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Quadrennial Technology Review 2015

Chapter 3: Enabling Modernization of the Electric Power System

Technology Assessments

Cyber and Physical Security

Designs, Architectures, and Concepts

Electric Energy Storage

Flexible and Distributed Energy Resources

Measurements, Communications, and Controls

Transmission and Distribution

Components

ENERGYU.S. DEPARTMENT OF


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Transmission and DistributionComponentsChapter 3: Technology Assessments

Introduction

oday’s electric power system was designed or efficiency, reliability, ease o operation, and to meet consumer

needs at minimum cost. Te grid o the uture must maintain these characteristics while meeting a number onew requirements: supporting the integration o various clean and distributed energy technologies, meeting the

higher power-quality demands o modern digital devices, and enabling consumer participation in electricity

markets. Increasing the projected penetration levels o variable renewable resources, distributed generation,

community energy storage, electric vehicles, and the number o active customers will require substantial changes

to how the grid and its various components are designed, controlled, and protected.

Approximately our trillionkWh o electric energy areconsumed annually in theUnited States.1 Tis electricenergy is delivered romgenerators to consumersthrough an intricate networko transmission lines,substations, distributionlines, and transormers, asillustrated in Figure 3.F. 1. Tetransmission and distribution(&D) components that makeup this network are generallyexposed to the elements andare vulnerable to natural andman-made threats. o ensure

a reliable and resilient electricpower system, grid componentsshould be designed and builtto withstand the reasonableimpacts o lightning strikes,extreme weather events,electrical disturbances,

Figure 3 .F.1 Electricity Delivery Network


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TA 3.F: Transmission and Distribution Components

accidents, equipment ailures, cyber and physical attacks, and other stressors. Te impacts o climate changecould be substantial and worsen over time, especially flooding events, which can have a significant impact onreliability.2 Te changing landscape o generation and load-side technologies is undamentally altering electricpower flows and the physical phenomena or which uture grid components will need to be designed. Inaddition, ederal policies related to carbon emissions reductions will impact the bulk generation mix in utureyears, necessitating the upgrade and building o transmission equipment.

Te more dynamic operating environment associated with increased penetration o variable renewableresources and distributed energy resources (DERs) present a unique challenge or current grid components.For example, transormer load tap changers typically operate several times per day (either in an automated orremotely controlled manner) to help maintain voltage limits and power quality along a distribution eeder. Highpenetration o rooop photovoltaic (PV) can lead to voltage and requency violations due to the variability oPV power generation. Tis in turn will require more requent operational adjustments to maintain voltage andrequency within acceptable limits. Tese changing system conditions can reduce component useul lietimesand increase costs, with accelerated maintenance and replacement schedules. Distributed energy resourcesalso introduce new challenges, with reversed power flows, increased harmonics, and potentially larger aultcurrents on distribution systems. For example, reverse power flow can result in excessive heating o distributiontransormers,3 as shown in Figure 3.F. 2, and potentially reduce the lie span o the asset. Understanding andmitigating the impact o these issues on grid components, old and new, are essential to ensure the uture gridcan continue to deliver electricity in a sae, stable, and reliable manner.

Figure 3.F.2 Excessive Transformer Heating

Credit: Southern California Edison Company

Key: RESU = residential energy storage unit; customers have storage available, thereby dampening the magnitude o eedback to the grid, resultingin less-severe temperature increases; ZNE = residential zero-net-energy customer; customers have the opportunity or more requent eedback tothe grid, resulting in higher temperatures.; Control = residential control group customer.


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In addition to the rapidly changing landscape o power flows and physical phenomena that grid componentsneed to accommodate, the age o some grid components is increasing the urgency or solutions.4 Currently,70% o power transormers are 25 years or older, 60% o circuit breakers are 30 years or older, and 70% otransmission lines are 25 years or older.5 Te age o these components degrades their ability to withstandphysical stresses and can result in higher ailure rates. Failure o key grid components can lead to widespreadoutages and long recovery times. Tis situation represents a high loss o revenue or utility companies and orcustomers who require power to do business and provide services. Consequently, appropriate maintenanceo power system equipment is o significant importance. For instance, a single power transormer that isdamaged can temporarily disrupt power to the equivalent o 500,000 homes, and it can take up to two yearsto manuacture a replacement.6 Moreover, power outages rom weather-related events and other causes areestimated to cost the United States $28–$169 billion annually.7

In 2011, the American Society o Civil Engineers (ASCE) estimated an average expenditure o $27.5 billionannually or electric transmission and distribution investments in the United States, and they predict acumulative investment shortall o $331 billion by 2040.8 Te average annual expenditures estimated byASCE are consistent with data reported by the Edison Electric Institute in 2012.9 Based on these estimates,approximately $1.1 trillion will be needed to replace, expand, and upgrade the U.S. electric grid through 2040.Te total amount needed includes the net investment (investments in addition to those made or reliability orreplacement purposes) o $338–$476 billion over a 20-year period, estimated by the Electric Power ResearchInstitute to realize the ull value o the “smart grid.” 10 Consideration o policies related to carbon emissions andclimate change have an inherent impact on this estimate.

Te investment cycle needed to replace, upgrade, and expand the U.S. transmission and distribution systemshas already begun, with annual spending increasing rom $28 billion in 2010 to $44 billion in 2013.11 Teprocurement o transmission and distribution goods and services today centers on reurbishment andupgrades o existing acilities and field assets, increasing the intelligence o older passive analog equipment togain visibility to grid conditions.12 able 3.F.1 provides an estimate o the approximate magnitude o various

Table 3.F.1 U.S Transmission and Distribution Market Segments13, 14, 15, 16, 17

U.S. Transmission and Distribution Market Segments (2013) Estimated Market Size ($ Billions)

ransormers (power and distribution) 5.0–6.0

Cables and Conductors 8.0–9.0

owers, Insulators, and Fittings 2.0–2.5

Switchgear (e.g., breakers, “sectionalizers,” “reclosers,” uses) 4.0–4.5

Meters (advanced metering inrastructure, phasor measurement unit, etc.) 2.0–2.5

Substations (turnkey solutions) 4.5–5.0

Power Systems (e.g., high voltage direct current, flexible alternating currenttransmission system, integrated solutions)

5.5–6.0

Utility Automation (e.g., asset monitoring, instrumentation, control) 2.5–3.0

Operational Platorms, Systems, and Services 2.5–3.0

Construction (substation, lines, towers) 3.5–5.0

Total 39.5–46.5


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grid market segments in 2013. Missing the window o opportunity to develop and install next-generationtransmission and distribution components required or a uture grid can slow its transormation and imposesignificant opportunity costs to society.

