Qualitative Data Analysis Qualitative Data Analysis : An introduction: An introduction

Carol GrbichCarol Grbich

Chapter 19:Chapter 19:

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis

Two approaches to identifying and analysing Two approaches to identifying and analysing discourses are; discourses are;

1.1. Foucauldian discourse analysisFoucauldian discourse analysis

2.2. Critical discourse analysis (CDA)Critical discourse analysis (CDA)

Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis

Key pointsKey points Discourses are the spoken or written practices or visual representations which Discourses are the spoken or written practices or visual representations which

characterize a topic, an era, or a cultural practice.characterize a topic, an era, or a cultural practice... Discourse analysis spans Discourse analysis spans a broad field from formal linguistic approaches a broad field from formal linguistic approaches

through Foucauldian analyses to cultural and critical communication studies through Foucauldian analyses to cultural and critical communication studies approachesapproaches

.. Foucauldian discourse analysis identifies statements and tracks their changes Foucauldian discourse analysis identifies statements and tracks their changes

and challenges historically in the mapping of the creation and maintenance of and challenges historically in the mapping of the creation and maintenance of power-laden discoursespower-laden discourses

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) seeks how discursive practices within societal Critical discourse analysis (CDA) seeks how discursive practices within societal structures secure and maintain power over people structures secure and maintain power over people

Various hybrid approaches to discourse analysis, combining with other forms Various hybrid approaches to discourse analysis, combining with other forms of analysis and interpretation, continue to be developed.of analysis and interpretation, continue to be developed.

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis When to useWhen to use: : when the identification, tracking and operation of when the identification, tracking and operation of

powerful discourses is usefulpowerful discourses is useful

Type of research question best suitedType of research question best suited: : How did this particular way of How did this particular way of

thinking/behaving/writing/talking eventuate? thinking/behaving/writing/talking eventuate? What are the outcomes? What are the outcomes? What other ways of knowing have been marginalised? What other ways of knowing have been marginalised?

StrengthsStrengths: : Highlighting of the origins and functioning of Highlighting of the origins and functioning of commonly accepted discourses with the capacity to track them commonly accepted discourses with the capacity to track them historically and to illuminate marginalised ideas.historically and to illuminate marginalised ideas.

WeaknessesWeaknesses: : incapacity to do much beyond record the incapacity to do much beyond record the dominance of powerful discourses unless feminist/action dominance of powerful discourses unless feminist/action research is undertaken to reinstitute other ideas.research is undertaken to reinstitute other ideas.

Foucauldian discourse analysisFoucauldian discourse analysis The Foucauldian approach uses historical and political tracking The Foucauldian approach uses historical and political tracking

of documentation over time and the conceptual notion of power of documentation over time and the conceptual notion of power for interpretation. for interpretation.

Once a discourse has been established, Foucault suggests that it Once a discourse has been established, Foucault suggests that it disperses throughout society. He uses the metaphor of the body to disperses throughout society. He uses the metaphor of the body to represent society in order to show discourses filtering through represent society in order to show discourses filtering through the arterial and venous systems of the populace and then being the arterial and venous systems of the populace and then being fed back in a cyclical process through the capillaries, enabling fed back in a cyclical process through the capillaries, enabling maintenance and reinforcement.maintenance and reinforcement.

Power is a key aspect of discourse. Technologies of power includePower is a key aspect of discourse. Technologies of power include sovereign power (monarchy) sovereign power (monarchy) disciplinary power (legal system) disciplinary power (legal system)

maintained through ‘normalisation’ of discourses maintained through ‘normalisation’ of discourses surveillance and monitoring, surveillance and monitoring,

and enforced by the law, police, warders and the courts. and enforced by the law, police, warders and the courts.

Foucauldian discourse analysisFoucauldian discourse analysisTwo aspects:Two aspects:The outside looking inThe outside looking in: : historical development and tracking of a discourse over time, historical development and tracking of a discourse over time, mapping the surfaces, identifying the players and the social, mapping the surfaces, identifying the players and the social,

economic, and political climate which fostered its development. economic, and political climate which fostered its development. Locating challenges and seeing what happened to these – where Locating challenges and seeing what happened to these – where

did they come from? Why? And if they were rejected, how were did they come from? Why? And if they were rejected, how were they dispensed with? And by whom? For what purpose?they dispensed with? And by whom? For what purpose?

The inside looking outThe inside looking out:: to identifying constituents in terms of statements, themes, to identifying constituents in terms of statements, themes,

arguments, traces of challenges and traces of ideas which changed arguments, traces of challenges and traces of ideas which changed directions. directions.

Seeking disunity, discontinuity and the limits to the discourse,Seeking disunity, discontinuity and the limits to the discourse, monitoring dispersion and tracking discontinuity. monitoring dispersion and tracking discontinuity.

Guidelines for Foucauldian discourse Guidelines for Foucauldian discourse analysisanalysis

The following broad guidelines have been drawn from Foucault’s The following broad guidelines have been drawn from Foucault’s writings: writings:

1.1. Track the historical development of the discourse over time, Track the historical development of the discourse over time, identify the players and the social, economic and political identify the players and the social, economic and political climate which fostered its developmentclimate which fostered its development

2.2. Identify constituents in terms of objects, statements, themes, Identify constituents in terms of objects, statements, themes, arguments, traces of challenges, traces of ideas which changed arguments, traces of challenges, traces of ideas which changed directions. directions.

