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UNIT II

ENGINEERING AS SOCIAL EXPERIMENTATION

Engineering as Experimentation Engineers as responsible Experimenters –

Research Ethics Codes of Ethics Industrial Standards A Balanced Outlook on Law The Challenger Case Study

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ENGINEERING AS EXPERIMENTATION Experimentation (Preliminary tests or Simulations) plays a important role in the design ofa product or process. Experimentation refers the activity, process or practice of making experiments In all stages of converting a new engineering concept into a design like, First rough cut design, Usage of different types of materials and processes, Detailed design, Further stages of work design and The finished product, Experiments and tests are conducted to evaluate the product. Modifications are madebased on the outcome of these experiments.

SIMILARITIES TO STANDARD EXPERIMENTS 1. Like science exp, engg experiments are carried outin particular uncertainties

Any engineering project or plan is put into practicewith partial ignorance because while designing a modelthere are several uncertainties occurred.Reason: Engineers don’t have all the needed factsavailable well in advance2. The final outcomes of engineering projects aregenerally uncertain like that of experiments what wedo3. Similar to standard experiments, engg experimentsrequires thorough knowledge about the products at thepre-production and post-production stages Learn

from past

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Experimental Control Members for two groups should be selected in a standard

experimental control ie.,Group A and Group B. The members of the group ‘A’ should be given the

special experimental treatment. The group ‘B’ do not receive the same though they are in the

same environment. This group is called the ‘control group’ Though it is not possible in engineering but for the projects

which are confirmed to laboratory experiments. Because, in engineering the experimental subjects are human

beings who are out of the control of the experimenter So An engineer has to work only with the past data available

with various groups who use the products.

DISIMILARITIES TO STANDARD EXPERIMENTS

Informed Consent When new medicines have been tested, it should be

informed to the persons who undergo the test. They have moral and legal rights to know about the fact which

is based on “informed consent” before take part in the experiment. Engineering must also recognize these rights.

Informed consent has two main principles such as knowledge and voluntariness

Knowledge: The persons who are put under theexperiment has to be given all the needed information tomake an appropriate decision

Voluntariness: they must enter into the experiment withoutany force, fraud and deception

DISIMILARITIES TO STANDARD EXPERIMENTS

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Valid informed consent The consent must be given voluntarily and not by any

force. The consent must be based on the relevant information

needed by a rational person and should be presented ina clear and easily understandable form.

The consenter must be capable of processing theinformation and to make rational decisions in a quickmanner.

The information needed by a rational person must bestated in a form to understand without any difficulty andhas to be spread widely.

The experimenter’s consent has to be offered inabsentia of the experimenter by a group whichrepresents many experiments.

Knowledge Gain: Scientific experiments have been conducted to acquire

new knowledge. Whereas engineering projects are conducted as experiments not for getting new knowledge

Suppose the outcomes of the experiment is best, it tells us nothing new.

Mean while, the unexpected outcomes put us search for new knowledge.

DISIMILARITIES TO STANDARD EXPERIMENTS

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Responsible engineers in social experimentation The engineers have so many responsibilities for serving society Conscientiousness: A primary obligation to protect the safety of human subjects andrespect their right of consent. Relevant information: A constant awareness of the experimental nature of anyproject, imaginative forecasting of its possible side effects and a reasonable effort tomonitor them. Moral autonomy: Autonomous, personal involvement in all steps of the project. Accountability: Accepting accountability for the results of the project.

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (sense of awareness) Conscientious means showing that one cares about the doing things well and

thoroughly It means commitment to live according to certain values Engineers have to be sensitive to range of moral values and responsibilities Willingness to develop the skill and expend the effort needed to reach the best

balance possible among various considerations. Conscientiousness means consciousness because mere intent is not sufficient.

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RELEVANT INFORMATION: Conscientiousness is impossible without

relevant factual information. Engineers have to show the commitment to

obtain and properly gauge all the informationrelated to meeting one’s moral obligations.

Moral concern involves a commitment toobtain and assess all available pertinentinformation.

Accountablility Means being responsible, liable, answerable or obligated. Morally responsible peoples are expected to accept morally

responsibility for their actions According to standley milgram, people are not willing to

accept personal accountability when placed under authority

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CODES OF ETHICS Engineering Codes of Ethics have evolved over time Codes of ethics are propagated by various professional societies These codes of conduct are guidelines for specific group ofprofessionals to help them to perform their roleWhat are codes of ethics: it is also referred as codes of conduct. It express the commitment to the ethical conduct shared bymembers of a profession. It also define the roles and responsibilities of professions This is used to help the professionals to apply moral & ethicalprinciples to the specific situations encountered in professionalpractice The codes are based on 5canons- principles of ethics-integrity,competence, individual responsibilities , professional responsibilitiesand human concerns It is also noticed that ethical codes do not establish new ethicalprinciples

Positive Roles of codes of ethics1. Inspiration

It provides +ve inspiration for the professional toexercises their duties effectively

2. Guidance It provide the guidelines for achieving the duties of

professionals3. Support for Responsible Conduct

It offers +ve and potential support to engineers toperform their duties in ethical manner

4. Deterring and disciplining professional conduct These codes can be used to discouraging &

punishing unethical professional conduct

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Positive Roles of codes of ethics5. Education and promotion of mutual

understanding The ethical codes can be used in educational

institutions and other places for highlighting theimportance of moral issues and values

6. Contributing to positive image of the profession It discuss a positive image to the public of an

ethically committed professions7. Protecting the status quo(current situations)

and destroying disagreement within theprofession

8. Promoting business interests through limit oftrade

Some of engineering societies ASME- American society of Mechanical Engineers IE- The Institution of Engineers NSPE- National Society of professional Engineers IEEE- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

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Limitations of Codes of ethics1. Codes are restricted to general and vaguewording. They cannot be straightaway applied to allsituations.

