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Reservoir Engineering 1 Course (2nd Ed.)
1. Crude Oil Properties: A. Density (gamma)
B. Solution gas (Rs)
C. Bubble-point pressure (Pb)
D. Formation volume factor (Bo)
E. Isothermal compressibility coefficient (Co)
F. Total formation volume factor (Bt)
G. Viscosity (mu)
H. Surface Tension (sigma)
2. Water Properties
1. Laboratory Analysis
2. Laboratory Experiments
3. Rock Properties:A. Porosity
B. Saturation
C. Wettability
D. Capillary Pressure
E. Transition Zone
Laboratory Analysis of Reservoir Fluids
Accurate laboratory studies of PVT and phase-equilibria behavior of reservoir fluids are necessary for characterizing these fluids and evaluating their volumetric performance at various pressure levels.
There are many laboratory analyses that can be made on a reservoir fluid sample. The amount of data desired determines the number of
tests performed in the laboratory.
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Types of Laboratory Tests
In general, there are three types of laboratory tests used to measure hydrocarbon reservoir samples:1. Primary tests (simple, routine field (on-site) tests)
The measurements of the specific gravity and
The gas-oil ratio of the produced hydrocarbon fluids.
2. Routine laboratory tests
3. Special laboratory PVT tests
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Routine Laboratory Tests
2. Routine laboratory tests (laboratory tests that are routinely conducted to characterize the reservoir hydrocarbon fluid)Compositional analysis of the system
Constant-composition expansion
Differential liberation
Separator tests
Constant-volume depletion
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Special Laboratory Tests
3. Special laboratory PVT tests (performed for very specific applications. If a reservoir is to be depleted under miscible gas injection or a gas cycling scheme)Slim-tube test
Swelling test
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Composition of the Reservoir Fluid
It is desirable to obtain a fluid sample as early in the life of a field as possible so that the sample will closely approximate the original reservoir fluid. Collection of a fluid sample early in the life of a field
reduces the chances of free gas existing in the oil zone of the reservoir.
Most of the parameters measured in a reservoir fluid study can be calculated with some degree of accuracy from the composition.
It is the most complete description of reservoir fluid that can be made.
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Heavy Components
In the past, reservoir fluid compositions were usually measured to include separation of the component methane through hexane, with the heptanes and heavier components grouped as a single component reported with the average molecular weight and density. With the development of more sophisticated
equations-of-state to calculate fluid properties, it was learned that a more complete description of the heavy components was necessary. It is recommended that compositional analyses of the
reservoir fluid should include a separation of components through C10 as a minimum.
The more sophisticated research laboratories now use equations-of-state that require compositions through C30 or higher.
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Constant-Composition Expansion Tests
Constant-composition expansion experiments are performed on gas condensates or crude oil to simulate the pressure-volume relations of these hydrocarbon systems. The test is conducted for the purposes of determining: Saturation pressure (bubble-point or dew-point
pressure)
Isothermal compressibility coefficients of the single-phase fluid in excess of saturation pressure
Compressibility factors of the gas phase
Total hydrocarbon volume as a function of pressure
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Differential Liberation (Vaporization) TestIn the differential liberation process, the solution gas
that is liberated from an oil sample during a decline in pressure is continuously removed from contact with the oil, and before establishing equilibrium with the liquid phase. This type of liberation is characterized by a varying
composition of the total hydrocarbon system. The experimental data obtained from the test include:Amount of gas in solution as a function of pressure The shrinkage in the oil volume as a function of pressure Properties of the evolved gas including the composition of the
liberated gas, the gas compressibility factor, and the gas specific gravity
Density of the remaining oil as a function of pressure
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Separator Tests
Separator tests are conducted to determine the changes in the volumetric behavior of the reservoir fluid as the fluid passes through the separator (or separators) and then into the stock tank. The resulting volumetric behavior is influenced to a large
extent by the operating conditions, i.e., pressures and temperatures, of the surface separation facilities.
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Objectives of Separator Tests
The primary objective of conducting separator tests, therefore, is to provide the essential laboratory information necessary for determining the optimum surface separation conditions, which in turn will maximize the stock-tank oil production.
In addition, the results of the test, when appropriately combined with the differential liberation test data, provide a means of obtaining the PVT parameters (Bo, Rs, and Bt) required for petroleum engineering calculations. These separator tests are performed only on the original oil at the bubble point.
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Extrapolation of Reservoir Fluid Data
In partially depleted reservoirs or in fields that originally existed at the bubble-point pressure, it is difficult to obtain a fluid sample, which usually represents the original oil in the reservoir at the time of discovery.
