can be added using most anychlorine-rich compound that does not interfere in someway with other aspects of flame chemistry. Among theimportant properties of these chlorine donors are: ahigh percentage of chlorine, a low heat of decomposi­tion, and the ability to decompose under conditionspresent in flames. Table 11 lists a number of chlorinedonors commonly used in fireworks and their percentageof chlorine. Other properties to take into considerationwhen selecting a chlorine donor are toxicity, cost, theability to act as a fuel, and the ability to consumeexcess oxygen in a flame.

It is worth mentioning that any halogen (i.e., groupVIlA element) can be used in place of chlorine. Stron­tium fluoride, SrBr and SrI are all useful emitters ofred light. However, shifts of dominant wave lengthsoccur, compared to SrCI, as the result of differingatomic weights and bond strengths.

Another chemical species responsible for strontiumred light production is SrOH(g). Strontium monohydrox­ide is not as desirable a color emitter as SrCI(g) be­cause it emits orangish-red light. However, if conditionsin the flame are such as to favor SrOH formation, thistoo would be good. The best way to achieve productionof SrOR is to provide a generous supply of hydroxylradicals (OH·). This happens automatically wheneverhydrocarbons are present in a color formulation, whichis most of the time. Organic resin fuels, most organicchlorine donors and dextrin are all hydrocarbons. Whena hydrocarbon reacts with a source of oxygen, watervapor is one of the reaction products. At the tempera­ture of a pyrotechnic flame, some of the water vapor

52

NameHexachlorobenzene .Benzene hexachloride .Parlon (poly, 2-methyl

1,3 butidiene) .Calomel (mercury(l)

chloride) .Chlorowax .PVC (polyvinyl chloride) ..

FormulaC,Cl,CoHeCl,

Hg2Cl2variableC2H3Cl

Percentchlorine

7473

68

1540-70

57

PYROTECHNICA • IX

MetalCopper .Calcium .Strontium .Barium .Sodium .Potassium .

flame. If the metal ionizes more easily than strontium,the electrons thus generated will act to suppress stron­tium ionization. One such metal is potassium, whichmay already be present in the flame, if for exampleKCl04 or KClOs is used as oxidizer in the color formu­lation. Because of their ability to suppress other unde­sirable ionization in flames, metals such as potassiumare sometimes referred to as "ionization buffers." SeeTable 12 for a listing of ionization energies for po­tassium and metals commonly used for colored lightgeneration.

Table 12. First ionization energiesof metals usable for light generation

(from data presented in Sargent-Weich'sPeriodic table catalog #S18806).

First ionizationenergy (kcal/mole)

178141131120119100

Probably the best way to limit formation of SrOin flames is to limit, as much as practical, the presenceof oxygen radicals in the flame. Obviously the firstthing to do to accomplish this is not to use an excess ofoxidizer in the formulation. (Another good reason todo this is that slightly fuel rich flames tend to havelarger flame envelopes.) However, even fuel rich flameswill pick up additional oxygen from the air, leading tothe formation of oxides in the flame tips. For strontiumthis is not that noticeable, because the formation ofSrO produces orange flame tips. On the other hand, inbarium greens, this produces yellow flame tips and incopper blues produces pink flame tips. The objection­able production of oxides in flame tips can sometimesbe reduced by the me of secondary, slow-reacting fuelsthat consume the excess oxygen. T. Fish (Fish, 1981)recently discussed this for formulations in which mag­nesium was the primary (more active) fuel. In thatwork Fish coined the descriptive term "flame deoxidiz­ing agent" for hexamine (hexamethylenetetramine), hischoice as the secondary fuel.

4.4 Colored pyrochemical flames

4.4.1 Red, green and orange flamesIn the production of intensely colored flames, using

strontium for red and barium for green, exactly the samechemical principles apply. In the discussion above,where strontium was used as the example, barium canbe substituted in nearly every sentence and chemicalequation where strontium appears. The same is almosttrue for calcium used to produce orange flames, exceptthat CaOH is the preferred orange color emitting speciesand not CaCl (see Table 8).

A look at the Periodic Table of elements suggestswhy the interchangeability of Sr, Ba and Ca in theabove discussion should not be a surprise. Calcium,strontium and barium are all group IIA elements, andshould be expected to follow the same general chem­istry.

53

4.4.2 Blue flamesThe standard blue flame is produced using copper.

In general, everything that has been said about stron­tium red flames also applies to copper blue flames.Only a couple of additional points are worth discussing.For strontium reds, both the monochloride and themonohydroxide emit useful colored light. This is notthe case for copper blues. The principal emission bandsfor CuCI fall in the purplish-blue portion of the spec­trum. However, those of CuOH fall mostly in the greenportion of the spectrum. Thus for effective blue flames,it is even more important to include a generous sourceof chlorine. However, the presence of a small amountof CuOH in the flame is useful because its green emis­sions add to the purplish-blue emissions of CuCI toproduce a high purity blue light. This color addition isshown on a chromaticity diagram in Figure 8. (Forinformation on scales, wave lengths and colors for thechromaticity diagram, see Figure 31 from Part I of thispaper.)

CIIROI1AT/C/7/ /)/ACRAI1Figure 48. The addition oj CuOH and CuCI emissions inthe proper proportion to produce high purity blue light.

Because of the loss of CuCI by decomposition atrelatively low temperatures, it is certainly true thattemperatures of blue flames cannot be allowed to rangeas high as strontium reds. However, some of the notionsabout low flame temperatures have been improperlystated. For example, a reason often expressed for usingstearin in blue formulations is that it lowers flame tem­peratures. This does not make much sense; a more ef­fective way to lower flame temperature would be to addmore copper color agent and/or chlorine donor. Perhapsthe beneficial effect of stearin results more from itsacting as a flame deoxidizing agent.

4.4.3 Yellow flames

Yellow is generally thought to be the easiest flamecolor to produce. The addition of almost any sourceof sodium will suffice. This is because essentially noattention has to be given to flame temperature, colorenhancers, or flame deoxidizing agents, etc. Flame tem­peratures too low to allow production of any of theother colors can still produce good yellow color. On theother hand, very high flame temperature is not reallya problem either. For other color flames, high flame

COLORED FLAMES - PART II

temperatures can result in the loss of desirable colorgenerating species by decomposition. For sodium yel­lows, it is sodium atoms that are the color generatingspecies; thus there are no molecules to decompose.Ionization will still occur at high flame temperatures,but sodium is so powerful a color source, that this isnot much of a problem. Again because it is sodiumatoms that emit yellow light, color enhancers are notnecessary. Even the formation of oxides at flame tipsdoes not weaken the strong yellow flame color.