Te “smart grid” revolution has primarily ocused on applying advances in digital inormation and

communication technologies to the power system to improve operational perormance in a changing systemwith increased variability and uncertainty. However, the ull value o grid modernization can only be achievedthrough commensurate advances in &D components and changes on a system level to enable the grid tobe flexible and integrated. Next-generation technologies—based on innovations in material science, such asnano-composites, wide band-gap semiconductors, advanced magnetics, new insulators and dielectrics, andhigh-temperature superconductors—can unleash new capabilities or the grid and improve the perormanceand lietimes o current designs. New component technology requirements will need to balance improvedunctionalities that support greater consumer sel-generation, improve resilience, and increase flexibility whilemanaging total costs.

Transformers

ransormers are one o the undamental building blocks o today’s electric grid; essentially all energy deliveredflows through at least one. Trough electromagnetic coupling, these components change the voltage o electric

power, increasing it to transmit electricity more efficiently over long distances and decreasing it to a sae level or

final delivery to end users. Tere are generally two categories o transormers—power transormers and distribution

transormers—but voltages vary within these categories (see able 3.F.2). Power transormers are typically located at

generator plants and substations, while distribution transormers are typically located in industrial, residential, and

commercial areas, directly supplying power to the end user in low or medium voltage service (Figure 3.F.3).

Table 3.F.2 Overview of General Transformer Groups18, 19

Type Class Voltage Ratings (kV)

Power ransormers

Extra High Voltage 345–765 kV

High Voltage 115–230 kV

Medium Voltage 34.5–115 kV

Distribution ransormers Distribution Voltage 2.5–35 kV

Figure 3.F.3 Examples of Power Transformers (left) and Distribution Transformers (right)20


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Power Transformers

Power transormers cost millions o dollars, weigh 100 to 400 tons, are usually made to order, and can takeup to 20 months to replace, depending on material availability. Te lack o domestic manuacturing or thesetransormers, in particular 500 kV and 765 kV, contribute to long lead times and can present an energy security

challenge. In 2010, only 15% o U.S. demand or large power transormers (LPs) was met rom domesticproduction. However, this situation has been improving, with several new and enhanced acilities openingrecently. In recent years, as many as our transormer manuacturing units have come online in the UnitedStates alone.21 Tis is expected to ramp up the domestic manuacturing capability o transormers.

Because power transormers operate continuously and are generally highly loaded, they must be designed tobe exceedingly reliable and efficient. At present, the highest efficiencies or power transormers are around99.85%.22 While there are no moving parts in most transormers, the insulation around the conductors weakensas a result o chemical changes brought about by thermal aging. O the several hundred LP ailures between1991 and 2010 that were tracked in the United States, most were due to ailures in insulation, 28% were dueto electrical disturbances (switching surges, voltage spikes, line aults, etc.), 13% were due to lightning strikes,and 9% were rom insulation ailure at normal voltages.23 Additional research on new materials or insulation,

conductors, and cooling o transormers would help increase their reliability.

Applied research in low-loss magnetic core materials and electrical conductors or windings can improvetransormer efficiencies. Joule heating in transormers typically accounts or losses in the range o 1%–2%,depending on the type and ratings o the transormer.24 Efficiency and total cost o ownership are the mainactors that drive improvements in transormer development. Advanced insulators and higher quality dielectricmaterials, such as gases, can be utilized in transormer design to allow operations at higher temperaturesand voltages, increasing the lietime and reliability o transormers. Superconducting transormers have thepotential to achieve higher levels o efficiency. By taking advantage o the high temperature superconducting(HS) material’s unique ability to conduct electricity with no resistance when cooled below a certaintemperature, a transormer can be designed lighter, more compact, and with much reduced energy losses.In this transormer, both the coolant and the insulating fluid would use liquid nitrogena nonflammable,

nonhazardous substance.25 Embedded sensors or real-time diagnostics and device monitoring can also improveperormance and support preventative, just-in-time maintenance.

Modeling and simulation can be applied to optimize current designs and explore new concepts that canacilitate system recovery in the event o a ailure. Modularized design components, standardization, andrecovery concepts can help improve resiliency. Te requirement o shorter pay-back time or these uturetransormers will influence technical decisions beginning with the design, choice o materials, and maintenancestrategies. Designing or shorter lietime and less maintenance may require additional and improvedmonitoring and diagnostic tools.26 Te U.S. Department o Energy (DOE) and the U.S. Department oHomeland Security (DHS), along with several industry partners, worked to develop the Recovery ransormer(RecX). Te RecX prototype is lighter, smaller, easier to transport, and quicker to install than a traditionalLP. In the uture, application o solid-state power electronic devices to power transormers may also provide

some new capabilities, such as active controls and improved recovery concepts. Novel approaches to powerconversion, such as high requency resonant power conversion, can leverage higher switching requencies andalso eliminate the need or large and expensive ault protection equipment required o standard 60 Hz powertransormers. o the extent possible, security enhancements should also be embedded into the physical designo LPs. Resistance to geomagnetically induced currents, electromagnetic pulses, and physical attacks should beincorporated into transormer designs.


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Distribution Transformers

Distribution transormers are ubiquitous and cost $1,000–$55,000, depending on their rating. While powertransormers are designed and optimized to unction at high load continuously, distribution transormersoperate at low loading or most o the day. Tis daily variation makes design parameters wider, optimizing

or 10%–60% o peak loading, and results in lower efficiencies compared to power transormers.27 Recently,new standards have been released by DOE that will increase the minimum efficiency o these transormers.28

Advanced materials can be leveraged to achieve efficiencies in a cost-effective manner. However, as more DERsare deployed, the variability o loading on these transormers will increase, along with more dynamic voltagefluctuations and current flows. It will be important to understand how these changes will impact the efficiency,lietime, perormance, design, and protection o these critical grid components in the uture. Te researchemphasis or uture distribution transormers includes adding capabilities or voltage regulation, monitoring,reactive power support, and communications.