Also, in collecting fluid samples from oil wells, the possibility exists of obtaining samples with a saturation pressure that might be lower than or higher than the actual saturation pressure of the reservoir.
In these cases, it is necessary to correct or adjust the laboratory PVT measured data to reflect the actual saturation pressure.
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Laboratory Analysis of Gas Condensate SystemsIn the laboratory, a standard analysis of a gas-
condensate sample consists of:Recombination and analysis of separator samples
Measuring the pressure-volume relationship, i.e., constant-composition expansion test
Constant-volume depletion test (CVD)
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Constant-Volume Depletion ExperimentConstant-volume depletion (CVD) experiments are
performed on Gas condensates and
Volatile oils
To simulate reservoir depletion performance and compositional variation.
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Rock Physical Properties
The material of which a petroleum reservoir rock may be composed can range from very loose and unconsolidated sand to a very hard and dense sandstone, limestone, or dolomite.
Knowledge of the physical properties of the rock and the existing interaction between the hydrocarbon system and the formation is essential in understanding and evaluating the performance of a given reservoir.
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Rock Properties Determination
Rock properties are determined by performing laboratory analyses on cores from the reservoir to be evaluated.
There are basically two main categories of core analysis tests that are performed on core samples regarding physical properties of reservoir rocks.
The rock property data are essential for reservoir engineering calculations as they directly affect both the quantity and the distribution of hydrocarbons and, when combined with fluid properties, control the flow of the existing phases (i.e., gas, oil, and water) within the reservoir.
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Core Analysis Tests
These are:Routine core analysis tests:
Porosity, Permeability, Saturation
Special tests:Overburden pressure, Capillary pressure, Relative permeability,
Wettability, Surface and interfacial tension
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Porosity Definition
The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage capacity (pore volume) that is capable of holding fluids.
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were being formed during past geological times, some void spaces that developed became isolated from the other void spaces by excessive cementation. This leads to two distinct types of porosity, namely:Absolute porosity, Effective porosity
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Absolute Porosity
The absolute porosity is defined as the ratio of the total pore space in the rock to that of the bulk volume. A rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for lack of pore interconnection.
Determination method?
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Effective Porosity
The effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected pore space with respect to the bulk volume, or
Where φ = effective porosity
The effective porosity is the value that is used in all reservoir-engineering calculations because it represents the interconnected pore space that contains the recoverable hydrocarbon fluids.
Determination method?
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Application of the Effective Porosity
One important application of the effective porosity is its use in determining the original hydrocarbon volume in place.
Consider a reservoir with an areal extent of A acres and an average thickness of h feet.
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Saturation Definition
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water).
Also for Sg and Sw
All saturation values are based on pore volume and not on the gross reservoir volume. The saturation of each individual phase ranges between zero to 100%. By definition, the sum of the saturations is 100%, therefore
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Connate (Interstitial) Water Saturation SwcThe fluids in most reservoirs are believed to have
reached a state of equilibrium and, therefore, will have become separated according to their density, i.e., oil overlain by gas and underlain by water.
In addition to the bottom (or edge) water, there will be connate water distributed throughout the oil and gas zones. The water in these zones will have been reduced to some irreducible minimum. The forces retaining the water in the oil and gas zones
are referred to as capillary forces because they are important only in pore spaces of capillary size.
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Critical Gas and Water Saturation
Critical gas saturation, SgcAs the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-
point pressure, gas evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins to move.
Critical water saturation, SwcThe critical water saturation, connate water saturation,
and irreducible water saturation are extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water phase will remain immobile.
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Critical and Movable Oil Saturation
Critical oil saturation, SocFor the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must
exceed a certain value, which is termed critical oil saturation.
Movable oil saturation, SomMovable oil saturation Som is defined as the fraction of
pore volume occupied by movable oil as expressed by the following equation:
Som = 1 − Swc – Soc
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Residual Oil Saturation, Sor
During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas injection (or encroachment), there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor. The term residual saturation is usually associated with
the nonwetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase.
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Average Saturation
Proper averaging of saturation data requires that the saturation values be weighted by both the interval thickness hi and interval porosity φ.
Also for Sw and Sg
Where the subscript i refers to any individual measurement and hi represents the depth interval to which φi, Soi, Sgi, and Swi apply.
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Illustration of Wettability
Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids.
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Contact Angle
The tendency of a liquid to spread over the surface of a solid is an indication of the wetting characteristics of the liquid for the solid. This spreading tendency can be expressed more
conveniently by measuring the angle of contact at the liquid-solid surface.
This angle, which is always measured through the liquid to the solid, is called the contact angle θ.
