qnt 575 2009. overview introductions admin syllabus review material learning teams next assignment
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QNT 575
2009
Overview
Introductions Admin Syllabus Review material Learning teams Next assignment
Introductions
Where do you work? Your degree? Reason for an MBA? Anything else interesting…..
Syllabus
Want a different approach?
Policies
Laptops Breaks? Food Contacting Me Etiquette Individual/group assignment ROE End of class cleanup
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 6
Why do we do educational research? Helps educators understand educational processes;
make professional decisions Provides information to policy groups to assist them
with mandated changes in education Serves the information needs of concerned public,
professional, and private organizations Reviews and interprets accumulated empirical
evidence Is readily available Includes educators in the field in research projects
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 7
More importantly, why is it important for you to learn how to read, evaluate, and design research?
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 8
Principles of Scientific Evidence-Based Inquiry Adapted from National Research Council Definition—evidenced-based inquiry is the
search for knowledge using systematically gathered empirical data
Principle 1: pose significant questions that can be investigated empirically
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 9
Principles of Scientific Evidence-Based Inquiry Principle 2: link research to relevant theory or
conceptual framework Principle 3: use methods that allow direct
investigation of the research question Principle 4: provide a coherent and explicit
chain of reasoning
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 10
Principles of Scientific Evidence-Based Inquiry Principle 5: replicate/generalize or extend
across studies Principle 6: disclose research to encourage
professional scrutiny and critique
Research Disciplines
Education Sociology Psychology Policy History Biography Management Practice based
Pedagogy Linguistics etc
Classifying research
Typesexploratory, descriptive,explanatory, predictive
Usepure, applied, evaluative,action/practitioner
Classifyingprimary vs. secondarytheoretical vs. empiricalquantitative vs. qualitative (vs. mixed methods)inductive vs. deduction
Types of research
exploratory generate new ideas, concepts, or hypotheses
little or no prior knowledge looks for clues or basic facts, settings, and concerns creates a general picture of conditions formulate and focus questions for future research
Types of research
descriptive provides a detailed, highly accurate picture create a set of categories or classify types report on the background or context of a situation little attempt to explain the results
Types of research
explanatory explains why something happens look for casual relationships between concepts elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation or
extend a theory to new issues or topics support or refute an explanation or prediction determine which of several explanations is best
predictive forecasts future phenomena, based on findings
suggested by explanatory research
Use of research
pure, basic, or academic research adds to the body of knowledge contributes to theory focus on issues of importance to researchers
applied research focus on issues of importance to society helps to understand the nature and sources of
human problems used to make practical decisions
Use of research
summative evaluation determines the effectiveness of an interventions focus on the goals of the intervention
formative evaluation improving an intervention focus on providing recommendations or changes
Use of research
action research
solves problems in a program, organisation or community
focus on empowering participants to solve issues themselves
Classifying research
primary involves the collection and analysis of original
data
secondary find existing data and (re)analyse
census data participation surveys
Classifying research
theoretical generation of new ideas through analysing
existing theory and explanations.
empirical generation of new ideas through the collection
and analysis of data
Deductive
hypothesishypothesis
theorytheory
test hypothesistest hypothesis
accept/reject theoryaccept/reject theory
Inductive
identify patternsidentify patternsidentify patternsidentify patterns
observationsobservationsobservationsobservations
generalisationsgeneralisationsgeneralisationsgeneralisations
theorytheorytheorytheory
The Research ProcessIdentifytopicIdentifytopic
Reviewtheliterature
Reviewtheliterature
Identifyconcepts&theory
Identifyconcepts&theory
Clarifyresearchproblem
Clarifyresearchproblem
ResearchdesignResearchdesign
Collectionofdata
Collectionofdata
AnalysedataAnalysedata
DrawconclusionDrawconclusion
24
Research Process (M & S)Select a general problem
Conduct literature review
Exhaustive review
Preliminary search, later
expanded
Select specific problem, research question, or
hypothesis
Decide design and methodology
Collect data
Analyze and present data
Interpret findings
State conclusion/ generalization about problem
Integrative diagrams
Statistical tables
The Research Process
background to the problem’s context why is your problem important
who will benefit?