In addition to the material advances that can be applied to both power and distribution transormers alike,there may be a unique opportunity or solid state transormers (SSs) in uture transmission and distributionsystems. An SS is a design concept that combines power electronic devices and high-requency magnetics

(see Figure 3.F.4) that can lead to more compact transormers and provide new control capabilities.29 Teglobal market or SSs is expected to reach about $5 billion at a compound annual growth rate o 82.3% by2020, according to a 2013 report.30 A move toward a widespread integration o SSs into the power system willrequire a major increase o manuacturing capacity or these components. Te establishment o a supply chainand subsequent creation o economies o scale can bring prices or SSs down considerably.

Grid LoadPowerElectronics

PowerElectronics

HF Transformer

Figure 3.F.4 Conceptual Diagram for Solid State Distribution Transformer Function

A solid state distribution transormer (SSD) will not be a drop-in replacement or a distribution transormerbut will be utilized in strategic locations or their enhanced unctionality and flexibility. For instance, an SSDcan be used to mesh radial segments o the distribution network, perorm voltage regulation, and supplyreactive power as well as be used to orm hybrid AC and DC systems. Tey can also be used to manage the

interaction o microgrids with utility systems, regulating the process o disconnecting and reconnecting, quicklyand precisely changing the direction and magnitude o power flow, and limiting ault currents.

Current SSD designs are based on silicon insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBs) and ace challengesassociated with cost, reliability, and efficiency. Leveraging advances in wide band gap semiconductor materials,such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), can enable new designs and configurations that couldbe more cost-effective.31, 32 However, significant advances in power electronic devices using these new materialsare needed to achieve the high-power, high-requency, and high-reliability requirements o an SSD design.rade-offs between system perormance, device voltage ratings, and price must be weighed in uture designs,


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configurations, and applications. Focused research and development (R&D) are needed to develop new solidstate materials and components to meet these unique requirements.

Te National Science Foundation has sponsored the design and development o next generation SSDs.33 Researchers at the Future Renewable Electric Energy Delivery and Management Systems Center developed

a ast, small, super-efficient power transormer that greatly exceeds the perormance o earlier designs, withmodels showing 90% efficiency.34, 35 However, SSDs still ace many challenges associated with costs, reliability,and system efficiency. Additionally, an SSD can provide services to the distribution network or which currentmarkets do not attribute a specific monetary value. Tis presents a difficulty in valuing the benefit o an SSDand setting a price or competitive market entry.

Distribution transormers with intelligent sensors, communications, and controls would also allow usersto monitor usage in real time, enhancing the stability and controllability o the power distribution grid. Byaugmenting existing distribution transormer designs with semiconductor devices, these technologies canprovide new and enhanced capabilities to the uture grid as well. Dynamic control o real and reactive powercan optimize the efficiency o distribution systems, improve power quality in a more dynamic operatingenvironment, and limit ault currents.

Cables and Conductors

Cables and conductors are the primary carriers o electricity and are critical components or the reliable,efficient, and cost-effective delivery o power. Conductors are suspended overhead rom towers and polesand are generally not insulated except at lower voltage levels. In contrast, cables are always insulated andare generally used in underground applications, such as or dense urban areas where real-estate costs, saetyconcerns, and aesthetics restrict the use o overhead lines. Underground cables are also used in applicationswhere overhead lines are hard to locate, such as water crossings, and are increasingly considered advantageousor their resilience to wind and ice storms. Occupying less space, reducing exposure to electromagneticrequency, not contributing to visual pollution, and lower lie-cycle costs are metrics that can be used tomeasure improvements in cables and conductors.36

Underground cables are generally more expensive, per mile, than overhead conductors but may make economicsense when other actors are taken into account. Tere is no precise cost or building cables and conductorsbecause each construction project is unique. Depending on load, number o customers, various constructionparameters, and the choice o technology (AC versus DC), cost per mile can vary significantly as illustrated inable 3.F.3. Tese costs are high-level estimates based on averages o a utility’s typical construction approachand include various variables, including customer density (urban, suburban, and rural), soil conditions (sandyto rocky), labor costs, construction techniques, vegetation management, equipment, and voltage levels.

As electric power demand increases and shis due to economic growth, demographic changes, and the use onew technologies, more cables and conductors will be needed to increase the capacity and the interconnectivityo the grid to meet this flux in demand. While distributed generation may be used to offset some o this demandgrowth, the most flexible and globally optimal solution tends to be one that enables access to a wide diversity

o energy resources. Historically, installation o new cables and conductors has been the preerred solutionto increase transmission capacity but with limited right-o-way and opposition rom local communities;“reconductoring” 38 has emerged as a practical solution.

Development o advanced cables and conductors that have lower losses or that have higher current-carrying

capabilities can support more cost-effective reconductoring as well as new installations. Advanced cables and

conductors are expected to reduce transmission and distribution losses and increase energy supply to end users.

HS cables can deliver up to five times more electricity than traditional conventional copper or aluminum cables

and have the potential to address the challenge o providing sufficient electricity to densely populated areas. 39


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Table 3.F.3 Cost per Mile for New Transmission and Distribution Construction37

Cost per Mile: New Construction Transmission

Overhead Underground

Urban Suburban Rural Urban Suburban Rural

Minimum $377,000 $232,000 $174,000 $3,500,000 $2,300,000 $1,400,000

Maximum $11,000,000 $4,500,000 $6,500,000 $30,000,000 $30,000,000 $27,000,000

Cost per Mile: New Construction Distribution

Overhead Underground

Urban Suburban Rural Urban Suburban Rural

Minimum $126,900 $110,800 $86,700 $1,141,300 $528,000 $297,200

Maximum $1,000,000 $908,000 $903,000 $4,500,000 $2,300,000 $1,840,000

Te Energy Inormation Administration estimates that national electricity transmission and distribution lossesaverage about 6% o the total electricity generated in the United States each year.40 Tese technologies can beimproved by leveraging material advances and new designs. Tese enhancements will also need to considermanuacturability to manage costs.