There are two factors, however, that make the pro­duction of good yellow flames less than trivial. The firstis the tendency for double decomposition reactions tooccur between water soluble sodium color agents andthe oxidizer, when water soluble binders are used.An example of such a double decomposition reaction is:

KN03 + NaHC03 ~ NaN03 + KHC03 •

(27)The problem here is production of NaN03 which ishygroscopic, i.e., tends to pick up moisture from theair. This can result in drying problems, ignition prob­lems and possibly additional decomposition problemswith other ingredients because of the retained moisture.

The other area for concern with sodium yellowflames is the use of magnesium or magnalium in theformulation. Again, if the sodium color agent is watersoluble and the composition is dampened with water,there is a high probability that undesirable reactionswill occur, producing potentially dangerous amountsof heat in the mixture. The solution is the same forboth problems; either eliminate the use of water solublebinders or me water insoluble sodium color agents. Twosuch insoluble substances are sodium aluminum fluor­ide (cryolite) and sodium disilicate (ultramarine), thelatter of which requires rather high flame temperaturesto be effective.

4.4.4 Purple flamesIn Part I of this paper, the difficulty of producing

intensely purple colored flames was discussed. Thereason is restated again in the chromaticity diagram inFigure 49. Intensely purple colored flames are thosewhose additive spectral colors produce color points inthe shaded region of the chromaticity diagram. Thelower the color point falls in the shaded region, themore intensely colored the flame appears. The onlyway to produce colors in this region is to combinespectral colors from opposite ends of the spectrum (i.e.,purple itself is not a "spectral" color). It is commonlybelieved that high purity purple can result from com­bining red and blue light. This is not really true, redand violet (purplish-blue) light are the necessary in­gredients. Remember from the discussion above thatthe formation of a small amount of CuOH (green) isuseful, tempering the purplish-blue light of CuCl andproducing a high purity blue flame (color point A inFigure 49). Similarly, the production of both SrOH(red-orange) along with the preferred SrCI (red) stillproduces an effective red flame (but with its color pointshifted from color point B to C). When these colors(points A and C) are added in the approximate ratioof 4: 1, a relatively low purity purple flame results(color point D).

If the formation of CuOH and SrOH had not occur­red, color points E and B (corresponding to CuCI and

54

K. L. KOSANKE

C/I/(O/lfATICITY LJ/AGIfA/'1Figure 49. Why a good purple is still tough,

but not impossible.

SrCI respectively) would have resulted. When these col­ors are added in the approximate ratio of 4: 1, a rela­tively high purity purple flame results (color point F).Thus the key to production of high purity purple flamesis to foster the production of CuCI and SrCl and limitthe production of CuOH and SrOH. This can be accom­plished by using fuels and chlorine donors that do notcontain hydrogen atoms. Metal powders and carbon arepossible fuels. Hexachlorobenzene (CuClo) and mercury(I) chloride (Hg2ClJ are possible chlorine donors. Or­ganic binders (hydrocarbons), like dextrin and red gum,should be avoided. For a binder, it might be possibleto use hexachlorobenzene, which is soluble in benzene.(Note that benzene vapor can be toxic.) B. Douda(private communication) has suggested that high flametemperatures may also aid in the production of goodquality purple flame. This is because he believes CuCland SrCl (the desired color sources) are more stablethan the hydroxides at high temperatures.

AcknowledgementsI wish to gratefully acknowledge the comments and

suggestions of R. M. Winokur and other members ofthe PYROTECHNICA staff, and especially the technicalcomments of B. E. Douda and his colleagues at theU.S. Naval Weapons Support Center (Crane, IN).

References cited in Part IIDouda, B. E. 1964. Theory of Colored Flame Produc­

tion. RDTN No. 71. U.S. Naval Ammunition Depot,Crane, Indiana, AD-A9518l5.

Fish, T. 1981. "Green and Other Colored Flame MetalFuel Compositions Using Parlon." Issue VII, PYRO­TECHNICA: Occasional Papers in Pyrotechnics, Aus­tin, Texas.

Shidlovskii A. A. 1965. Fundamentals of Pyrotechnics.Transl~ted from Osnovy Pirotekhniki (1964). Pic­atinny Arsenal, AD-462474.

Shimizu, T. 1976. Feuerwerk von physikalischem Stand­punkt aus. Hower Verlag, Hamburg.

Shimizu, T. 1982. Fireworks from a Physical Stand­point. Part 1. Pyrotechnica Publications, Austin,Texas.

END OF PART II

PYROTECHNICA • IX

ROADSIDE STANDS TO STATE FAIRS:

FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS

Jim Wommack

I think every young boy back in the twenties andthirties down South, and particularly in my hometownof Wilmington, North Carolina, lived and longed forChristmas for two big reasons: Fireworks and Santa,and in that order. Fireworks were the BIG THING forme at Christmas. A whole dollar's worth of crackers andcandles from a roadside stand was a BIG DEAL. As achild, I bought fireworks from a retail stand from a familyof Taylors. He owned a dairy at the time but later went"big time fireworks jobber" in South Carolina and SouthDakota. The period of my local purchasing must havebeen from 1927 until 1932.

It was about 1932 that we kids got wise and startedsending in mail orders to Spencer Fireworks of Polk,Ohio. In 1932, I had the honor of having my letterprinted in Spencer's catalog, and I got a free "YoungAmerican Assortment" for that letter. After I becamea staff photographer on the Winston-Salem, N.C. Jour­nal-Sentinel, C. H. Spencer and I developed a long last­ing friendship until his death in 1952. I made sometestimonial photos of folks with his fireworks for hiscatalogs. He was a jobber, did not manufacture anything- but was the largest mail-order jobber ever!

C. H. Spencer entered the fireworks business inPolk, Ohio as a boy, selling fireworks from a pull wagonbehind him. In 1936 he had a large barn and a coupleof other "garage type" storehouses behind his home in"uptown Polk" - Polk was, and probably still is, justa crossroads.

On New Year's Day 1936, the whole works blew,because a boy helper had started a fire in the large barn.The explosions blew out numerous windowpanes in thevillage, blew the steeple off the church across the road,and in fact the young fellow living next door had justcome in from a New Year's Eve party (this was about8 a.m.) and it blew a 3 x 4 plumb through the housenext door, pinning this partygoer into his bed!

When he heard the first blast, Spencer's father wentto the back kitchen door, and it blew the entire kitchenaway, except for the small portion his dad was peepingout from. At that time, Spencer moved into the countrysome few miles from the village.

I began my "display career" in 1938 when, whileworking for the Winston-Salem, N.C. newspaper, I wentto the W-S fair to take photos and do a story on the"fireworks men" - Mr. Floyd Simione and Joe Cialleia.From then on, I was "hooked" - I shot my first dis­play of any size in December 1939 at Wilmington, N.C.

I was mostly involved with fireworks displays at stateand county fairs during the next 20 years. From Read­ing, Pa., Trenton, N.J., through the Virginias, North

55

Carolina, Georgia and into Florida, there was ONENAME known to fair fireworks for many years ­A. T. ("Tony") Vitale of New Castle, Pennsylvania.My own experience with his shows at fairs began in1938 as previously mentioned. That 1938 display wasof very moderate size and content, the 3" shell finalehaving a count of only 36. In all modesty, my photosand story of the "fireworks men" created a demand fora much more ambitious and not at all disappointingshow the following year.