who will use your conclusions policy/ practice/ research (also why they will use it)
IdentifytopicIdentifytopic
The Research Process
dyslexia and memory Eleni Sakellariou (PhD Candidate)
background dyslexia appears to be linked to various aspects of memory
importance understanding how memory interacts with dyslexia will
assist teachers in helping students
IdentifytopicIdentifytopic
The Research Process
general definitions general discussion of your issue and related
topics specific research that is related to your topic existing work on your topic
who, why, where, when, findings, shortcomings general conclusions about work done to date
Reviewtheliterature
Reviewtheliterature
The Research Process
for each article/study examine: the central purpose of their study state information about the sample and subjects review key results that relate to your study how is this article of relevance to your study how does this study inform your methods
Reviewtheliterature
Reviewtheliterature
The Research Process
dyslexia and memory Literature: Books Pickering, S. (2006). Working memory and education. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Press. Miyake, A. & Shah, P. (1999). Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of
Active Maintenance and Executive Control. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Torrance, M. & Jeffery, G. (1999). The cognitive demands of writing. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reviewtheliterature
Reviewtheliterature
The Research Process
dyslexia and memory Literature: Articles Baddeley, A. D. (2002). Is working memory still working? European Psychologist, 56,
849-864. Swanson, H. L. & Berninger, V. (1996). Individual differences in children’s working
memory and writing skill. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 358-385. Berninger, V. W., Nielsen, K.H., Abbott, R.D., Wijsman, E. & Raskind, W. (2007).
Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: Under-recognized and under-treated. Journal of School Psychology, 4, 257-280.
McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 299-325.
Olive, T. (2004). Working Memory in Writing: Empirical evidence from the Dual-Task Technique. European Psychologist, 9, 1, 32-42.
Martin, R. C. (1993). Short-term memory and sentence processing: Evidence from neuropsychology. Memory & Cognition, 21, 176-183.
Reviewtheliterature
Reviewtheliterature
The Research Process
identify the concepts you are actually studying
what theoretical background do they come from?
methods of data collection validity of research instruments sampling issues
Identifyconcepts&theory
Identifyconcepts&theory
The Research Process
dyslexia and memory cognitive psychology
short term memory phonological loop
visual spatial sketchpad visual memory
central executive working memory
Identifyconcepts&theory
Identifyconcepts&theory
The Research Process
Research Question or Research Problem or (null) Hypothesis
dyslexia and memoryIs there a pattern in
cognitive profile which
influences the writing
performance of the
dyslexic children?
Clarifyresearchproblem
Clarifyresearchproblem
The Research ProcessIdentifytopicIdentifytopic
Reviewtheliterature
Reviewtheliterature
Identifyconcepts&theory
Identifyconcepts&theory
Clarifyresearchproblem
Clarifyresearchproblem
ResearchdesignResearchdesign
Collectionofdata
Collectionofdata
AnalysedataAnalysedata
DrawconclusionDrawconclusion
The Research Process
research philosophy / approach inductive/deductive/positivism/interpretism?
research purpose exploratory/descriptive/explanatory/predictive
research strategy experiment/survey/case study/grounded theory/
ethnography dictates:
why you do things how you do things Research
designResearchdesign
The Research Process
dyslexia and memory the literature was relatively developed
therefore an deductive approach
the topic is about cognitive processes therefore it is relatively post-postivistic
ResearchdesignResearchdesign
The Research Process
data collection what is your data what is your sample what is your sampling method what is your collection method what is your collection instrument timeline?
Collectionofdata
Collectionofdata
The Research Process
data collection what is your data what is your sample what is your sampling method what is your collection method what is your collection instrument timeline? ethics? privacy?