Overhead Conductors

Te operating temperature o conventional conductors should not exceed 100°C; temperatures in excess othis may cause significant damage to the aluminum portion o the conductor. Tis thermal limit constrainsthe amount o power that can flow through an overhead line at a given voltage. Conductors that are rated at

higher temperatures can carry larger currents and deliver more power. However, higher temperatures will resultin more thermal expansion and greater sag between towers and poles. Excessive sagging can result in saetyhazards and increase the risk o power ailures i the line comes into close proximity or contact with otherobjects. In the last 20 years, a class o conductors reerred to as high temperature low sag (HLS) has comeinto use or transmission o larger quantities o power by using existing right-o-ways. HLS conductors aremade o stronger mechanical cores (e.g., steel or composite) that reduce line sag during operation at increasedtemperatures, as shown in able 3.F.4.

Table 3.F.4 Examples of HTLS Conductors and Their Temperature Resistance43

HTLS Conductor Rated Temperature

Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported 200°C

Zirconium Alloy Aluminum Conductor Invar Steel Reinorced 150°C–210°C

Gap-ype Heat Resistant Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinorced 150°C

Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinorced 210°C

Composite Reinorced Aluminum Conductor 150°C

Aluminum Conductor Composite Carbon Fiber Reinorced 210°C


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Material innovations can be applied to the development o next-generation HLS conductors with higher

thermal rating, strength, and lower resistance compared to conventional conductors. For instance, Ames

Laboratory is developing an aluminum (Al) matrix composite reinorced with calcium (Ca) metal nano-

filaments. Aluminum and calcium are both lightweight materials and highly conductive, and the resulting Al/Ca

composite wires have shown enhancements, such as lower density than Al alone and good corrosion resistance. 41

Results o first generation Al/Ca wires showed degradation at about 285˚C, which sets a (conservative) rated

operating temperature o 250˚C. able 3.F.5 shows some o the characteristics or Al/Ca composite wires that

are superior to conventional conductors. Other new materials such as ultra-conductive copper are projected to

produce a 50% reduction in resistivity while simultaneously increasing strength and thermal conductivity.42

Table 3.F.5 Comparison of Aluminum Composite Steel Reinforced (ACSR) versus Al/Ca Composite Conductor77

Conductor Characteristic ACSR (30/7)*Al/20 vol. %Ca Composite(37 strand cable)

DC Resistance@20˚C (ohms/1000 .) 0.0279 0.0236

Breaking Strength (lbs.) 28,900 56,100**

Weight/1000 . (lbs.) 946 627

* Southwire Wood Duck conductor; 30 Al strands: 1350-H19; 7 steel strands: Class A galvanized** Calculated value.

As the electrical resistance o a material increases with temperature, line losses increase with elevated conductortemperatures. One promising approach to improve perormance o overhead conductors is to employ highemissivity coatings. Te use o coatings with an emissivity greater than 0.8 appears to produce a 20% reductionin the operating temperature o conductors compared to the control. Other innovative materials to consideror the next generation o overhead conductors are those that have dual use or HVAC and high voltage direct

current (HVDC) applications. Innovative coatings that reduce corrosion, minimize icing, and increase heatdissipation can also extend the lietime o overhead conductors.

Underground Cables

Underground cables are more complicated and expensive than overhead conductors due to the need or

insulation, shielding, thermal management, and extra considerations. Owing to the significant reactive power

losses associated with alternating current (AC) in underground and underwater applications over long distances,

HVDC technologies tend to be the more economical solution. Another option is the use o superconducting

cables, which have essentially no electrical resistance. However, the use o this technology is very limited due to

the high cost o ownership, stemming rom the rerigeration system and additional maintenance.

DOE’s Office o Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) supported an HS program rom 1987 through

2010, showcasing the use o HS-based applications in enhancing the perormance o electricity transmissionand distribution systems.44 Superconducting DC cable systems are suitable or high-power, bulk energy transerwithout the disadvantages o either high-voltage DC or extra high-voltage AC systems. Te superconductingDC cable is projected to have greater reliability and security, substantially lower losses, a smaller right-o-wayootprint, ewer siting restrictions, and the ability to be terminated at distribution voltages in or near loadcenters.45 Te program developed HS materials and devices or a wide variety o applications with an emphasison underground cables, moving HS rom basic research to large-scale demonstration projects.


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Tree projects under this program, hosted by electric utility companies in Albany, New York, Columbus,Ohio, and Long Island, New York, resulted in significant technological achievements. Te Long Island cablewas the world’s first transmission voltage superconducting cable; the Albany cable was the world’s first cable touse second generation wire; and the Columbus cable operated or approximately six years serving real worldcustomers.46 In 2014, DHS announced that it is leading the planning phase or a resilient electric grid cableproject in Chicago based on HS technology. Tis technology aims to increase the resiliency, robustness, andreliability o the Commonwealth Edison’s electric grid.

Activity in HS cable technology is growing worldwide, particularly in Japan, Korea, Russia, and Europe,with a variety o grid demonstration projects underway.47 For instance, a superconducting power line cablein the city o Essen, Germany (the AmpaCity Project), is expected to carry five times as much power as aconventional cable and result in substantial cost savings.48 Opportunities to increase the viability o HS cablesinclude improving perormance and reducing the cost o the superconducting wire. Reducing the cost o thererigeration system and new materials with higher transition temperatures are other opportunities.

Development and demonstration o HVDC cables at higher voltages is another research area. In 2011, cross-linked polyethylene cables or HVDC had a rating o ±350 kV49 but are now approaching ±500 kV. DOE’s

Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) Green Electricity Network Integration (GENI) programsupported improvements in this technology, such as the use o nano-clay or next-generation HVDC cables. Aresearch emphasis is also needed on superconducting HVDC cables, fluid-filled polypropylene paper laminatecables, and underground power delivery solutions. Finally, research on embedded sensors, new insulationmaterials, thermal management systems, and installation and maintenance techniques can improve theperormance and lower the costs o using underground cables.

Connectors

Closely associated with cables and conductors are connectors that provide the necessary mechanical and

electrical couplings between adjacent power line segments. Compression connectors or overhead lines are made

by crimping a sof aluminum sleeve onto the two ends o conductors to be joined. Tese connectors are basically

the weak links in the electricity delivery network, where power transmission can be limited by the connectorresistance and disruptions can occur owing to mechanical ailures. As electrical loads on existing transmission

lines have increased, the perormance and integrity o aging connectors continue to degrade owing to accelerated

surace oxidation rom environmental exposure and elevated operating temperatures.50 Research opportunities

include applied materials research to limit the surace oxidation rate and advanced designs or enhanced

mechanical and electrical connectivity. In addition, innovative low-cost sensing and monitoring techniques that

can accurately provide inormation on the structural health o these connectors will move their maintenance

rom time-based to condition-based scheduling. Research emphasis is needed on developing standards or the

connecters used to dead-end and splice overhead conductors that operate above 93°C.

