Qualitative Research Qualitative Research DesignDesign

QuestionsQuestions

What are the philosophical What are the philosophical assumptions that underpin this assumptions that underpin this approach?approach?

i.e., what is the nature of the research?i.e., what is the nature of the research?

What is the methodological basis of What is the methodological basis of this approach?this approach?

i.e., how will it be operationalised ?i.e., how will it be operationalised ?

Methodological questionsMethodological questions

preferred approaches/key aspects of preferred approaches/key aspects of research designresearch design

preferred methods of preferred methods of data collectiondata collection:: samplingsampling methods of obtaining datamethods of obtaining data

preferred approaches to preferred approaches to handling handling datadata:: analysisanalysis maintaining rigourmaintaining rigour

Views of realityViews of realityFixed, Objective RealityFixed, Objective Reality logical and empirical evidence:logical and empirical evidence:

e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology; experimental e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology; experimental action research ('action science'); experimental case studiesaction research ('action science'); experimental case studies

Multiple, Subjective RealitiesMultiple, Subjective Realities understanding and interpretation:understanding and interpretation:

e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, collaborative action research, some case study approachescollaborative action research, some case study approaches

Mutual, Constructed RealitiesMutual, Constructed Realities dialect and reflection:dialect and reflection:

e.g., constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, e.g., constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approachesparticipative action research, some case study approaches

Research designResearch design FixedFixed research question, hypothesis, sample, instrument and research question, hypothesis, sample, instrument and

analysis all specified clearly at the outset; do not change:analysis all specified clearly at the outset; do not change: e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology, some experimental case e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology, some experimental case

studiesstudies

FlexibleFlexible some aspects planned in advance, others develop during some aspects planned in advance, others develop during

study:study: e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, some action research e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, some action research

(including experimental), case studies(including experimental), case studies

ResponsiveResponsive minimum advance planning, must show links between data minimum advance planning, must show links between data

and emerging design:and emerging design: e.g., grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry, e.g., grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry,

feminist research, participative action research, some case study feminist research, participative action research, some case study approachesapproaches

SamplingSampling

1 Pre-Determined1 Pre-Determined

• • for representativeness and statistical validity (for representativeness and statistical validity (random, quota sample random, quota sample etc; for experiments, surveys, epidemiology)etc; for experiments, surveys, epidemiology)

RepresentativenessRepresentativeness: depends on the research question the study is : depends on the research question the study is designed to answer.designed to answer.

‘‘If a given experience is possible, it is also subject to universalization’ If a given experience is possible, it is also subject to universalization’ (Haugh 1987) (Haugh 1987)

• • for relevance and assumed understanding of phenomenon under reviewfor relevance and assumed understanding of phenomenon under review selective and purposeful samples identified at start of study; e.g., in some selective and purposeful samples identified at start of study; e.g., in some

case studies; cooperative inquiry; ethnography; phenomenologycase studies; cooperative inquiry; ethnography; phenomenology

• • for pragmatic reasonsfor pragmatic reasons e.g., for ethical approval, to delimit time period (e.g., for courses of study, e.g., for ethical approval, to delimit time period (e.g., for courses of study,

funding bodies)funding bodies)

2 Responsive2 Responsive

• • for reasons of participation, emergent theory-for reasons of participation, emergent theory-building or mutual sharing, building or mutual sharing, theoretical sampling; theoretical sampling; 'serial and contingent', e.g., in grounded theory, 'serial and contingent', e.g., in grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiryconstructivism, co-operative inquiry

3 Cyclical3 Cyclical

• • clearly defined patterns and phases for specifying clearly defined patterns and phases for specifying and drawing samples, and drawing samples, action research, some case action research, some case studies, constructivist evaluationsstudies, constructivist evaluations

Define the question, the Define the question, the participants, the process and participants, the process and

your expectations.your expectations. Delimit the boundaries of the question. Delimit the boundaries of the question. Be clear which ‘people’ you are Be clear which ‘people’ you are

concerned with. concerned with. What exactly are you intending to do? What exactly are you intending to do? What do you expect to be said, to appear What do you expect to be said, to appear

or to happen?or to happen? Be clear on starting point. Be clear on starting point.

Big ‘Q' methodology: participant led or Big ‘Q' methodology: participant led or bottom-up; open-ended & flexible.bottom-up; open-ended & flexible.