Collectionofdata
Collectionofdata
pilottest
is it reliable
is itvalid
do they need to berepresentative
surveys, interviews,observation
self, questionnaireinterview schedule/guide,checklist
The Research Process
two stages preparing the data
transcribing interviews entering surveys into computer programs
analysis summary of responses
AnalysedataAnalysedata
similarities differences relationships
The Research Process
two stages preparing the data
transcribing interviews entering surveys into computer programs
analysis summary of responses
AnalysedataAnalysedata
record interviewthen transcriberecord interviewthen transcribe
what doyou dowithmissingdata
what doyou dowithmissingdata
content analysisopen/axial codingpattern codingthematic coding
content analysisopen/axial codingpattern codingthematic coding
means/s.d.chi2, t-testsANOVA, correlation
means/s.d.chi2, t-testsANOVA, correlation
similarities differences relationships
The Research Process
Conclusions must stem from your data
Links to other peoples research Limitations with findings Applications of findings
DrawconclusionDrawconclusion
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 42
The Research Process—Seven Phases1. Select a general problem2. Review the literature on the problem3. Decide the specific research problem,
question, or hypothesis4. Determine the design and methodology5. Collect data6. Analyze data and present the results7. Interpret the findings and state conclusions
or summary regarding the problem
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 43
Research Design
Research design describes how the study was conducted What is general plan How research is set up What happens to the subjects What were methods of data collection
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 44
Research Design Match the design to the question(s) being asked so
as to best answer the question(s) Consider limitations and cautions in interpreting
results from each design Analyze data in keeping with research design
Provide the most valid, accurate answers to research questions
Congruency between the research question and the research design selected to answer that question
Implications related to the type of data analysis with specific research designs
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 45
Three Major Categories of Research Design
Quantitative Experimental (true, quasi, single-subject) Nonexperimental (descriptive, comparative,
correlational, ex post facto) Qualitative
any information that is not numerical in nature data is ‘rich’ or ‘thick’
Mixed Methods
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 46
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches Assumptions about the world
Quantitative—single reality (i.e., cause and effect, reduce to specific variables, test of theories)
Qualitative—multiple reality (i.e., multiple meanings of individual experiences, meanings are socially constructed)
Research purpose Quantitative—establish relationships or explain causes of
change Qualitative—understand social phenomenon, explore a
process, describe experiences, report stories
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 47
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches
Research methods and process Quantitative—established set of procedures and
steps Qualitative—flexible design, emergent design
Prototypical studies Quantitative—experimental or correlational
designs, designed to reduce bias, error, and extraneous variables
Qualitative—takes into account bias and subjectivity
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 48
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches
Researcher role Quantitative—detached from study to avoid bias Qualitative—immersed in phenomenon being
studied; participant observation Importance of the context in the study
Quantitative—aims to establish universal context-free generalizations
Qualitative—develops context-bound summaries
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 49
Elements of a research proposal Introduction
Should capture the reader’s interest and sell them on the idea that the study is worth doing
Can serve as a standalone document that describes your study
Review of the literature Summarizes and analyzes previous research Shows relationship of current study to what has been done
Method Clearly describes how you plan to take answer your
research questions or test your hypotheses
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 50
Introduction should answer the following: What do you plan to study? Why is it important to study it? How do you plan to study it? Who do you plan to study?
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 51
The introduction is likely to include: The research problem Studies that have addressed the problem Deficiencies in the studies Importance of the proposed research Brief introduction to theoretical framework Purpose statement Research questions and/or hypotheses
(sometimes included in the literature review section)
Brief description of method (who? and how?) Limitations and delimitations
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 52
One model for introduction (suggested by Creswell)
Research problem
Review of studies addressing problem
Deficiencies of previous work
Importance of study
Purpose of study, research questions, and/or hypotheses
Brief statement of method
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 53
What research problem would you like to address in your proposal?
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It crosses the humanities and the social and
physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its
practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are committed to the
naturalistic perspective, and to the interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time,
the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions. Nelson et al’s (1992, p4)
Qualitative Research
‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what
people think, and how they feel - or at any rate,
what they say they think and how they say they
feel. This kind of information is subjective. It
involves feelings and impressions, rather than
numbers’ Bellenger, Bernhardt and Goldstucker, Qualitative Research in
Marketing, American Marketing Association
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.
Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts) in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves the studied use and
collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study,
personal experience, introspective, life story, interview,
observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-
that describe routine and problematic moments and
meanings in individuals lives.
Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping
always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.
Qualitative v.'s Quantitative
QualitativeResearch
QuantitativeResearch
Type of questions Probing Limited probing
Sample Size small large
Info. Perrespondent
much varies
Admin Requires skilledresearcher
Fewer specialistskills required
Type of Analysis Subjective,interpretative
Statistical
Type of research Exploratory Descriptive orcausal
Popularity of Qualitative Research1 Usually much cheaper than quantitative
research2 No better way than qualitative research to
understand in-depth the motivations and feelings of consumers
3 Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of quantitative research
Limitations of Qualitative Research1 Marketing successes and failures are based on small
differences in the marketing mix. Qualitative research doesn’t distinguish these
differences as well as quantitative research can.2 Not representative of the population that is of interest to
the researcher3 The multitude of individuals who, without formal training,
profess to be experts in the field
The Nature of Quantitative Research
The Stages of Quantitative Research Theory/hypothesis Research design Devise measures of concepts Select site and sample Collect data Code and analyze data Write up
A basket of concepts…
Femininity/Masculinity
Household division of labour
Body image
Glass ceiling
Gender Inequality
Sexual harassment
Gender
Patriarchy
Feminism
Women and Girls
Boys and Men
Concepts and Conceptualization Concepts = ‘categories for the organisation of
ideas and observations’ (Bulmer, 1984: 43) May provide explanations of social
phenomena May represent things we want to explain Conceptualization = the process of specifying
what is meant by a term
Measurements. . .
delineate fine differences between people/cases.
are consistent and reliable. are more precise estimates of the degree of
relatedness between concepts.
Indicators of Concepts
Produced by the operational definition of a concept and are less directly quantifiable than measures
Common-sense understandings of the form a concept might take
Multiple-indicator measures: concept may have different dimensions example: ‘commitment to work’
How to measure the concept of ‘Keeping up’ in a course? Direct measures? Indicators? Dimensions?
Can we research a concept without using any measures or indicators? (e.g. poverty, body image, intelligence, etc.)
Reliability
Stability over time test-retest method (correlation between measure
on different occasions) Internal reliability
split-half method (correlation between measures on two halves of a scale)
Cronbach’s alpha
Types of reliability
Inter-rater reliability Do two (or more)
researchers see the same thing?
Used frequently in qualitative research
Our recent group observations in Student Center employed inter-rater reliability
Test-retest reliability Does a repeat study
generate similar results?
Do not have to be identical because of variations in population, sample, etc.
Used in qualitative and quantitative research
Internal reliability/consistency How reliable are measures within one project? Used frequently for assessing reliability of scales
and typologies but only good for unidimensional constructs
Split half reliability- randomly divide measure items and compare outcomes.
Cronbach’s alpha- a average of all possible split-half scores.
Parallel forms reliability- divide questions into two and administer each separately to the same sample. For all, the closer the score is to 1 the more reliable the
scale, etc.
Inter-observer consistency agreement between different researchers
Measurement Validity
Face validity Concurrent validity Construct validity Convergent validity
Validity presupposes reliability (but not vice versa). Why is this?