Mr. Vitale was always a fine showman. He, alongwith George A. Hamid, the mogul of outdoor enter­tainment at fairs, piers, etc., worked hand in hand.The displays at fairs of any size were fired very rapidly,set pieces and shells being fired at the same time. Atsmaller fairs, the "presentation" was usually one setpiece, then three shells, and so on. From 1939 to 1941the Winston-Salem Fair always had a "special" in thedisplay. A short chronology of these follows:

1939: At this fair, as well as the State Fair (StateFair always had the same display) there was the fea­ture of "Men from Mars" - due to Orson Welles'famous radio panic program of 1938. After a very finedisplay of set pieces, wheels, falls, etc., with shells beingfired at the same time, a lance work of the skyline ofNew York was lighted. This lance work employedthousands of lances, the skyline being a backgroundfor fast and furious action in front of it. From one sideof the infield came an aluminum girandola "spaceship"sliding down a rope from a very high standard, ontothree huge lance works of "Men from Mars." Uponimpact, three 4" flitter star mines erupted and then themen lit up, with candles firing as their weapons.

Only a few moments afterwards, 4" ground bombs(Vitale called them "petards") began going off behindthe skyline with terrific noise. Then came the finale of100, 3" shells, spiderwebs, 4" thunder shells ("fusil­lade") and salutes. End of show to a THUNDEROUSAPPLAUSE FROM THE GRANDSTAND.

1940: Here came the "specs" - for spectaculars ­really canvas paintings resembling in a minor waythe "machines" of older European pyrotechny. Thesedepicted some village and were in sections of about20 feet and the whole thing some 200 feet long. Eachsection, except the center, was raised by steel rings andkept up with heavy ropes, on the end of which wasa sash cord. On the cord was a 2" ground report, timedwith star mines and ground firecrackers of the old 3"and 4" black powder type. The entire scene was illumi­nated by huge electric bulbs in reflectors spaced alongthe "spec."

When the center section "erupted" - gerbs andcandles atop it - the action began and it was simply

FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS

Mr. C. H. Spencer of Spencer Fireworks Co. in Polk, Ohio.One of the first, if not THE first, in mail order commercialfireworks to fill the hearts oj thousands oj boys from ca.1930 until his death in 1952. This photo was made in 1940(despite the 1936 wall calendar) while I was on a week'svisit with him.

JIM WOMMACK

Floyd Simione, of Vitale Fireworks Co., New Castle, Penn.,with some of the shells fired at the Winston-Salem, N.C.Fair in 1939 for the "Shell Scale" as explained in the arti­cle. On extreme right is a 4" ten break shell.

Floyd Simione, another view of shells fired in the presentation. Some shells in this photo are not part of the scale.

56

PYROTECHNICA • IX

Skippy Hoover, Sam Orrico and Felix Audino load pipes with shells for Winston-Salem, N.C. Fair in 1940. Behind is a goodview of the rear of a "spec" - canvas painting that was "blown down" as part of a truly great fireworks display "finale."These large shells in later years gave way to smaller shells being fired three or four at a time - a very bad "imitation."

A "spec" (canvas painting some 200 feet long), Winston­Salem, N.C. Fair, 1941 - showing 4" star mines going offalong with ground bombs to "blow down" the village. Thescene depicted is the eruption of Mount PeIee, with thesubsequent destruction of Fort de France, Martinique.

57

Jim Wommack (left) and A. T. ("Tony") Vitale, "Mr. Fire­works" in county and state fair fireworks shows for manyyears. This photo was made in Burlington, N.C., whereMr. Vitale presented a Halloween show for many years.Photo was taken about 1967, not long before Mr. Vitalepassed away.

FIFTY YEARS OF FIREWORKS

Wilbur Lizza (right) of Keystone Fireworks Co. of Dunbar,Penn. and Jim Wommack (left) with shells, taken in 1959.Shells are a Japanese ball shell and one of Lizza's 5", threebreak shell-of-shells.

Typical shell show which I shot for a country club nearGreensboro, N.C. Stars placed on top of my shells createda rising, "Japanese type" effect. (This photo courtesy ofJohn Page.)

58

JIM WOMMACK

Finale of Wommack's shells over the U.S.S. North Caro­lina, Wilmington, N.C., about 1962.

My July 4, 1974 show in Greensboro at a local countryclub. The "streak" at left oj photo is a Keystone 4" para­chute flare shell. The straight white line running across thephoto is a passing jetliner. (This photo courtesy oj JohnPage.)

PYROTECHNICA • IX

terrifying, as section by section fell to the ground asstar mines, noise effects, etc., caused same. Truly aterrific show. This was the "finale" of the display,AFTER all the sets, fast-firing LARGE shells werefired. What a grand show, plus shell finale!

1941: Once again, a "spec" was done, but, and abig BUT, a real feature was added during the sets.A "shell scale" was fired, being of very unusual andvery amusing dimensions. At first a one break shell wasfired, then a two break, then a three break - one ata time - then this worked up to a ten break 4" shell.After the third or fourth break, you could hear thecrowd in and out of the grandstand counting aloudthe breaks: MOST IMPRESSIVE.

I must point out that these displays never lasted,with all the goods fired, more than twenty minutes.The idea was to get the grandstand crowd and othersgathered around the fences - the "freebies" - ontothe midway to spend their money. I would also explainthat the large fair displays were always fired within therace track in front of the grandstand where horse, sulkyand even car races were held during the day - andday and night were the auto "thrill shows." The "HighActs" - trapeze acts of all kinds - were the last itemson the grandstand show before the fireworks. "LuckyTeeter and his Hell Drivers" was a fine favorite untilhis death in the 1940s. Imagine these fellows driving1937 Plymouths through walls of fire, jumping Grey­hound buses, etc.

1942: With the war, this was an all shell show ­but fired by one of Mr. Vitale's men and yours truly,shells fired at two places in the infield, but "pits" firingat the same time very fast. A finale of 3" and 4" (about200) ended it. At this fair we had the terrible experi­ence of a child and friends finding a dud 3" salute ­one killed and several burned. This was the only suchaccident on the fairgrounds ever.

That year ended the fair fireworks at Winston-Salemuntil 1946 when I must say shows of lower magnitudebegan. With Tony Vitale's death years later, the fairshows certainly declined - not only due to his passing,but also to houses being built near the fairgrounds, theeffects of integration, etc. Since then, I have helped firesome very fine displays, and have produced hundredsof shows of my own, making my own shells in lateryears from 3" to 8" in diameter. I began to learn the

59

trade from the Vitale men, but later mostly throughthe kind and wonderful help of Mr. Wilbur Lizza ofKeystone Fireworks, and Mr. Bob Beachler of UnitedFireworks.