2. It have internal conflicts, which may result inmorel dilemma3. The codes cant serve as the moral authorityfor professional conduct4. The circulation of codes of ethics for differentbranches of engineering gives a feeling thatethical codes are relative

Balanced Outlook of Law•A balanced outlook of laws emphasizes thenecessity of laws and regulations and theirlimitations in governing engineering practice•What is Law?

• It is a body of rules of action prescribed by controlling legalauthority and having binding legal force

• In general laws means all the rules established by authority orcustom for regulating the behavior of members of acommunity or country

•Relationship between Laws and ethics:• Ethics- what is ought to do, what is not• Law – standard behavior required for individual• 1969- Santa Barbara (offshore Spril)- 235000 gallon

crude oil• 1758- babylons Building Code• 1852 US Streamboat Code• Baby Cribs

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Balanced Outlook of Law Laws with respect to social implementation

Laws are necessary because People are not fully responsible The companies are not encouraged to have moral

initiative due to competition Engineers are expected to play vital role in

framing implementing and propagating the rules of engineering. Strictly follow rules

Laws lag in technological development Industries feel that laws are imposing

excessive restrictions on engineering applications

Industrial Standards Standardization primarily means setting up standards by which

level, quality, quantity, value performance or service may be evaluated

Simply, It is the process of defining and applying conditions required to ensure that a given range of requirements can be easily met with minimum changes in an economical and reproducible manner by the latest technique.

What are standards? They are formed by companies for their in-house use and by

professional associations and trade associations for industry-wide use. Some times standards are parts of laws and official regulations

• The financial industry has given us countless scandals and front-page news stories about

financial professionals who have defrauded investors, employers and their peers.• There is no doubt that greed is a powerful emotion, but sometimes unethical behavior

boils down to a lack of education on basic principles of financial standards

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Standards Facilitate Interchangeability Accuracy in measurement Ease of handling Prevention of harms Decreased production costs Quality products

Types of standards

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Benefits of standards It helps manufacturers, clients and public It maintain a steady and balanced competition among

industries It ensure a measure of quality

Negative aspects of standards Reduce choice for customers It reduce initiative and interests of workers

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Problems with law in engineering Minimal compliance Technological development Many laws are ‘nolaws’ (without enforceable sanctions) Influential powerful persons violate the laws

The Challenger DisasterA Case-study in Engineering Ethics

Shuttle Components Orbiter Liquid Rocket

Booster Solid Rocket Booster

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Shuttle Components

Chronology of the Related Events

1974 NASA contracts Morton Thiokol

1976 NASA accepts the design based on the Titan

missiles The joints are sealed by

Two synthetic rubber O-rings, 177 clevis pins, Heat shield putty

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The Cause of the Disaster

Early Problems 1977

Tests at Thiokol show O-ring leakage Joint is made stronger by changing sizes

1981 Post-launch investigation showed O-ring erosion due to hot gages.

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Early Problems January of 1985 launch

First cold-weather launch Post-launch investigation showed joint failure Tests showed O-rings inability to fill the gap due to joint rotation at

lower temperatures

Early Problems July 1985

Thiokol redesigns the joints w/o O-rings – The design was not ready for Challenger launch

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Political Climate Congress is unhappy with NASA

Competition with Russians to be the first to observe Halley’s comet.

Pressure to launch before President Reagan’s State of the Union Address

Days before Launch First launch attempt postponed

The next launch date was set and was to be attended by Vice President Bush.

The temperature at launch: 29 degrees F.

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Days Before Launch NASA starts an investigation of the effect of low temperatures

on the O-ring seals Organization involved

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center Morton Thiokol

Engineering Investigation Before Launch Players at NASA

Larry Mulloy: SRB Project Manager at Marshall Players at Thiokol

Roger Boisjoly: A SRB engineer Arnie Johnson: A SRB engineer Joe Kilminster: SRB engineering manager Alan McDonald: SRB engineering director Bob Lund: Vice president for engineering Jerald Mason: General manager

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Engineering Investigation Before Launch Boisjoly and Johnson recommend the launch to be

postponed.

Bob Lund, the VP for engineering agrees and makes a similar recommendation.

Investigation Before Launch

Larry Mulloy, the NASA manager of SRB asks Joe Kilminister, the SRB manager at Thiokol, for his opinion.

Kilminister agrees with other Thiokol engineers and recommends a launch delay.

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Investigation Before Launch After discussion with Mason Lund reverses his decision regarding launch! Thiokol recommend the launch to proceed

The Launch in January 1986 The overnight temperatures drop to 8 F The temperature of SRB at launch is 28 F

There is an immediate blow-by of hot gas at launch. The seal fails quickly over an arc of 70 degrees.

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The Launch in January 1986 The by-products of combustion forms a glassy oxide that

reseals the joint. The brittle oxide is shattered Hot gases quickly burn through the liquid rocket booster

The Aftermath Causes of the accident are attributed to

Inability of the O-rings to expand and seal at low temperatures. Heat shield putty did not perform at low temperatures Fits and seating of the O-ring was affected by low temperature.

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The Aftermath After all the testimonials

Biosjoly is taken off the project and subtly harassed by Thiokol management.