Two general types of validity
Internal validity External validity The logic of the study
design Accounting for alternative
(or additional) explanations of causal relationships if study focuses on causal
relationships
Generalizable (quantitative) or transferable (qualitative)
Main Preoccupations of Quantitative Researchers 1. Measurement
Can a concept be quantified? Comparisons between measures Changes in a variable over time
2. Causality Explanations of social phenomena Causal relationships between independent and
dependent variables Inference only in cross-sectional designs
3. Generalization Can the results be applied to individuals beyond
the sample? Aims to generalize to target population Requires representative sample (random,
probability sample)
4. Replication Detailed description of procedures allows other
researchers to replicate study Low incidence of published replications
Transferability
Not all studies are intended to be generalizable to an entire population
Refers to the ability to apply research results in another context or to inform other research
Also refers to the ability of the research to connect the reader with the research Make study environment, respondents, social
phenomena “come alive” Solicits comparisons between reader’s own
experiences and experiences described in the research
All of these measures
Of validity and reliability are conducted after research is conducted
Frustrating to have to report that your measures were invalid or unreliable But that is still a legitimate finding! Just as frustrating sometimes to have to report
you found no support for your hypothesis!
No way to know a priori
Can’t know for certain how reliable or valid something is before you’ve conducted the research Unless you are using something that has
reliability/validity previously established That’s why so much time and effort is put into
research design Conceptualization Operationalization Reviewing past research
Exploring theories Exploring methods
Pretesting and preliminary investigation Can also increased reliability and validity
As well as improving overall research design Pre-testing
After research instrument/guidelines established Involves giving your survey, using your observation
guidelines in the field, doing a few interviews with respondents or informants
Analyzing data generated and soliciting feedback from respondents about instrument (if applicable)
Revising measurements, instrument
Preliminary investigation
Often occurs prior to creating research instrument/guidelines
May talk informally with individuals from the target population or otherwise associated with social phenomena
May do field observations May collect and analyze social artifacts
associated with research topic
Criticisms of Quantitative Research Failure to distinguish between objects in the
natural world and social phenomena Artificial and false sense of precision and
accuracy presumed connection between concepts and
measures respondents make different interpretations of
questions and other research tools
Lack of external validity reliance on instruments and measurements little relevance to participants’ everyday lives variation in the meaning of concepts to each
individual
Static view of social life reduced to relationships between variables ignores processes of human definition and
interpretation (Blumer, 1956)
The Gap Between the Ideal and the Actual Quantitative research design is an ideal-
typical approach Useful as a guide to good practice but there
is a discrepancy between ideal type and actual practice of social research
Pragmatic concerns mean that researchers may not adhere rigidly to these principles
How does quantitative research sometimes depart from the principles of good practice?
Three examples…
1. Reverse operationalism
Quantitative research is usually deductive (operational definition of concepts), but measurements can sometimes lead to inductive theorizing (Bryman, 1988) example: factor analysis
groups of indicators cluster together and suggest a common factor e.g. personality trait research
2. Reliability and validity testing Published accounts of quantitative research
rarely report evidence of reliability and validity (Podsakoff & Dalton, 1987) Researchers are primarily interested in the
substantive content and findings of their research Tests of reliability and validity are often
neglected
3. Sampling
Good practice in quantitative research calls for probability sampling
Sometimes it may not be possible to obtain a probability sample due to lack of time, lack of resources, or the nature of the population.
Peer Reviews
Despite the inevitable shortcomings of actual projects peer review helps ensure that quantitative researchers remain committed to the principles of good practice.
Backup slides for general info
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 94
Educational Research
Topics Discussed in this Chapter
Data collection Measuring instruments
Terminology Interpreting data Types of instruments
Technical issues Validity Reliability
Selection of a test
Data Collection
Scientific inquiry requires the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data Data – the pieces of information that are
collected to examine the research topic Issues related to the collection of this
information are the focus of this chapter
Data Collection
Terminology related to data Constructs – abstractions that cannot be
observed directly but are helpful when trying to explain behavior Intelligence Teacher effectiveness Self concept
Obj. 1.1 & 1.2
Data Collection
Data terminology (continued) Operational definition – the ways by which
constructs are observed and measured Weschler IQ test Virgilio Teacher Effectiveness Inventory Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
Variable – a construct that has been operationalized and has two or more values
Obj. 1.1 & 1.2
Data Collection
Measurement scales Nominal – categories
Gender, ethnicity, etc. Ordinal – ordered categories
Rank in class, order of finish, etc. Interval – equal intervals
Test scores, attitude scores, etc. Ratio – absolute zero
Time, height, weight, etc.