We started using Japanese shells iil displays hereabout 1955 or 1956. I know I was the first to use themin the North Carolina area. I was using the larger shellsfrom Japan (up to 8") in my shows in the fifties. In1957 Mr. Toshio Ogatsu came to this country to givesome shows including the Trade Fair show in New Yorkand he paid me a nice visit, bearing me all sorts ofgifts from Japan.

Now, at age 65, the factors of my health, that nocommon carrier will deliver Class B fireworks here, theprice of fireworks now being so high that many of theclients of my former display agency can no longer afforda decent show, and other handwriting on the wall, havecaused me to give up the business. But I still go outback, light a piece of raw match to get the smell ­there is NOTHING LIKE IT IN THIS WORLD.

There is absolutely NO FORM of entertainmentthat will bring crowds like a fast-fired fireworks show.It is simply showmanship that calls for a fast show.The crowd cares very little about the artistic effects,deep colors, etc. They want a rollicking, fiery, noisyand FAST show, and it is THAT SIMPLE. To thepeople who are dedicated to loving fireworks, there isNO OTHER hobby or profession that I know of thatwill satisfy like this one. When that finale is over andthat stadium crowd, or whatever crowd, stands up androars their approval, there is NOTHING to compare tothe feeling: "WELL, I SURE SHOWED THEM!"

ED. NOTE: If you weren't lucky enough to see one of "FugeyJim" Wommack's highly acclaimed East Coast displays at astate fair, carnival, or country club some time between ]938and 1976, you'll probably remember seeing the "Cracker Lady,"Jim's first wife Rose, made famous on page 220 of Weingart'sPyrotechnics (1947 edition). Wommack also contributed mate­rial and photos for Lancaster's book. Wommack has now retiredfrom both the "newspaper game" and his display agency andlives quietly in Greensboro, N.C. with many loud and fierymemories.

Wommack was chief photographer for the Greensboro DailyNews and Record and his photographs of pyrotechnic eventsspan a fifty year period. PYROTECHNICA will proudly publishmore of Wommack's photography from a bygone golden age ojAmerican pyrotechny in upcoming issues.

Literature and Books In Review"",,",,================================Ii

S\f

A SURVEY OFJAPANESE FIREWORKS LITERATURE

THROUGH THE YEAR 1982There are very few fireworks books in Japan that have

been made available to the general public. Fireworks tech­nique has been handed down in each family, and eachfamily in the trade has various secret formula:. My recentresearch at the Tokyo Central Library shows that there aretwenty books in the catalog, and they are widely dispersedthroughout Japan - some in libraries, some in universitycollections, and others in personal collections. It seems tome that most of these books are written for the hobbyists.From my research and from my own small library, I havelisted the following fireworks books, which are consideredrelatively important to us.

(l) RrSHO. Hanabi hiden-shu. (The Compilation of SecretFireworks Techniques), Osaka, 1825. 39 leaves, 15 x

11cms. 12 full-page and 34 smaller illustrations, mostlyhand-colored.

This is a rare old Japanese book, reproduced from amanuscript made with a camel hair brush, in block print.It is fairly difficult to decipher. Divided into two parts, thefirst part describes the manufacturing processes for 25 typesof fireworks compositions for gardr.n variety fireworks; thesecond part describes 11 types of shooting or moving com­positions. The size, details of construction, and the exactcomposition used are given for each pyrotechnic devicedescribed. The formula: of the compositions, in weight per­centages, are set forth in the table below.

From these formula:, we know that potassium nitrate,sulfur, hemp charcoal, iron dust and camphor were the onlychemical components of Japanese fireworks in 1825. Cam­phor was used to produce a beautiful gold flame. For a longtime, Risho's book has played a leading role in the produc-

Irondust

2.6%5.7

1.92.73.2

71.572.063.767.565.070.466.266.364.145.461.848.258.1

63.363.378.263.262.9

Various Firework Compositions Reported by Risho (1825)Potassium Hemp

nitrate Sulfur charcoal70.4% 9.9% 19.7%85.5 5.1 6.882.0 6.6 5.769.5 9.7 20.8

100100

7.1 21.423.0 5.0

8.9 25.59.5 20.39.1 22.79.9 19.79.3 19.9 4.68.6 23.8 1.34.5 26.9 4.5

36.4 15.0 3.214.8 18.5 4.933.6 13.9 4.311.6 22.7 7.6

A combination of willow composition,butterfly fire, andwhite chrysanthemum in autumn.

9.5 19.0 8.28.9 24.0 3.8

10.9 7.8 3.18.9 24.7 3.28.8 24.5 3.8

Garden fireworksRat .Hand peony .Giant peony .Sky wheel , .Wisteria blossom in Noda .Wind .Dragonfly .Butterfly fi re . . .Willow composition .Wood pink (type of flower) .Large pear blossom .Thunder ' .Deep snow .Miyakowasure (a type of aster) .Lotus flower .Gold orchid flower .Peony .Hedge bush in the M usashi plain .White chrysanthemum in autumn .Sangoku-ichi (the biggest effect in

three countries - Japan, Chinaand India) .

Insects .1000 glowing small worms .Mouse from a hole .Flower candle .Magnificent beetle .

Camphor4.7%

Irondust

19.513.1

Hempcharcoal

5.0%23.519.216.823.525.0

Sulfur23.4%

9.49.9

10.29.49.2

8.610.0

71.976.9

Potassiumnitrate66.9%67.170.973.067.165.8

Shooting or moving compositionsBall of fire .Tiger tail .Bees (buzzing) .Line fire (rope railway) .Round flowers .Water ball " .Collection of fireballs .Collection of tiger tails .Collection of bees .Shooting star (rocket) .Gunpowder .

60

PYROTECHNICA • IX

tion of fireworks in Japan. It is still practical today, withvaluable information on the application of black powdertype compositions.

(2) YUSHICHI NISHIZAWA (1883-1943). Nippon kajutsu­ko. (Examination of Japanese Pyrotechnics), Shuho­kaku, Tokyo, 1927; 384 pp., 20cm.

(3) - Nippon kajutsu yakuho no maki. (PyrotechnicCompositions in Japan), Togaku-sha, Tokyo, 1935;619 pp., 22cm.

(4) - Hanabi no kenkyu. (Investigative Study of Fire­works), Uchida Rokakuho, Tokyo, 1938; 710 pp.,23cm.

After Risho's book appeared in 1825, over a centuryelapsed without further publication of fireworks books, untilDr. Y. Nishizawa published the three books listed above.Unfortunately, these books are now out of print and diffi­cult to obtain. I do not have them in my library, but I haveread them. They are similar in content: the various typesof pyrotechnic items, history, technique, customs, etc., arecollected in a disorderly fashion. These books are of morevalue to the hobbyist than to the practical manufacturer,although they are very long. Dr. Nishizawa was an assist­ant professor at Tokyo University who had no experiencein the manufacture or the practical investigation of fire­works.

