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Qualitative Research
By Dr Vishal Agrawal&Dr Menaal Kaushal
JR-1, Department of SPMSN Medical College, Agra
Qualitative Research Introduction
Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Study
The Concept Of Qualitative Research
Scope Of Qualitative Research Where To Use Where Not To Use As Complementary To Quantitative Study
Steps in Qualitative Research
Types Of Sampling In Qualitative Research
Types Of Data& Forms Of Data
Qualitative Research Methods
Data Analysis
Scientific ResearchConsists of an investigation that:
seeks answers to a question
systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
collects evidence
produces findings that were not determined in advance
produces findings that may be applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
RESEARCH
MIXEDQUALITATIVEQUANTITAIV
E
APPLIED STUDY
TRADITIONAL QUALITATIVE STUDY
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Which Method We Use:
depends on:- The type of research question
- The nature of the problem being
investigated
Qualitative Research (“Phenomenology”)
Includes collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things.
It helps to understand the perspectives of the local population, thus providing the culturally specific information about opinions, values& behaviors. (Social Context)
What Sort Of Research Questions Can Qualitative Methods Best
Answer?
The Scope of Qualitative Research is to explore&
understand through
Participant’s ‘Lived experience’
“Insider’s” perspectives
And to understand In the Context
Functions Of Qualitative Research
Developing and delineating program elements
before a quantitative evaluation
Generating theory
Boosting the power of quantitative design&
Broadening the observation field
Analyzing process and individual cases to explain
the how and why of an outcome
Mixed Study MethodsQual Quant
Quant Qual
• Generate hypothesis Then Test it• Tests Generalisability
• Guides Purposive Sampling• Helps Interprets Results
Qualitative Studies
Seek to confirm hypotheses about phenomena
Instruments use more rigid, inflexible style of eliciting and categorizing responses to questions
Use highly structured methods such as questionnaires, surveys& structured observation
To quantify variation
To predict causal relationship
To describe characteristics of a population
Quantitative Studies
Seek to explore phenomena
Instruments use more flexible, iterative style of eliciting& categorizing responses to questions
Use semi-structured methods such as interviews, focus groups, and participant observation
To describe variation
To describe& explain relationship
To describe individual experiences& group norms
QualitativeStudies
Closed- ended
Numerical (obtained by assigning numerical values to responses)
Study design is stable from beginning to end
Participant responses do not influence or determine how and which questions researchers ask next- Researcher is limited by the Questionnaire
Study design is subject to statistical assumptions and conditions
Quantitative Studies
Open- ended
Textual (obtained from audiotapes, videotapes, and field notes)
Some aspects of the study are flexible
Participant responses affect how and which questions researchers ask next- Researcher may use probes
Study design is iterative, that is, data collection and research questions are adjusted according to what is learned
Example:
Close Ended Questions
Do you give OPV to your child during PPI rounds?
Yes, Always
No, Never
Sometimes/Occasionally
Most of the times
Example:
Open Ended Questions
What are your opinions about giving OPV to children, during PPI rounds?
Probe:
Why do you think that giving OPV can harm your child?
Qualitative Studies
Quantitative Studies
When To Use Qualitative Research
To inform what people are doing, thinking, and saying about a problem
To identify the important problem to be solved at community/ local/ policy levels
Generate a list of options for interventions
To investigate how best to implement promising interventions
To monitor response to interventions and assess how best to present its results to public and scientific community
When NOT To Use Qualitative Research
AloneWhen numbers are needed to make a
decision (what proportion of people )
Results are to be projected to the total
population (unless generalisability
ensured by researcher through
appropriate measures)
Sampling Techniques
Snow-ballSampling
QuotaSampling
Purposive Sampling
Chain- ReferralSampling
data review and analysis is done in conjunction with data collection
Finds& recruits “hidden populations,” not accessible through other sampling strategies.
Is a Subtype of Purposive sampling, when we pre-fix the number of participants from every category in the study
Sample SizeUnlike quantitative studies, here sample size Is
not determined by conventional formulae, but depends on the point of Saturation.