Obj. 2.1
Data Collection
Types of variables Categorical or quantitative
Categorical variables reflect nominal scales and measure the presence of different qualities (e.g., gender, ethnicity, etc.)
Quantitative variables reflect ordinal, interval, or ratio scales and measure different quantities of a variable (e.g., test scores, self-esteem scores, etc.)
Obj. 2.2
Data Collection
Types of variables Independent or dependent
Independent variables are purported causes Dependent variables are purported effects Two instructional strategies, co-operative groups and
traditional lectures, were used during a three week social studies unit. Students’ exam scores were analyzed for differences between the groups. The independent variable is the instructional approach (of
which there are two levels) The dependent variable is the students’ achievement
Obj. 2.3
Measurement Instruments
Important terms Instrument – a tool used to collect data Test – a formal, systematic procedure for
gathering information Assessment – the general process of collecting,
synthesizing, and interpreting information Measurement – the process of quantifying or
scoring a subject’s performance
Obj. 3.1 & 3.2
Measurement Instruments
Important terms (continued) Cognitive tests – examining subjects’ thoughts
and thought processes Affective tests – examining subjects’ feelings,
interests, attitudes, beliefs, etc. Standardized tests – tests that are administered,
scored, and interpreted in a consistent manner
Obj. 3.1
Measurement Instruments
Important terms (continued) Selected response item format – respondents
select answers from a set of alternatives Multiple choice True-false Matching
Supply response item format – respondents construct answers Short answer Completion Essay
Obj. 3.3 & 11.3
Measurement Instruments
Important terms (continued) Individual tests – tests administered on an
individual basis Group tests – tests administered to a group of
subjects at the same time Performance assessments – assessments that
focus on processes or products that have been created
Obj. 3.6
Measurement Instruments
Interpreting data Raw scores – the actual score made on a test Standard scores – statistical transformations of
raw scores Percentiles (0.00 – 99.9) Stanines (1 – 9) Normal Curve Equivalents (0.00 – 99.99)
Obj. 3.4
Measurement Instruments
Interpreting data (continued) Norm-referenced – scores are interpreted relative
to the scores of others taking the test Criterion-referenced – scores are interpreted
relative to a predetermined level of performance Self-referenced – scores are interpreted relative to
changes over time
Obj. 3.5
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments Cognitive – measuring intellectual processes
such as thinking, memorizing, problem solving, analyzing, or reasoning
Achievement – measuring what students already know
Aptitude – measuring general mental ability, usually for predicting future performance
Obj. 4.1 & 4.2
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments (continued) Affective – assessing individuals’ feelings,
values, attitudes, beliefs, etc. Typical affective characteristics of interest
Values – deeply held beliefs about ideas, persons, or objects Attitudes – dispositions that are favorable or unfavorable
toward things Interests – inclinations to seek out or participate in particular
activities, objects, ideas, etc. Personality – characteristics that represent a person’s typical
behaviors
Obj. 4.1 & 4.5
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments (continued) Affective (continued)
Scales used for responding to items on affective tests Likert
Positive or negative statements to which subjects respond on scales such as strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, or strongly agree
Semantic differential Bipolar adjectives (i.e., two opposite adjectives) with a scale
between each adjective Dislike: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ :Like
Rating scales – rankings based on how a subject would rate the trait of interest
Obj. 5.1
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments (continued) Affective (continued)
Scales used for responding to items on affective tests (continued) Thurstone – statements related to the trait of interest to
which subjects agree or disagree Guttman – statements representing a uni-dimensional trait
Obj. 5.1
Measurement Instruments
Issues for cognitive, aptitude, or affective tests Problems inherent in the use of self-report measures
Bias – distortions of a respondent’s performance or responses based on ethnicity, race, gender, language, etc.
Responses to affective test items Socially acceptable responses Accuracy of responses Response sets
Alternatives include the use of projective tests
Obj. 4.3, 4.4