(5) TAKEo SHIMIZU (1912- ). Hanabi. Hitotsubashi­Shobo, Tokyo, 1957; 341 pp., 19cm.

This book is the first systematic fireworks handbook inJapan. Later an important part of it was translated andformed a chapter in R. Lancaster's book, Fireworks: Prin­ciples and Practice, published in 1972. The compositionsgiven are traditional formulre, but this is the first time thatthe manufacturing process for Japanese shells has beenpublished, especially with the Japanese star manufacturingprocess. The author is technical director of the firm KoaFireworks. He has five years experience in the manufactureof propellants and explosives and 28 years as a manufac­turer and investigator of fireworks in Tokyo and Saitama­ken. He took a doctorate from Tokyo University with areport on the hypothesis of the planning of fireworks shells(chrysanthemum design).

(6) - Hanabi no hanashi. (The Story of Fireworks),Kawade-Shobo Shin-Sha (Address: 151 Tokyo-to,Shibuya-ku, Sendagaya 2-23-2), Tokyo, 1976, Y 980.219 pp., 19cm.

The second book by Shimizu to be published in Japan,this is not a technical book, but rather a popular sciencetype of book. The contents are as follows: the fireworksmaker and climate; the history of fireworks and the fire­works on the Ryogoku river; foreign fireworks; the typesand names of fireworks compositions; fireworks notation;the shooting of fireworks shells; fireworks and explosives;fireworks and color; fireworks and smoke; fireworks andsound; fireworks music; swimming items in the sky; Wari­mono, Poka, Kyokudo; frame fireworks (lancework); fire;senko-hanabi (Japanese sparklers); a laboratory for fire­works; the prevention of fireworks accidents.

The origin of the Ryogoku fireworks festival is de-scribed as follows:

It was on 28 May 1733 that the first fireworksfestival was held on the Ryogoku river. In theprevious year there was a huge famine through­out Japan, and about 900,000 people starved. Be­sides this, in Edo (Tokyo) cholera was spreading

61

and many corpses were left on the street. TheTokugawa government (Yoshimune, 8th Shogun­ate) then arranged a festival for the water god onthe Ryogoku river as a ceremony for the dead anda prayer gathering for the elimination of the epi­demic. Thus a ceremony for the dead was held onthe river bank on May 28. May 28 of the nextyear (1733), there was a fireworks show by Ka­wabiraki for entertainment, signifying the openingof the summer night season on the river, in asso­ciation with the memory of the previous year'sevents. These fireworks shows became the annualRyogoku festival. The summer season occurs from28 May until 28 August (using the old calendar)and shelters for the sale of food or booths arepermitted there then.

(7) KYOSUKE OGATSU (1919- ). Nippon hanabi-ko,(Investigation of Japanese Fireworks), Mainichi Shim­bun-sha (Address: 100 Tokyo-to, Chiyoda-ku, Hitot­subashi 1-1-1), Tokyo, 1979, Y 1300. 206 pp., 20cm.

This is a book for everyone. Unfortunately, it is alreadyout of print. The contents are as follows: the old produc­tion of fire; fire and life in trust; the fire festival; the originof powder and powder weapons; the origin of muskets; fire­works makers and gunners in the Edo-period (1603-1868);the old manufacture of potassium nitrate; the beginning offireworks; the old city of Edo (Tokyo), fireworks makersKagiya and Tamaya, fireworks on the Ryogoku river as anannual celebration in the Edo-period; modernization in theMeiji era (1868-1911) and the introduction of potassiumchlorate, which completely renovated the colors of fireworkslights; the development of fireworks in Europe and Amer­ica; the reference to nomenclature for fireworks shells; theannual Ryogoku celebration after World War II and theend of the annual celebration in 1961; the construction oftypical shells and the firing process; frame fireworks (lance­work); fireworks materials; fireworks for film or theater;firing in foreign countries; directions for the use of toy fire­works; the resurrection of the annual Ryogoku celebrationon 29 July 1978 on a smaller scale with the name changedto "Sumida Fireworks Festival;" the prospect for large fire­works and fire festivals in Japan in 1978.

This book is widely read by many amateurs. The author,K. Ogatsu, is the director of the firm, Marutamaya OgatsuFireworks. He has 47 years of experience as a manufac­turer of fireworks in Tokyo.

(8) MAsAo HosoYA (1911- ). Hanabi no kagaku. (TheScience of Fireworks), Tokai University Press (Ad­dress: Tokai-Daigaku Shuppan-kai, 160 Tokyo-to,Shinjuku-ku, Shinjuku 3-27-4), Tokyo, 1980, Y 1200.173 pp., 18cm.

Hosoya's book is directed to the scholars and studentsof fireworks. It consists of five chapters: (1) The Historyof Fireworks; (2) The Development of Fireworks; (3)The Types of Fireworks Compositions; (4) The Scienceof Fireworks; (5) Miscellaneous. Chapters 1-3 of this bookare similar to Ogatsu's book reviewed above, but the writ­ing is more scientific. In Chapter 4, important items for themanufacture and handling of fireworks items are carefullyexamined. On pages 113-114 there are eight photos whichallow us to see the firing of a shell in a transparent plasticmortar. Pages 130-134 describe a machine for stringing ashell which was invented by M. Hosoya. Pages 135-141explain the manufacture and firing of a 90cm shell. Theauthor, M. Hosoya, is the owner of the firm Hosoya Fire­works AG and has 60 years of experience in manufactur­ing fireworks in Tokyo.

LITERATURE AND BOOKS IN REVIEW

(9) TAKEo SHIMIZU. Fireworks: The Art, Science andTechnique. Maruzen Co., Tokyo, 1981. 336 pp., 27cm.

This is a new handbook for manufacturers. Althoughit was published in Japan, it is written in English. A reviewof this book has already appeared in PYROTECHNICA VIII,pp. 36-39 (June 1982), so a description here will be omitted.

(10) KYOSUKE OGATSU. Hanabi 0 ageru. (The Firing ofFireworks), Popura-sha (Address: 160 Tokyo-to,Shinjuku-ku, Suga-cho 5), Tokyo, 1981, Y 980. 221pp., 20cm.

This was published primarily as a children's book. Thecontent is almost the same as the previous book by thisauthor (7), but this one is very easy for children andyoung people to read. It contains a photo of the effect ofa 90cm chrysanthemum shell.

(11) HARUTARO EOUCHI (1924- ). Hanabi monogatari.(The Story of Fireworks), Chunichi Shimbun-sha(Address: 460 Nagoya-shi, Nakaku Sannomaru1-6-1), Nagoya, 1982, Y 1400. 229 pp., 18cm.