3.3. Seek disunity and discontinuity and the limits to the Seek disunity and discontinuity and the limits to the discourse. Monitor dispersion in other fields. discourse. Monitor dispersion in other fields.

4.4. Locate challenges and see what happened to these – where Locate challenges and see what happened to these – where did they come from? why? and if they were rejected, how did they come from? why? and if they were rejected, how were they dispensed? and by whom? for what purpose? were they dispensed? and by whom? for what purpose?

Limitations of Foucauldian analysisLimitations of Foucauldian analysis

The focus on language has been seen to exclude other The focus on language has been seen to exclude other contextual experiences which may be relevant. contextual experiences which may be relevant.

Language may also be problematic depending on whether Language may also be problematic depending on whether it is seen as structuralist in meaning or post structuralist it is seen as structuralist in meaning or post structuralist (transitional) as well as having single or multiple (transitional) as well as having single or multiple meanings.meanings.

Feminists have criticised Foucault for not addressing the Feminists have criticised Foucault for not addressing the social position of women as being different from powerless social position of women as being different from powerless groups in general. groups in general.

The absence of praxis – actually doing something about The absence of praxis – actually doing something about any imbalances of powerany imbalances of power

Critical Discourse AnalysisCritical Discourse Analysis

The basic premise of CDA is that discourse is shaped by social The basic premise of CDA is that discourse is shaped by social groupings, culture and constructs and has the power to limit groupings, culture and constructs and has the power to limit our knowledge and beliefs. our knowledge and beliefs.

3 things interact: 3 things interact:

the textthe text (representing facts , beliefs and events identity (representing facts , beliefs and events identity construction and interpretation) construction and interpretation)

discursive practicesdiscursive practices (the rules, norms, behavours, speech, (the rules, norms, behavours, speech, social identites and hierachies that maintain power and social identites and hierachies that maintain power and create responses to the textcreate responses to the text

thethe broad social contexbroad social contextt (Fairclough, 2000(Fairclough, 2000))  

Principles which underpin CDAPrinciples which underpin CDA The focus in CDA is social problems The focus in CDA is social problems

Power is developed and maintained in society by discursive Power is developed and maintained in society by discursive practicespractices

Discourses reproduce historical inequalitiesDiscourses reproduce historical inequalities

A sociocognitive approach can expose the links between text A sociocognitive approach can expose the links between text and societyand society

Systematic discourse analysis involves investigation and Systematic discourse analysis involves investigation and interpretation of content and contextinterpretation of content and context

Social action is part of CDASocial action is part of CDAadapted from Fairclough and Wodak (adapted from Fairclough and Wodak (1997: 271-280)1997: 271-280)

Guidelines for CDAGuidelines for CDA

Identify FramingIdentify Framing Read the text twice; first generally next more critically within the expected structure of Read the text twice; first generally next more critically within the expected structure of

its genreits genre Identify strategies of placement (headings, graphs, pictures, keywords,etc)Identify strategies of placement (headings, graphs, pictures, keywords,etc) Note what could have been said (but wasn’t)Note what could have been said (but wasn’t) Whose voices are used and whose are missing?Whose voices are used and whose are missing?

InterpretationInterpretation Note use of sentences – how many on one aspect of a topic how many on anotherNote use of sentences – how many on one aspect of a topic how many on another Who is depicted as powerful? Who is passive? Why?Who is depicted as powerful? Who is passive? Why? Note use of passive verbs to focus on one aspectNote use of passive verbs to focus on one aspect Question statements the author is taking for grantedQuestion statements the author is taking for granted Note insinuations to take power from people (minimising, comparing with others)Note insinuations to take power from people (minimising, comparing with others) Note connotations eg ‘terrorist’ v ‘freedom fighter’Note connotations eg ‘terrorist’ v ‘freedom fighter’ Note use of uncertainty (may, might, should, could) to slant informationNote use of uncertainty (may, might, should, could) to slant information Register: is it optimism? Is it scepticism? Does it use direct quotes (more legitimate) Register: is it optimism? Is it scepticism? Does it use direct quotes (more legitimate)

or 3rd person comment (less powerful)?or 3rd person comment (less powerful)? Thomas Huckin (1997Thomas Huckin (1997))

Criticisms of CDACriticisms of CDA If action and emancipation are core to CDA how will they be If action and emancipation are core to CDA how will they be

evaluated as outcomes?evaluated as outcomes?

How systematic is CDA analysis? Linguistically speakingHow systematic is CDA analysis? Linguistically speaking

Is the political analysis actually derived from systematic Is the political analysis actually derived from systematic analysis of the language or is this shaped and used to further analysis of the language or is this shaped and used to further researcher political interests?researcher political interests?

Are people active agents able to identify and resist oppression Are people active agents able to identify and resist oppression or rather to recognise it but too conditioned to act or rather to recognise it but too conditioned to act effectively?effectively?

Has the dynamic and multiple natures of individuals and their Has the dynamic and multiple natures of individuals and their different interpretations over time been adequately different interpretations over time been adequately recognised?recognised?