Issues in qualitative Issues in qualitative research research

Developing questions: conceptualization as an Developing questions: conceptualization as an ongoing process. ongoing process.

Variables that "grow“.Variables that "grow“. Sampling: Sampling:

"Snowball sampling", negative case analysis, theoretical "Snowball sampling", negative case analysis, theoretical sampling, gaining access & developing relationship. sampling, gaining access & developing relationship.

Producing data using recursive process of gathering Producing data using recursive process of gathering maximum information from numerous sources: maximum information from numerous sources:

Type of data:Type of data: Naturalistic data, minimizes data reduction- Naturalistic data, minimizes data reduction-

comprehensive record of participants’ words & actions.comprehensive record of participants’ words & actions. Data analysis as ongoing processData analysis as ongoing process Issues of validity and reliability Issues of validity and reliability Ethical issues, e.g., role conflict of the researcher.Ethical issues, e.g., role conflict of the researcher.

Methodologies and Methodologies and traditions in qualitative traditions in qualitative

researchresearch Grounded theoryGrounded theory Phenomenology & Interpretative Phenomenology & Interpretative

phenomenological analysis phenomenological analysis EthnographyEthnography Discourse analysis Discourse analysis Conversation analysis Conversation analysis Interpretive InteractionInterpretive Interaction Narrative psychology Narrative psychology Feminist PostmodernismFeminist Postmodernism HermeneuticsHermeneutics ……

Research Design and Data Research Design and Data Collection StrategiesCollection Strategies

Eisner 1991: a "paucity of methodological prescriptions" for Eisner 1991: a "paucity of methodological prescriptions" for qualitative research, as premium placed on the strengths of the qualitative research, as premium placed on the strengths of the researcher rather than on standardization. researcher rather than on standardization.

Lincoln and Guba 1985 - detailed outline for the design of Lincoln and Guba 1985 - detailed outline for the design of naturalistic inquiry:naturalistic inquiry:

1. Determine a focus for the inquiry. 1. Determine a focus for the inquiry. 2. Determine the fit of the research paradigm to the research focus. 2. Determine the fit of the research paradigm to the research focus. 3. Determine where and from whom data will be collected. 3. Determine where and from whom data will be collected. 4. Determine what the successive phases of the inquiry will be. 4. Determine what the successive phases of the inquiry will be. 5. Determine what additional instrumentation may be used, beyond 5. Determine what additional instrumentation may be used, beyond

the researcher as the human instrument.the researcher as the human instrument.6. Plan data collection and recording modes. 6. Plan data collection and recording modes. 7. Plan which data analysis procedures will be used.7. Plan which data analysis procedures will be used.8. Plan the logistics of data collection, including scheduling and 8. Plan the logistics of data collection, including scheduling and

budgeting.budgeting.9. Plan the techniques that will be used to determine 9. Plan the techniques that will be used to determine

trustworthiness. trustworthiness.

Sampling strategies for qualitative Sampling strategies for qualitative researchersresearchers

Qualitative inquiry uses purposeful Qualitative inquiry uses purposeful sampling sampling

Patton 1990 - 16 types of purposeful Patton 1990 - 16 types of purposeful sampling, sampling,

Lincoln and Guba (1985)- maximum Lincoln and Guba (1985)- maximum variation sampling: shared patterns variation sampling: shared patterns that cut across cases. that cut across cases.

Three types of sampling error:Three types of sampling error:

distortions caused by insufficient distortions caused by insufficient breadth in sampling; breadth in sampling;

distortions introduced by changes distortions introduced by changes over time; over time;

distortions caused by lack of depth distortions caused by lack of depth in data collection at each site.in data collection at each site.

Data Collection TechniquesData Collection Techniques

2 main forms: 2 main forms:

Interviews. Interviews.

Observation.Observation.

InterviewsInterviews Primary strategy, or in conjunction with observation, Primary strategy, or in conjunction with observation,

document analysis, or other techniques. document analysis, or other techniques. uses open-ended questions that allow for individual uses open-ended questions that allow for individual

variations. variations.

Three types: 1) informal, conversational; 2) semi-Three types: 1) informal, conversational; 2) semi-structured; and 3) standardized, open-ended. structured; and 3) standardized, open-ended.

Interview guide or "schedule" - list of questions or Interview guide or "schedule" - list of questions or general to be explored during each interview. general to be explored during each interview.