Goal is to understand phenomena, not to represent population, so Select information-rich cases for intensive study
Minimum samples based on expected reasonable coverage, given the purpose of the study and constraints
The Steps In Designing A Qualitative Study
1. Establish the general problem to be investigated Of interest to the researcher
2. Stating the purpose of the study Based on problem analysis Arises from previous studies Guided by literature review Determined by who will use the research results
3. Develop a conceptual/theoretical framework for the study
4. Formulate general and specific research questions (aims and objectives)
5. Select a qualitative research design
6 Select a sampling strategy
Establish site of the research
Selection of participants
7. Ensure trustworthiness of the study
8. Determine data collection methods and develop data collection tools
9. Establish how data will be managed and analyzed
10.Interpretation and discussion of findings
11.Prepare research report
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Types Of Qualitative Research Designs
The case study
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Phenomenology
Participatory research
Context
Phenomenon under Study
Analysis(Terminal)
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
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Context
Phenomenon under Study
Context
Phenomenon under Study
Phenomenon under Study
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis(Terminal)
QUALITATIVE STUDY
Traditional Long Term Qualitative
Studies Rapport building over short
time through ice- breaking activities
Concept of Engaging in Selection rather than Holism (see next slide)
Researcher remains a “Short time Visitor” or Can use data collectors from the local community
Data collection is not iterative but can be staggered (see next slide)
Analytical process is Terminal
One-Short/ Applied Qualitative
Studies Strong Rapport Building
over long time through prolonged (>1yr) field work.
Captures field in Holism
Researcher increasingly merges with the field& becomes “as one of them” i.e. a part of the real people’s lives to understand the community “as naturally as possible”
Data collection is iterative& over prolonged time periods
Analytical process is Iterative
Context
Phenomenon under Study
Analysis(Terminal)
Staggered Data Collection
ONE- SHORT/ APPLIED
QUALITATIVE STUDY
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Qualitative Data
Indirect Semi- Direct Direct
Inferential/ Abstract
May not be Accurate
Participant’s Report
May differ with Different Perceptions
Validity of Representation
Represents The Actual Phenomenon Very Closely
Types Of Qualitative Data
Forms Of Qualitative Data
Field NotesAudio- Video
RecordingsDiagrams
Of:Participant Observations
Observations made during FGDs& In- Depth Interviews
Of: • Focused
Group Discussions
• In- Depth Interviews
E.g. Sociograms
Qualitative Research Methods
Includes:
Participant Observation
In- Depth Interviews
Focused Group Discussions (FGD)
PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
Participant ObservationA qualitative research method in which
researchers gather data either by
observing or by both observing and
participating, to varying degrees, in the
study-community’s daily activities, in
community settings relevant to the
research questions. Ex at bars, brothels,
and health clinic waiting areas, religious
settings.
Approach the participants in their own
environment
Don’t divulge the confidence- Don’t leak
out secrets!
Take Field notes- record ALL observations,
even informal communications established
can be recorded
What To ObserveAppearance might indicate membership in groups
or in sub-populations of interest to the study, such
as profession, social status, socioeconomic class,
religion or ethnicity
Verbal behavior& interactions Who speaks to whom
and for how long; who initiates interaction;
languages or dialects spoken; tone of voice,
Gender, age, ethnicity, and profession of speakers;
dynamics of interaction
Personal space How close people stand to one another.
What individuals’ preferences concerning personal space
suggest about their relationships.
Human traffic People who enter, leave, and spend time at
the observation site. Where people enter and exit; how long
they stay; who they are (ethnicity, age, gender); whether
they are alone or accompanied; number of people.
People who stand out Identify people who receive a lot of
attention from others. What differentiates them from
others; whether people consult them or they approach other
people; whether they seem to be strangers or well known
by others present.
Types Of Observers:Complete observer
Behind one-way mirror, invisible role
Observer as participantKnown, overt observer
Participant as observerPseudo-member, research role known
Advantages& Disadvantages:
It provides Familiarity with the cultural milieu
It can Uncover The Unknown Factors- It Can provide information previously unknown to researchers that is crucial for project design, data collection& interpretation of other data.
But:
It is Time- consuming- at least 1yr in the field, (as in traditional study pattern)
It is Memory based, so discipline yourself
It is Inherently Subjective so, Practice to be objective rather than narrating subjectively.
Participant Observation Steps
Determine :
the purpose of the participant observation
activity as related to the overall research
objectives.
the population(s) to be observed.
the venues in which you would like to observe
them.
Investigate possible sites for participant
observation.
Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s)
Decide how field staff will divide up or
pair off to cover all sites most effectively.
Consider how you will present yourself,
both in terms of appearance and how you
will explain your purpose to others if
necessary.
Plan how and if you will take notes during
the participant observation activity.