This is a beautiful book for everyone. It has ten verybeautiful illustrations from color photographs. The contentsare as follows: the origins of fireworks in China (1127­1279); signal fires in Japan; rockets in the Sekigaharabattle (1600); the origin of muskets (1543); fire arrows;the production of potassium nitrate in Gokasan (the high­est production for one year was 4725 kg in 1736); theancestor of Mikawa Fireworks (Aichi-ken, 1600); fire­works for shooting (1817); fireworks festivals in Suzaka(Nagano-ken, 1818); Kagiya the fireworks maker in Edo(1655); the beginning of the annual Ryogoku fireworkscelebrations (1733); Tamaya the fireworks maker (1810);the exile of Tamaya from Edo because of his accidentalfire (1843); annual Ryogoku fireworks celebration (1733­1961; 1978- ); the development of fireworks from theexamination of style painting (Ukiyoes, 1740-1890); thebeginnings of fireworks for shooting (1830); the painters,Toyokuni, Hiroshige, Kunichika, etc.; modern fireworks(1867- ); modern fireworks: the review of fireworks byEmperor Meiji (1878), the introduction of European for­mulre, Yaeshin chrysanthemum for Gisaku Aoki, theintroduction of titanium metal (1967); the history of Mi­kawa Fireworks (Aichi-ken); fireworks on the water (gold­fish) in Okazaki, the highpoint of Mikawa Fireworks fromTaisho to Showa (1912- ), the manufacture of toy fire­works in Aichi-ken (80% of all of these items which aremade in Japan); fireworks festivals in mid-Japan: Gionfestival in Toyohashi (1560- ), Susanoo festival in Toyo­hashi with a line fire (120m); the large handspring foun­tain at the Suwa festival in Shizuoka-ken, Araimachi (25­26 July), frame fireworks (lancework) with sulfur andaluminum without powder in Shiga-ken, Shinoda, the firingof a 90cm shell at the festival in Nagaoka and Katakai,etc.; foreign fireworks; directions for contemplating fire­works; directions for arranging fireworks festivals; haikus(the Japanese 17 syllable poems) with fireworks themes;Appendix: fireworks festivals in mid-Japan; a chronologicaltable of fireworks.

This book will no doubt be read by many amateurs.In particular, it has many articles on fireworks in mid­Japan, which are not mentioned in other books. The author,H. Eguchi, is a department manager for the firm of Chu­nichi Shimbun-sha in Aichi-ken. He has 25 years of experi­ence in the arrangement of firework shows.

From the list given above, it can be seen that for along time we had almost no fireworks books published inJapan, but in a short time from 1976-1982, the above six

62

books have appeared. Perhaps these books will increasethe interest of people in fireworks. But the manufacturersin Japan are more excited about the publication of a fire­works handbook in Japanese. The commercial world inJapan always hinders this challenge.

TAKEO SHIMIZUKawagoe-shi, Japan

23 March 1983(Translated from the German by Alex Schuman, 1 June 1983)

Fireworks! Pyrotechnics on Display. By Norman D.Anderson and Walter R. Brown. 79 pp., crownquarto, ill. with photographs and prints. New York,1983: Dodd, Mead & Company. $9.95.This book is catalogued by the Library of Congress as

"juvenile literature" and is an introduction to fireworks forstudents in secondary schools. The authors both receivedtheir Ph.D.'s in science education at Ohio State Universityand "have been writing books together ever since their grad­uate student days."

Although the book's treatment of fireworks is verysuperficial, it may be of interest to the pyrotechnist becauseChapter 6, "How Fireworks Are Made and DisplaysStaged," features a visit to the Grucci family's fireworksplant at Bellport, Long Island, New York. There are fivephotographs of members of the Grucci family occupiedat various tasks (which previously appeared in a Gruccicatalogue). The late fireworks artist and manufacturerJimmy Grucci (1940-1983) can be seen in some of these- an emotional experience so close to the events of No­vember 1983.

Also of value to the pyrotechnist is a chapter on thephotography of fireworks (Chapter 8, "Photographing andEnjoying Fireworks Displays") and an appendix (pp.75-76), "Laws Governing the Sale and Use of Fireworks."This list was supplied by the American Pyrotechnics Asso­ciation in early 1982, yet even then reflects the trend inthe liberalization of Class C fireworks laws was well under­way. For example, Alabama is listed as a "Class C" state,and Indiana is listed as allowing "Class C fireworks ap­proved by state and local enforcing authorities." Both ofthese states previously banned most all Class C fireworks.Oregon, the most recent state to liberalize its law (effec­tive 1984) is still listed as allowing only sparklers and snakes.

Perhaps the most disturbing aspect of the book is thatour armchair authors lack any grasp of the pyrotechnicinnovations made in even the past 100 years, e.g.,

Fireworks have changed a great deal since theirinvention 1,000 or so years ago. They have be­come more powerful and in many ways moredangerous.

. . . The chemicals in sparklers burn at a tem­perature of about 1650° F. Because of this, theyare dangerous to use without close supervision.As you will read later, it was a sparkler thatcaused one of the worst fireworks disasters inthe United States.

What we actually read later is that a schoolboy foolishlylights a sparkler in the basement of Bjornstad's drugstorein Spencer, Iowa (June 1931), in a room full of fireworksfor sale, to see "whether the object was a punk or not."After most of Spencer, Iowa is burned to the ground fromthis idiotic and illegal act of arson, theft and juvenile de­linquency, we learn that the boy, "who was never blamed forhis part in the fire, grew up and became a captain in theAir Force during World War II." The General Assembly

PYROTECHNICA • IX

of Iowa acte.d on a bill to forbid the sale of fireworks inthe state, and "since that time, several other states haveused the Iowa law as a pattern for laws of their own."

Apart from Chapter 6, with its "stars," the Gruccifamily, and Chapter 8, on photography, I was unimpressedwith this book as a young reader's introduction to fire­works. Nowhere in the book is there an attempt to outlinecommon-sense procedures for the safe use of family-typefireworks. The authors evidently prefer to frighten withdire recountings of fireworks catastrophes (most of which,like the Spencer, Iowa event, were attributable to acts ofincredible folly, rather than to anything inherently unsafeor malfunctioning about the pyrotechnic product). It wouldseem almost negligent in a book specifically directed tojuvenile readers to omit these basic safety instructions.Moreover, there is very little of value to the youngster in­terested in the science of fireworks; surely some furtherinformation about the chemistry involved would have beenwell within the ability of a high school science student tounderstand.

When my son is a few years older, I shall plan to pre­sent him with a copy of Weingart instead of this book ashis "introduction."