Power Flow Controllers

Electric power on the grid flows according to the laws o physics and ollows the path o least resistance. Tis

means that the amount o power that can flow between two points on a networked system is limited by theweakest line, despite the existence o parallel paths. As a result, the 642,000 miles o transmission lines inthe United States are only loaded well below 50% o their capacity, on average, indicating suboptimal assetutilization.51 However, some o this excess capacity is needed to ensure reliable operations in the event o acontingency and is considered in operations planning and generator dispatch. During periods o high demand,bottlenecks will develop on the transmission system that can prevent access to lower-cost energy resources,such as wind and solar. Tese congestion costs can be quite significant, with PJM reporting $1–$2 billionin congestion costs annually over the last decade.52 Tese extra costs are generally recovered through more


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expensive electricity to customers. Congestion is extremely volatile and transient, which creates the need orpower flow controller systems that are flexible and capable o being moved to new locations as congestionmoves and market dictates.

Enhanced power flow capabilities within the transmission and distribution system will undamentally

change how the grid can be controlled and managed. Greater deployment o power flow controllers candirectly alleviate line congestion, increase asset utilization, and optimize generator dispatch or cost savings.Additionally, the enhanced grid flexibility can support increased penetration o variable renewable resourcesand improve system resiliency. For example, i an area is experiencing an outage due to damaged components,power flow controllers can route power around those affected areas and continue to provide electricity tocritical loads.

wo categories o power electronic systems that can provide enhanced flow control are HVDC converters andflexible alternating current transmission system (FACS) devices. Criteria and metrics used or measuringimprovements in converter technologies could include increasing capacity, enhancing reliability, improvingcontrollability, preserving the environment, and increasing power density and power efficiency.

HVDC converters decouple power flows rom the synchronous nature o the grid, whereas FACS deviceswork within the synchronous nature o the grid and alter line impedances to control power flows. In additionto developing the components, there is also a need to develop new control theories that can utilize these powerflow control capabilities and integrate them into next-generation grid management systems. Potential newapplications include using power flow controllers to damp oscillations and provide artificial inertia to increasesystem stability.

Within DOE’s portolio, there are multiple program areas and projects that involve power electronics that canbe leveraged or the development o power flow control capabilities. One o the largest unding organizationsor high-power electronics is the Deense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Te research and applicationo power electronic devices into power flow controllers will require advancements in several areas, includingreducing cost o semiconductor devices, developing advanced control systems, reducing harmonics andelectromagnetic intererence, and improving reliability o active and passive components.53

HVDC Converters

HVDC converter technology is considered to be a mature technology and has been mainly deployed or point-to-point delivery o large quantities o power (e.g., greater than 500 MW) over long distance (e.g., greater than300 miles). Modern HVDC systems can transmit up to three times more power (megawatts) than conventionalAC systems at the same voltage and are the technology o choice or bulk transmission over long distances.54,55 Te proposed Plain and Eastern Clean Line ransmission Project is an example o a major HVDC installationthat will have the capacity to deliver 3,500 MW o power, primarily rom renewable energy generation acilities,to load-serving entities in the mid-south and southeastern United States.56

Due to reactive power losses in high-voltage AC configurations (overhead as well as underground), HVDC

systems tend to be more economic, despite higher losses in the converter substation compared to a standardAC substation. Other applications o HVDC converter technologies include back-to-back connections toshare power between two asynchronous systems, improving reliability and stability, and the creation o HVDCnetworks or improved system efficiencies, such as with off-shore wind arms. An HVDC network may alsoprovide opportunities to reduce reserves, improve load diversity (interregional transport o capacity), reduce

variability o renewable resources, and transport energy to meet renewable portolio standards.57

Tere are currently two commercial HVDC converter technologies: line commutated converters (LCCs) based


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on thyristors and voltage source converters (VSCs) using IGBs. LCCs are more established and have losses oabout 0.7% per station,58 while VSCs are newer and have losses o about 1.4%–1.6% per station. While lossesare higher or VSCs, IGBs enable simpler configurations that reduce total system costs. VSCs require little tono filtering and no reactive power compensation and are more compact, which reduces or eliminates associatedcosts as compared to LCCs (see Figure 3.F. 5). Additionally, VSCs have inherent black start capabilities, enablemultiterminal configurations, and are easier to deploy without complex studies and system reinorcements.Presently, all o the HVDC installations within the United States are thyristor based. HVDC deployment in theUnited States has been limited to 31 transmission acilities, with 44 across the North American grid.59

While VSCs hold a lot opotential, there are still manytechnical challenges. LCCsare still used or large powertranser because current VSCsystems are limited to ±500 kV.Additionally, HVDC networksare limited in applicationowing to the cost o tappinginto a line. With advances inVSC technology, higher powerratings and cost-effectivemultiterminal converterscan be realized, but complexault isolation and protectionschemes will still be needed.Multiterminal HVDC (MDC)networks have seen applicationin offshore wind collector

systems but have the potentialto enhance system reliability or onshore applications as well. Controls or the coordination o MDC terminalsmust be perected beore commercial systems are widely deployed.

Te difficulty in siting new overhead transmission lines may present a new value proposition or HVDCtechnologies. Tere may also be applications or medium voltage direct current (MVDC) systems, such asimproving resilience by connecting substations or increasing efficiency by utilizing DC distribution buses.Strategic placement o MVDC converters can also support the devolution and reconstitution o nested ornetworked microgrids. Research in modular multilevel converters (MMCs) can enable higher voltage andhigher power applications, using market-available semiconductor devices. MMCs reduce stress on switchingcomponents, thereby enhancing reliability. Additionally, inherent ault tolerance o high requency resonantconverter designs is also desired.

Broad deployment o these technologies will require reliability and cost-effectiveness. Accordingly, cost-benefit analysis o power flow controllers is a key research area to understand the appropriate cost levels totarget. Other research opportunities include new system designs and enhancements enabled through the useo wide band gap semiconductor devices based on SiC and GaN. Te use o these materials allows or highertemperature and higher requency operations, which translates to smaller passive component and thermalmanagement systems that can reduce overall system costs. Tese systems will also require passive materialsthat are capable o perorming well under conditions o elevated temperature and high requency. Additionally,developing new device architectures (e.g., lateral devices) can undamentally change the design paradigm orHVDC and MVDC converter technologies because thyristors and IGBs are both vertical devices.