Recording DataRecording Data. . written notes or recorderwritten notes or recorder

ObservationsObservations

Observation of participants in the Observation of participants in the context of a natural scene. context of a natural scene. observational data used for the purpose of observational data used for the purpose of

descriptiondescription leads to deeper understandings than leads to deeper understandings than

interviews aloneinterviews alone skilled observer is trained in the process skilled observer is trained in the process

of monitoring both verbal and nonverbal of monitoring both verbal and nonverbal cues, and in the use of concrete, cues, and in the use of concrete, unambiguous, descriptive language. unambiguous, descriptive language.

Several observation strategies available: Several observation strategies available:

watch from outside, without being watch from outside, without being observed. observed.

maintain a passive presence. maintain a passive presence. engage in limited interaction.engage in limited interaction. more active control over the more active control over the

observation. observation. act as a full participant in the situation. act as a full participant in the situation.

Advantages, disadvantages and concerns Advantages, disadvantages and concerns attached to each strategy:attached to each strategy:

presence of an observer introduces a presence of an observer introduces a distortion of the natural scene distortion of the natural scene

Critical decisions dependent on the unique Critical decisions dependent on the unique set of questions and resources brought to set of questions and resources brought to each study each study

legal and ethical responsibilities.legal and ethical responsibilities.

Recording DataRecording Data. . Field notes, may also use photographs, Field notes, may also use photographs,

videotapes, and audio tapes.videotapes, and audio tapes.

Other Sources of DataOther Sources of DataAnalysis of documents, Analysis of documents, hermeneutic inquiryhermeneutic inquiry..

Deciding When to Stop SamplingDeciding When to Stop SamplingFew strict guidelines. Few strict guidelines. 1) exhaustion of resources;1) exhaustion of resources;2) emergence of regularities; 2) emergence of regularities; 3) overextension.3) overextension.

research goals, achieve depth through research goals, achieve depth through triangulation of data sources, greater breadth triangulation of data sources, greater breadth through examination of a variety of sampling through examination of a variety of sampling sites.sites.

Purpose of Study Purpose of Study Research questionResearch question Research strategyResearch strategy Examples of data Examples of data collection collection techniquestechniques

EXPLORATORYEXPLORATORY

to investigate little to investigate little understood understood phenomenaphenomena

to identify or to identify or discover important discover important variablesvariables

to generate to generate hypotheses for hypotheses for further researchfurther research

What is happening What is happening in this social in this social program?program?

What are the salient What are the salient themes or patterns themes or patterns in participants’ in participants’ meaning structures?meaning structures?

How are these How are these patterns linked with patterns linked with one another? one another?

Case studyCase study

Field studyField study

Participant Participant observationobservation

In-depth In-depth interviewinginterviewing

Elite interviewing Elite interviewing

EXPLANATORYEXPLANATORY

to explain the forces to explain the forces causing the causing the phenomena in phenomena in questionquestion

to identify plausible to identify plausible causal networks causal networks shaping the shaping the phenomenon phenomenon

What events, What events, beliefs, attitudes, beliefs, attitudes, policies are shaping policies are shaping this phenomenon?this phenomenon?

How do these forces How do these forces interact to result in interact to result in the phenomenon? the phenomenon?

Multisite case studyMultisite case study

HistoryHistory

Field study Field study

Participant Participant observationobservation

In-depth interviewsIn-depth interviews

Survey Survey questionnairequestionnaire

Document analysisDocument analysis

DESCRIPTIVEDESCRIPTIVE

to document the to document the phenomenon of phenomenon of interestinterest

What are the salient What are the salient behaviors, events, behaviors, events, beliefs, attitudes, beliefs, attitudes, structures, structures, processes occurring processes occurring in this phenomenon? in this phenomenon?

Field studyField study

Case studyCase study Participant Participant observationobservation

In-depth interviewsIn-depth interviews

Document analysisDocument analysis

Unobstrusive Unobstrusive measuresmeasures

Survey Survey questionnairequestionnaire

PREDICTIVEPREDICTIVE

to predict the to predict the outcomes of the outcomes of the phenomenonphenomenon

to forecast the to forecast the events and events and behaviors resulting behaviors resulting from the from the phenomenon phenomenon

What will occur as a What will occur as a result of this result of this phenomenon? phenomenon?

ExperimentExperiment

Quasi-experiment Quasi-experiment Survey Survey questionnaire questionnaire (representative (representative sample)sample)

Proxemics/kinesicsProxemics/kinesics

Content analysisContent analysis