The contact angle θ has achieved significance as a measure of wettability.
Complete wettability: 0°, complete nonwetting: 180° and intermediate wettability contact angles of 60° to 90°
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Illustration of Surface Tension
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Pressure Relations in Capillary Tubes
If a glass capillary tube is placed in a large open vessel containing water, the combination of surface tension and wettability of tube to water will cause water to rise in the tube above the water level in the container outside the tube as shown in Figure.
The water will rise in the tube until the total force acting to pull the liquid upward is balanced by the weight of the column of liquid being supported in the tube.
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Surface Tension Calculation
Assuming the radius of the capillary tube is r, the total upward force Fup, which holds the liquid up, is equal to the force per unit length of surface times the total length of surface, or (Fup = (2πr) (σgw) (cos θ))
The upward force is counteracted by the weight of the water, which is equivalent to a downward force of mass times acceleration, or (Fdown = πr2 h (ρw − ρair) g, neglecting ρair yields Fdown = π r2 ρwg) so
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Capillary Forces
The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock and fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting characteristics of the system.
When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a discontinuity in pressure exists between the two fluids, which depends upon the curvature of the interface separating the fluids. We call this pressure difference the capillary pressure and it is referred to by pc. pc = pnw − pw
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Capillary Pressure Equipment
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Capillary Pressure Curve
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Variation of Capillary Pressure with Permeability
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Capillary Hysteresis
Drainage process:The process of displacing the wetting phase, i.e., water,
with the nonwetting phase (such as with gas or oil).
Imbibition process:Reversing the drainage process by displacing the
nonwetting phase (such as with oil) with the wetting phase, (e.g., water).
Capillary hysteresis:The process of saturating and desaturating a core with
the nonwetting phase
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Capillary Pressure Hysteresis
This difference in the saturating and desaturating of the capillary-pressure curves is closely related to the fact that the advancing and receding contact angles of fluid interfaces on solids are different.
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Wettability of Reservoir Rock
Frequently, in natural crude oil-brine systems, the contact angle or wettability may change with time. Thus, if a rock sample that has been thoroughly cleaned
with volatile solvents is exposed to crude oil for a period of time, it will behave as though it were oil wet.
But if it is exposed to brine after cleaning, it will appear water wet.
At the present time, one of the greatest unsolved problems in the petroleum industry is that of wettability of reservoir rock.
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Initial Saturation Distribution in a ReservoirAn important application of the concept of capillary
pressures pertains to the fluid distribution in a reservoir prior to its exploitation. The capillary pressure-saturation data can be converted
into height-saturation data by:
(h= the height above the freewater level, Δρ = density difference between the wetting and nonwetting phase)
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Water Saturation Profile
Figure shows a plot of the water saturation distribution as a function of distance from the free-water level in an oil-water system.
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Important Levels in Reservoirs
Transition zone: the vertical thickness over which the water saturation
ranges from 100% saturation to Swc (effects of capillary forces)
Water-oil contact (WOC): uppermost depth in the reservoir where a 100% water
saturation exists
Gas-oil contact (GOC): minimum depth at which a 100% liquid, i.e., oil + water,
saturation exists in the reservoir
Free water level (FWL)
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An Idealized Gas, Oil, and Water Distribution in a ReservoirInitial
saturation profile in a combination-drive reservoir
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Saturation Profile vs. Pore-Size DistributionSection A shows a
schematic illustration of a core that is represented by five different pore sizes and completely saturated with water, i.e., wetting phase. We subject the core to oil
(the nonwetting phase) with increasing pressure until some water is displaced from the core, i.e., displacement pressure Pd.
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Free Water Level
There is a difference between the free water level (FWL) and the depth at which 100% water saturation exists. From a reservoir-engineering standpoint, the free water
level is defined by zero capillary pressure.
Obviously, if the largest pore is so large that there is no capillary rise in this size pore, then the free water level and 100% water saturation level, i.e., WOC, will be the same.
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Variation of Transition Zone with Fluid Gravity (API for Oil)The thickness of the
transition zone may range from few feet to several hundred feet in some reservoirs. Height above FWL:
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Variation of Transition Zone with Permeability
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1. Ahmed, T. (2010). Reservoir engineering handbook (Gulf Professional Publishing). Chapter 3 and 4
1. Darcy Law: Linear Flow Model
2. Permeability Measurements
3. Darcy Law: Radial Flow Model
4. Permeability-Averaging Techniques
5. Effective Permeabilities
6. Rock Compressibility
7. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reservoirs
8. Two-Phase Permeability
9. Reservoir Characteristics