Figure 3.F.5 Approximate Cost Structure of an LCC HVDC Converter Station60

Credit: D.M. Larruskain, I. Zamora, A.J. Mazn, O. Abarrategui, and J. Monasterio, "Transmission anddistribution networks: AC versus DC," in Proc. 9th Spanish-Portuguese Congress on ElectricalEngineering, 2005.


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FACTS Devices

In theory, AC transmission and distribution systems should be able to carry power up to the thermal designlimit. However, the power flow is usually constrained to a lower limit owing to reactive power considerationsand reliability requirements determined through contingency analysis to ensure security o the grid under

varying system conditions. Improved power flow control o AC systems can be achieved through the useo various technologies that can be generally categorized as mechanical-based and power electronics-basedtechnologies. ap-changing or phase-shiing transormers, switched shunt capacitors and inductors, and

voltage regulators are mechanical-based technologies that provide a coarse level o control. FACS devicesare power electronics-based technologies and represent a wide range o controllers with different designs anddifferent levels o power flow control capabilities, as summarized in Figure 3.F.6. Reactive power support romFACS devices can help to increase power transer capabilities, improve voltage stability, and enhance systemstability. As more variable renewable resources are deployed, these dynamic control capabilities will becomemore important.61 Criteria and metrics used or measuring improvements in FACS devices could include theirability to meet voltage stability criteria (e.g., voltage or power criteria with minimum margins), dynamic voltagecriteria (e.g., minimum transient voltage dip/sag criteria [magnitude and duration]), transient stability criteria,and power system oscillation damping.

Figure 3.F.6 Summary of FACTS Devices and Capabilities62

Credit: Black & Veatch Corporation

Facts DeviceIncreased PowerTransfer

Improved Voltage Stability Enhanced Rotor Angle/SystemFrequesncy Stability

SVC Indirect Direct Indirect

SACOM Indirect Direct Indirect

CSC/SSSC Direct Indirect Direct

UPFC/IPFC Direct Direct Direct

Key: SVC = static VAR compensator; STATCOM = static synchronous compensator; TCSC = thryistor controlled series compensator;UPFC = unified power flow controller; IPFC = interline power flow controller; SSSC = static synchronous series compensator.


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FACS devices, especially “high-end” products, such as unified power flow controllers (UPFCs) and interlinepower flow controllers, can address even the most challenging power flow control problems. While FACS aredeployed on transmission systems to improve load flow, they are also used to mitigate problems on distributionsystems. However, the deployment and application o these technologies have been limited by very high totalsystems costs. Figure 3.F.7 shows the cost curves or various FACS devices and a comparison o the costbreakdown or thyristor-based FACS (static VAR compensators and thyristor-controlled series compensators)and converter-based (IGB-based) FACS (SACOMs and UPFCs). I significant improvements can be madein the cost and perormance o power electronic devices (solid state devices), there can be substantial impact oncost reductions or the high-end FACS devices. As with HVDC converter technologies, the use o wide bandgap semiconductor devices and new device topologies can change design paradigms and result in lower overallsystem costs. Current FACS devices are about 5 to 10 times more expensive than electromechanical-basedreactive power compensation methods, and uture improvements will need to compete with these technologies.A move toward broader integration o FACS into the system will require a major increase o manuacturingcapacity or these components. Te establishment o a supply chain and subsequent creation o economies oscale can bring prices or FACS down considerably. Further research geared toward new system designs andadvanced power electronic devices can help to bring costs down to $10–$40/kVAR, making the technology

competitive with other methods o power flow and voltage control.

Figure 3.F.7 Comparison of FACTS Devices Costs and Capabilities62

Credit: Figure Left: L.J. Cai and I. Erlich, “Optimal Choice and Allocation of FACTS Devices using Genetic Algorithms,” in Power Systems Conference andExposition, IEEE-PES, 2004; Figure Right: Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

In addition to achieving cost reductions through improvement in lumped high-rating (10-300 MVAR) devices,the concept o distributed FACS (DFACS) has emerged in the past decade. DFACS comprise a number olow-rating (0.01–2 MVAR) devices distributed along power transmission lines. Devices along a single line orcoordinated across multiple lines can provide control capabilities in aggregate. Tis distributed concept hasmany advantages, including lower cost, lighter weight, easier installation, and the ability to be mass produced.DFACS have been supported by ARPA-E’s GENI program, but more work is needed to lower costs, increasecapabilities, and develop and demonstrate control schemes.


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Another concept that can be utilized or power flow control is the magnetic amplifier. By leveraging powerelectronics and a magnetic core, low voltage signals can be amplified to control power flows on high voltagetransmission lines. Construction o the magnetic amplifier power flow controller is somewhat similar to thato a power transormer, and utilities could be more comortable with its installation. Many technical challengesstill remain, such as high voltage insulation, shielding, and demonstration, but these systems are estimated tocost less than $10/kVA.

Protection Equipment

As power flows and system dynamics change rom the deployment and use o advanced technologies, the roleand configuration o protective equipment (such as circuit breakers, surge arresters, and ault current limiters)will also need to evolve. Moreover, as protection schemes become more complex due to two-way powerflow that is inherent within a modern power system, flexible protection schemes will be required to adapt tochanging conditions on the grid. Additionally, undesirable or excessive current flows or overvoltages arisingrom natural events (e.g., lightning strikes or geomagnetic disturbance), system operations (e.g., switchingsurges or transients), or ault conditions (e.g., an unintentional short circuit or partial short circuit) can damageor destroy expensive grid component technologiesnew and oldsuch as power transormers, HVDC

converters, FACS devices, and even circuit breakers.

Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers are mechanical switches and protection devices that electrically isolate circuits and componentsunder normal operating conditions or automatically in emergency situations such as sustained aults. Tecommand to isolate the circuit is usually provided by protective relays. Although electromechanical breakersare considered mature and reliable, urther research and understanding o arc physics would enable quickerdetection o aults and ault locations. Hybrid switches, made rom the combination o mechanical and solid-state devices, potentially provide aster interruption capabilities, which open opportunities or dynamic aultcoordination. While these technologies are mature or HVAC applications, they are not as mature or HVDCapplications. HVAC circuit breakers open during the zero crossing o voltage to minimize arcing, but no such

crossing occurs in DC power flows, presenting unique design and reliability challenges. A ull solid-state-basedHVDC circuit breaker should be considered since advanced semiconductor devices are becoming available.For advanced multiterminal HVDC networks to be realized, reliable HVDC circuit breakers with matchingpower ratings are needed. Initial research has been conducted in electromechanical, solid-state, and hybrid DCcircuit breakers. ABB has already developed a prototype or a hybrid HVDC breaker, which combines powerelectronic devices with a mechanical switch, but more research is needed to accelerate the development o thistechnology.67 Material and design innovations can help drive down costs, increase power ratings, and acceleratetechnology deployment. In addition, MDC networks require advanced methods or DC ault identificationand location. Since many components within HVDC networks are located in isolated, and even undersea,locations, these enhancements will aid in system protection, maintenance, and restoration.

Fault Current Limiters

When aults occur, large currents (5 to 20 times nominal68 with some claiming up to 200 times nominal)can develop. Te maximum ault current in a system tends to increase over time due to increased loads andsubsequent increase in generation, the existence o parallel conducting paths, more interconnections, andthe addition o distributed generation.70 Te best way to handle a ault is with a device that can intercept thesurge on an exceptionally short time rame, divert the high current until it dissipates, and then reset itselautomatically without human intervention. Fault current limiters (FCLs) are devices that limit these excessivecurrents in transmission and distribution networks to manageable levels. Tey operate by rapidly inserting alarge resistance or reactance to a line to absorb the excessive energy or limit the current. FCLs also decrease the


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required rating o the equipment they are protecting, alleviating the need or utilities to upgrade circuit breakersand substations to handle higher ault currents as the system evolves.

Superconducting ault current limiters (SFCLs) have the unique property o having little to no resistance inthe superconducting state but quickly become resistive at the transition temperature. Tey also do not add

impedance to the circuit during normal operation.71 During ault conditions, the excess current heats thedevices and triggers the transition. Te DOE OE led R&D efforts in this technology. Various prototypes weredeveloped, and the first SFCL in the U.S. electric grid was demonstrated in 2009. SFCL technology is starting tomature rom R&D and demonstration projects into commercially available systems. Applied Materials recentlyannounced a commercial order o two SFCLs to an independent power producer in Tailand and currently hasan SFCL operating in New York.72 Te New York SFCL system has successully limited 15 aults that could haveresulted in service outages.73 R&D efforts with SFCLs are still needed to reduce the cost o superconductingwire and rerigeration systems.74 Tere are also power electronics-based FCLs that use semiconductor devices toinsert the desired impedance during aults.

Surge Arresters

Increased use o power electronics-based controllers can increase power system susceptibility to lightningstrikes, overvoltage, and other phenomena i appropriate protection schemes and technologies are not used.

Surge arresters operate by providing a path to ground when an undesirable voltage is reached. Te selection o

arresters is coordinated with the insulation ratings o the equipment they are protecting so they can discharge

the excess power beore damage occurs.75 ypical station class arresters are characterized by Upl/U

r ratios o 2.5

at 20 kAp lightning strikes.76 Tis rating implies that power electronic-based systems will need to be built with

significant overvoltage margins i typical arresters are used, thereby increasing system costs. Improving surge

arresters with lower Upl/U

r ratios or more dynamic abilities can help lower costs or uture grid transmission and

distribution components that use semiconductor devices. A significant paradigm shif would need to be made

or next-generation surge arresters with lower ratios to still unction without allowing too much current through

during switching events and still having temporary overvoltage capability to survive. However, more detailed

analysis is required to investigate the easibility o using new surge arresters on broader system protection.


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Endnotes1 “Supply and Disposition o Electricity, 2002 through 2012.” U.S. Energy Inormation Administration. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.eia.

gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_01_03.html.

2 Hellmuth, M.; Bruzgul, J.; Schultz, P.; Spindler, D.; Pacini, H. “Assessment o Climate Change Risks to Energy Reliability in the WECCRegion.” ICF International or the Western Electricity Coordinating Council, December 26, 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015: https://www.

wecc.biz/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?sourcedoc=/Reliability/Assessment-o-Climate-Change-Risks-to-Reliability-ICF-Dec-2014.pd&action=deault&DeaultItemOpen=1.

3 “echnology Perormance Report #1—Irvine Smart Grid Demonstration: A Regional Smart Grid Demonstration Project.” Southern CaliorniaEdison, p. 70. Accessed March 6, 2015: https://www.smartgrid.gov/sites/deault/files/doc/files/SCE-ISGD-PR-1_Final.pd .

4 Age alone does not cause grid ailure. Maintenance programs are designed to effectively monitor equipment condition and ensure thatnecessary improvements or replacements are implemented to ensure reliability.

5 American Society o Civil Engineers. Failure to Act Economic Studies. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.asce.org/inrastructure_policy_reports/.

6 “Large Power ransormers and the U.S. Grid.” U.S. Department o Energy, Inrastructure Security and Energy Restoration Office o ElectricityDelivery and Energy Reliability, April 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/04/15/LPStudyUpdate-040914.pd .

7 “Economic Benefits o Increasing Electric Grid Resilience to Weather Outages.” Executive Office o the President, August 2013. Accessed March6, 2015: http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/08/2/Grid%20Resiliency%20Report_FINAL.pd .

8 American Society o Civil Engineers. Failure to Act Economic Studies. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.asce.org/inrastructure_policy_reports/.

9 Hall, K. L. “An Updated Study on the Undergrounding o Overhead Power Lines.” Hall Energy Consulting Inc., 2012. Accessed March 6, 2015:http://www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/electricreliability/undergrounding/Documents/UndergroundReport.pd .

10 “Estimating the Costs and Benefits o the Smart Grid.” EPRI, 2011. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.rmi.org/Content/Files/EstimatingCostsSmartGRid.pd .

11 “ransmission & Distribution Inrastructure.” Harris Williams & Co., 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.harriswilliams.com/sites/deault/files/industry_reports/ep_td_white_paper_06_10_14_final.pd?cm_mid=3575875&cm_crmid=e5418e44-29e-e211-9e7-00505695730e&cm_medium=email .