ROBERT G. CARDWELL

Pyrotechnics in Industry. By Richard T. Barbour. viij,190 pp., medium octavo, cloth. New York, 1981:McGraw-Hill, Inc. $19.95.Richard T. Barbour is a pyrotechnics design engineer

with the Space Shuttle program. This is evident in pagingthrough the book - aerospace applications appear fre­quently. This is only fair, however, as Barbour explains inthe first chapter. The aerospace industry has spent hugesums of money on pyrotechnical research, and it is onlylogical that the commercial aspects of pyrotechnics bemainly aerospace-related. This book is similar to Brauer'sbook (Handbook of Pyrotechnics, by Karl O. Brauer, 1974,Chemical Publishing Co., New York), and in many casesmay be considered as a second volume. Some material isrepeated, but many new examples from the space shuttleare given.

The only mention of fireworks in this book occurs inthe preface: "It is the author's wish that this book will helpaccelerate public awareness and understanding of pyrotech­nics as a technology working for them every day ratherthan just entertaining them with midsummer fireworks spec­taculars." Barbour praises pyrotechnics, stressing their effi­ciency, reliability, instantaneous operation, and long termstorage capability. Pyrotechnics offer a high work potentialin a small volume with minimal weight. The author showsthe importance attached to pyrotechnics by comparing thenumber of pyrotechnic devices per mission in the Mercury(46 ), Gemini (139) and Apollo (more than 310) mis­sion. Reliability is verified by the fact that "no failure ofany pyrotechnic device was detected during any of theApollo missions."

Chapter 2 is concerned with pyrotechnic materials. Ashort history of black powder is given, along with the in­teresting fact that the Russians used black powder in theretro-rockets of their planetary surface probes sent to Mars.Here the terms explosion and detonation are defined anddifferentiated. A general classification of explosives is alsogiven.

Initiators, detonators and primers are the subject ofChapter 3. Blasting caps and like are discussed here. It ismentioned that mercury fulminate was discontinued in the

63

U.S. in 1930, because after three years at 35°F it would notdetonate. Lead azide took its place.

Various types of detonating cord are discussed in Chap­ter 4. Det cord is the quickmatch of aerospace pyrotech­nics. An example is given where det cord cuts a hatch inthe space shuttle orbiter, 14 inches from the heads of theastronauts. This is accompanied by a series of photographs.This presentation of a problem followed by its engineeredsolution occurs frequently throughout the book, and makesit very readable.

Chapter 5 contains the most lucid explanation of theMunroe effect (shaped charges) that this reviewer has seen.The variables in a shaped charge (liner density, standoffdistance) are discussed at length. Perforation of oil wellsand digging underwater trenches are two of the examplesof uses for shaped charges. Linear shaped charges andflexible versions are described in detail. These materialsresemble angle iron. The demolition of the Central FerryBridge across the Snake River in southeastern Washingtondemonstrates the utility of these devices. This bridge wasof steel girder construction, 1450 feet long, and weighedalmost 200 tons. A new bridge was erected within 50 feetof the old one, so engineers were justifiably worried whenoriginal estimates of 1800 pounds of TNT for the demo­lition were received. A new estimate, which was actuallyaccepted, used 24 pounds of linear shaped charges! Excel­lent photographic sequences of this demolition and anotherbridge demolition are presented. Jet-Axe for firemen andother aerospace uses for shaped charges are also given.

Chapter 6 covers cartridge-actuated devices. Amongthese are included frangible nuts, frangible bolts, etc. Muchof this is covered by Brauer, although the space shuttleexamples serve to keep your interest. Nail guns are goneover extensively, with graphs of holding power, etc. Pistontype devices, switches, valves, as well as specialized electricutility tools are described.

Chapter 7 is entitled "Specialized Pyrotechnic Devicesand Systems." Safe and Arm devices (with space shuttleexamples) are detailed. The pyrotechnic photoflash bulb(Magicube) is mentioned briefly. A crew escape systemfor a space shuttle sled test is detailed, accompanied by afascinating series of photographs. A rocket drives a sledalong a track - at 525 miles per hour, the system initiates:two, two panel hatches are cut in the fuselage and ejected.Next the pilot and seat are ejected via rocket. A droguechute is deployed to prevent tumbling. When the rockethas burned up and the time delay expired, the seat is cutloose. When the seat is clear, the pilot's chute is deployed.This pyrotechnical sequence is repeated for the other crewmember 0.5 second later. From initiation to landing is lessthan 15 seconds, a tribute to the system's precision. Fric­tion initiated devices (matches, fusees, hot patches forinner tubes) are briefly discussed in this chapter. Air bagsfor automobiles are discussed at length. The oxygen gener­ators in airplanes (the little orange mask that drops out ofthe ceiling) are mentioned. Did you know that they arebased on the reaction of iron with sodium chlorate?

Chapter 8 deals with quality assurance and quality con­trol. Testing procedures and specifications are enumeratedin detail. From this one can better appreciate the cost ofthe space program. Statistical procedures as well as physicaltests are described.

This book is very readable and informative. Althoughit does not concern itself with fireworks, it is well worthhaving on your shelf, alongside of Brauer - especiallyif one is interested in the space shuttle.

ALEX SCHUMAN

CLASSIFIED ADVERTISINGClassified Advertising returns to PYROTECHNICA for one finalrun, by popular demand. However, this is (EMPHATICALLY) thelast time! We still hope to offer display advertising in future

For SaleFOR SALE: State licensed (legal) fireworks factory in north­east Ohio. Small shop suitable for 1 or 2 people. Includes1 work building, 16' x 24'; 1 storage building; small maga­zine; 12' x 16' magazine under construction; 44 acres withall mineral rights, including oil and gas rights; fronts ongood road. One stainless steel trailer (40') available. Prop­erty includes large lake. Reply to:

JERRY G. TAYLOR1830 Parkway Blvd.Alliance, OH 44601

MEGA'S GREEN NOTES PUBLICATION IS ONLYAVAILABLE to those on our customer mailing list - trialissues available to new customers. Subscription rate only$2/year, including latest lists. "An independent voice inpyrotechnics."

SOME OF OUR REGULAR PRICES INCLUDE:P-50 Potassium Perchlorate, most minus

200-mesh $48.00/20 Ibs.M-85 MEGA BOND TERRIFIC ADHESIVE

for many uses. Trial size $3.50/1 lb.A-75 REALGAR/ORPIMENT, minus-40 mesh

powder. While it lasts $6.7511 lb.XP-15 Yellow spiral wound tube, 1" bore,

2lh"L, 0.1" wall $14.751250ct.Note: All orders must be on MTS order form, availableby wtiting us. Sales to 18 or older.

MEGATECH SUPPLIES (MTS)P.O. Box 453

Myrtle Beach, S.C. 29578·0453

FIREWORKS supplies, DISCOUNT LOW! LOW! prices.Rockets, reports, candle tubes, and plugs, aerial shells andcasings, mortars, tooling for all, much more.SAMPLE KIT $3.98 or SASE for price list.