12 “ransmission and Distribution Equipment and Systems: Facts and Figures.” Newton-Evans Research Company, 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015:http://www.newton-evans.com/transmission-and-distribution-equipment-and-systems-acts-and-figures/.

13 “ransmission & Distribution Inrastructure.” Harris Williams & Co., 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.harriswilliams.com/sites/deault/files/industry_reports/ep_td_white_paper_06_10_14_final.pd?cm_mid=3575875&cm_crmid=e5418e44-29e-e211-9e7-00505695730e&cm_medium=email .

14 “ransmission and Distribution Equipment and Systems: Facts and Figures.” Newton-Evans Research Company, 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015:http://www.newton-evans.com/transmission-and-distribution-equipment-and-systems-acts-and-figures/.

15 “Electricity ransmission & Distribution White Paper.” NRGExpert, 2013. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.nrgexpert.com/files/NRG%20Expert%20Electricity%20&D%20White%20Paper.pd .

16 “World Energy Investment Outlook.” International Energy Agency, 2014. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www.iea.org/publications/reepublications/publication/weio2014.pd .

17 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Network Update. MISO Energy, 2015. Accessed March 3, 2015: https://www.misoenergy.org/Events/Pages/HVDC20141016.aspx .

18 “Large Power ransormers and the U.S. Grid.” U.S. Department o Energy, Inrastructure Security and Energy Restoration Office oElectricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, April 2014. Accessed March 3, 2015: http://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/04/15/LPStudyUpdate-040914.pd .

19 Distribution transormers covered by standard defined in the Code o Federal Regulations, 10 CFR 431.192. Accessed April 1, 2015: http://www.gpo.gov/dsys/pkg/CFR-2012-title10-vol3/pd/CFR-2012-title10-vol3%20sec431192.pdttp:/www.gpo.gov/dsys/pkg/CFR-2011-title10-vol3/

pd/CFR-2011-title10-vol3-sec431-192.pd .

20 “Electric Power—Distribution Systems (Distribution ransormer).” U.S. Department o Labor. Accessed March 3, 2015: https://www.osha.gov/SLC/etools/electric_power/illustrated_glossary/distribution_system/distribution_transormers.html.

21 “Large Power ransormers and the U.S. Grid.” U.S. Department o Energy, Inrastructure Security and Energy Restoration Office oElectricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, April 2014. Accessed March 3, 2015: http://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/04/15/LPStudyUpdate-040914.pd .

22 “Power ransormers Built or Reliability and Efficiency.” ABB. Accessed March 6, 2015: http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot252.ns/ veritydisplay/a2492a9e17a69c1a83257984002ada63/$file/Global_low%20res.pd.

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Glossary and Acronyms

Advanced Metering

Infrastructure (AMI)

An integrated system of smart meters, communications networks, and

data management systems that enable two-way communication between

utilities and customers.

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

Edison Electric Institute

(EEI)

An association that represents the interests of U.S. shareholder-owned

electric utilities.

Electric Power Research

Institute (EPRI)

A nonprofit organization that conducts research, development and

demonstration (RD&D) relating to the electric power sector.

Fault current limiter

(FCL)

A FCL limits excessive current from flowing through the system and

allows for the continual, uninterrupted operation of the electrical system.

Flexible alternating

current transmission

system (FACTS)

A power electronic-based system that provides control of one or more

transmission system parameters in an AC grid.

Future renewable

electric energy delivery

and management

(FREEDM) Center

The FREEDM System Center was founded by the National Science

Foundation in 2009 to promote innovation technologies in power

distribution.

High temperature

superconductors (HTS)

Materials that display superconducting properties at temperatures above

that of liquid nitrogen.

High temperature-low

sag (HTLS)

Conductors in which the inner core material carries all the tension, and

the aluminum wires carry almost all the current. Consequently, the

conductor can carry more current while sagging less at higher operating

temperatures.

High-voltage, direct

current (HVDC)

A system that uses high voltage DC for bulk transmission of electrical

power.

Insulated-gate bipolar

transistor (IGBT)

A device that is primarily used as an electronic switch for power flows.

Interline power flow

controller (IPFC)

A concept for the compensation and effective power flow management

of multi-line transmission systems.

International

Electrotechnical

Commission (IEC)

A non-profit, non-government international standards organization that

prepares and publishes standards for all electrical, electronic and related

technologies.

KWh (kilowatt-hour) A measure of electrical energy.

Large power transformer

(LPT)

A power transformer is device used for transforming power (i.e., voltage

levels) from one circuit to another without changing the frequency. LPT

is broadly used to describe a power transformer used in bulk power

systems.


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Line-commutated

convertors (LCC)

A type of HVDC converter technology that relies on the line voltage of an

AC system (i.e., line-commutated) for the conversion process.

Magnetic amplifier

power flow controller

(MAPFC)

A power flow controller concept that uses electromagnetic coupling to

amplify a control signal.

Metal oxide

semiconductor field-

effect transistor

(MOSFET)

A metal oxide based semiconductor device used for amplifying or

switching electronic signals.

MVA; kVA Megavolt-ampere; kilovolt-ampere. Both are units of apparent power.

MVAR; kVAR Megavolt-ampere-reactive; kilovolt-ampere-reactive. Both are units of

reactive power.

National Science

Foundation (NSF)

An independent U.S. government agency responsible for promoting

science and engineering through research programs and projects.

PJM A regional transmission organization (RTO) that coordinates the

movement of wholesale electricity in all or parts of 13 states and the

District of Columbia in the U.S Northeast.

PPL Polypropylene paper laminate.

Recovery Transformer

(RecX)

The goal of this program is to increase the resilience of the nation’s

electric transmission grid by drastically reducing the recovery time

associated with transformer outages. The first prototype transformer was

designed by the RecX consortium and is now installed at a CenterPoint

Energy substation for testing.

Solid State Transformers(SST)

A transformer based on semiconductor devices that is capable ofsupplying power at requisite frequency and voltage. Unlike conventional

transformers, SSTs do not rely on electromagnetic induction for voltage

step-up/step-down.

Unified Power Flow

Controller (UPFC)

A device that is capable of controlling voltage magnitude, active and

reactive power flows.

Voltage source converter

(VSC)

An electric power convertor which changes the voltage of an electrical

power source. It is used in HVDC convertor technology.

XPLE High density cross-linked polyethy