NORMICO INDUSTRIES1025 Jefferson St., Suite 100

SANTA CLARA, CA 95050

E. D. CHEMCOE. L. MOORE64 Cottonwood Lane

WESTBURY, NY 11590Are we your house of Pyrotechnic Supplies??? All thechemicals we stock have been selected for excellence inquality and manufactured by major companies.We maintain our prices at a low figure for your savings.PLUS DISCOUNTS!! Most chemicals packaged in shelfstoring, first class plastic containers.Literature and other supplies available. Our many yearsin the supply business speaks for itself. 45 years in Pyro­technics. Try us, you will like us. 20¢ stamp brings our list.

KOSANKE SERVICES, INC.3331 DS Road

WHITEWATER, CO 81527(303) 246-0692, Evenings

Our 1983 Chemical and Paper Products Catalog is avail­able to Pyrotechnics Guild International members, estab­lished customers, and any BATF licensed user or manu­facturer. Please send a SASE to the above address to receiveyour FREE catalog.

64

issues, per column inch up to one page, assuming there is somedemand. The publisher appreciates Editor Ken Kosanke's offerto spearhead the display advertising campaign.

Japanese Round Shell Casings - Write for prices andinformation.

DAN HYMANBox 367

MADERA, CA 93637

TRIPLE G PAPER TUBE SUPPLYOffering an extensive line of spiral and convolute tubes,plastics, end caps, discs, fuses, and supplies. Free catalog- send two (2) 20¢ stamps please. Quality materialsfast service! Box 525, Lawton, OK 73502.

AMERICAN FIREWORKS NEWSNow combining the best of American Pyrotechnist andFireworks News. Club News - PGIl News - Big Bruce- Safety Fax - Collector's Corner - How To Do It~ Art by Nitro - Trade and Hobby News. Issued 11times annually. $12.00 per year domestic; $20.00 foreign.Subscriptions run July through June.

Jack Drewes, American Fireworks News,Star Route, Box 30, Dingmans Ferry, PA 18328

Miscellaneous AnnouncementsWhat will eventually happen to your collection of rarepyrobooks? Pyro-ephemera? Other historic pyro-memora­bilia? That unique manuscript you wrote during theheyday of your pyrotechnic career - but which you nevergot around to publishing? I think I have a solution whichcan save these priceless treasures for posterity. If you areinterested in my proposal for a PERMANENT pyrotech­nic library, please write me.

RAY H. ANDERSON8 Lee Road

BARRINGTON, RI 02806

8 MM Movie of 1983 Assumption Festa in Hal-Mqabba,Malta has been received from Director1Producer AnthonyMicallef. Three reels long with sound track and runningapprox. 68 minutes and made with permission of the KingGeorge V Band Club of Mqabba. I have received per­mission from Mr. Micallef and the Band Club to offervideotapes of this film at a reasonable price to interestedparties. The Band Club, Mr. Micallef and PyrotechnicaPublications wish to thank Ken Clark, Don Rowe, ArtRozzi, Tom Schroeder, Mike Swisher, Joe Barkley, BillWithrow and "Anonymous" for aid in underwriting thisproject and making it possible. Funds remaining afterI meet the costs on making copies of the film will go toMr. Micallef and the Band Club to finance next year'sfilm. Serious parties may enquire at the address below:

PYROTECHNICA PUBLICATIONSDept. MFP

2302 Tower DriveAUSTIN, TX 78703

COMING IN PYROTECHNICA. X

Dr. Takeo Shimizu's Studies on Microstars

Dr. A. A. Shidlovskii on the history of Russian pyrotechny

Jerry G. Taylor on determining height of shell explosion

... and MORE.

CURRENTLY AVAILABLEFROM PYROTECHNICA PUBLICATIONS

It is with some sadness that we see the earlier issues of Pyrotechnica becomecollector's items because they are out-of-print. Because of continuing demand forback issues, the supply of some earlier numbers has been exhausted. Until we re­vise and reprint these particular numbers, issues which are asterisked (*) are cur­rently available only as photocopies.

We have been forced to raise prices on some back issues to adjust for in­creased costs of production, postage, etc. Because of the highly specializedsubject matter and the correspondingly small press runs, Pyrotechnica cannotbenefit from "economies of scale" like other magazines with larger circulations.

Prices are postpaid in the U.S.A. and Canada. We must reluctantly requestthat overseas customers desiring airmail shipment add 30% to the total amountbeing remitted for back issues.

Pyrotechnica Back IssuesNo. 1* (October 1977). Articles on cut star

making, zinc stars, the use of lead diox­ide in pyrotechny, flash powders, Reac­tions. 20 pp., $2.00

No. 11* (February 1978). Full text of Dr. R. M.Winokur's "The Pyrotechnic Phenomenonof Glitter." vi + 46 pp. + 4 plL, $7.00

No. 111* (May 1978). Articles on electricspreader stars, mixing pyrotechnic in­gredients in a ball mill, chemical ab­stracts, book review, flash powder, Re­actions. 26 pp., $4.00

No. IV* (October 1978). Review of Dr. Shimi­zu's Feuerwerk, use of lead nitrate inpyrotechny, ammonium perchlorate redstars, titanium sparklers, designing the"ideal" firecracker, chemical abstracts,Reactions. 30 pp., $7.00

No. V* (October 1979). Strobe light pyrotech­nic compositions, book reviews, biogra­phy of James Cutbush, making a rocketwheel, aluminum flash powders, Reac­tions. 44 pp., $7.00

No. VI (July 1980). Full text of Dr. T. Shimizu's"Studies on Blue and Purple Flame Com­positions Made with Potassium Perchlor­ate," R. Winokur's "Purple Fire," Reac­tions, Pyrographs. 32 pp., $7.00

No. VII (May 1981). Part I of Dr. K. Kosanke's"The Physics, Chemistry and Perceptionof Colored Flames," Troy Fish's "Greenand Other Colored Flame Metal Fuel Com­positions Using Parlon," Maltese pyrotech­ny, book reviews, Reactions. 44 pp., $14.00

No. VIII (June 1982). Dr. Shimizu's "Studieson Strobe Light Pyrotechnic Composi­tions," how to read triangle diagrams,book reviews, Reactions. 44 pp., $15.00

Other PublicationsFireworks from a Physical Standpoint, Part I

by Dr. Takeo Shimizu. Translated from theGerman Feuerwerk von physikalischemStandpunkt aus (1976) by Alex Schuman.1981, 29cm, front. + vi + 67 pp., $15.00postpaid in U.S.A. and Canada. ContainsChapters 1~6 of original German edition.

Fireworks from a Physical Standpoint, Part IIby Dr. Takeo Shimizu. Translated from theGerman Feuerwerk von physikalischemStandpunkt aus by Alex Schuman. 1983,29cm, 73 pp., $17.00 postpaid in U.S.A.and Canada. Contains Chapters 7-10 oforiginal German edition.

Make checks, money orders and bank drafts payable to:

Robert G. Cardwell, 2302 Tower Drive, Austin, Texas 78703 U.S.A.