Remember to take your field notebook
and a pen.
After Participant Observation
Schedule time soon after participant
observation to expand your notes.
Type your notes into computer files using
the standard format set for the study
IN
DEPTH INTERVIEWS
In Depth InterviewsA qualitative research method in which a
researcher/interviewer gathers data about
an individual’s perspectives on a specific
topic(s) through a semi-structured
exchange with the individual.
In Depth InterviewsThe researcher/interviewer engages with
the individual by posing questions in a
neutral manner, listening attentively to
responses, and asking follow-up questions
and probes based on those responses.
Purpose Of InterviewsElicit feelings
Thoughts
Opinions
Previous experiences
The meaning people give to certain
events
Types Of InterviewsInformal conversational interview
General interview- guide approach
Standardized open-ended interview
Closed fixed-response interview
Combination of approaches
Types Of QuestionsExperience and behavior questions
Opinion and value questions
Feeling questions
Knowledge questions
Background/demographic questions
Advantages And Disadvantages
Advantages
•Explanatory tool
•Emic perspective
•Facilitate rapport
•More appropriate in rural
setting
•Responses more valid
Disadvantages
• Replicality difficult
• Time consuming
• Results not strictly
comparable
• Require familiarity with
language and culture
FOCUS
GROUP
DISCUSSION
What is Focus Group Discussion?
Focus group discussions are group discussions with a small group of individuals from a well defined target population on pre-selected topics that rely on interaction between group members, under the guidance of a trained facilitator.
Each participant is stimulated by the comments of others and in turn stimulate them.
What is Focus Group Discussion?
It is a qualitative method which helps to
find out the ‘How’ ‘Why’ of human
behaviour
It can provide insight into how a group
thinks about an issue, the range of
opinions and ideas, and the
inconsistencies and variations that exist
in a particular community in terms of
beliefs and their experiences &practices.
Purpose of Focus Group Discussion
Get a variety of perspectives/reactions
to a certain issue
In a short time
Mainly for eliciting opinions, values,
feelings in the group- the group norms
Key ConsiderationsThe topic should is narrowly focused
Selection of participants is also focused
by targeting individuals who meet specific
criteria
Topic should be of interest to both the
investigator and respondents.
The emphasis should be on interaction
between or among the group members.
Designing a Focus Group Discussion
Setting the objectives
Determine the target population
Plan the number of of sessions
Follow the guidelines regarding selection of participants, role of moderator/facilitator etc
Developing F.G.D. guide
Conducting F.G.D.
Analysis and interpretation of result.
Cost-effective
Quality of data enhanced by group participants
Can quickly assess the extent to which there is agreement or diversity on an issue
Enjoyable for participants
Advantages
LimitationsOutside of natural setting
Silences the minority view
Responses by each participant may be Constrained
Restricts number of questions that can be asked
Requires group process skills
Confidentiality not assured
Explores major themes, but fails to catch subtle differences
Holding a FGDHomogenous
Strangers
6-10 people
Discussion Time: 1- 2 hours
2 FGD per type of respondent
Facilitators: Moderator and note taker
Prepare discussion guide
Personal Qualities Of Moderator
Adequate knowledge on background information
about the topic and experience in conducting
FGD
Good listening skills
Leadership skills
Relationship with the participants
Patience and flexibility
Clothing
Role of ModeratorOrient the group in a proper manner.
Put forth issues/ sub issues in appropriate
questions.
Create a non-judgmental environment in
which group members feel free to
express.
Encourage interaction between
participants.
Encourage quiet participants to speak up
and quieten garrulous talkers.
Guide the direction of discussion so that it
does not wander too far from the
designated focus.
Pace the discussion appropriate for the
participant
Subtly control the time allotted to each
question and to the entire discussion.
Role of the RecorderPrimarily an observer, tape record the session.
Observe the nature of interaction, record non-verbal
communication & level of consensus
Should know what type of data she/he is expected to
collect.
If facilitator has omitted a question from the guide,
the recorder can point them out (at the end).
Identify the speakers. Note down the first few words
every time a new person speaks and make brief notes
of the content.
SociogramDiagrammatic representation of entire
session of FGD
Offers a useful method of conceptualising
group dynamics drawing comparisons
between focus groups & reflecting on
moderating technique
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FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION
(SOCIOGRAM)
QUALITATIVE
DATA
ANALYSIS
Stages In Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is a non-
linear/ iterative processNumerous rounds of questioning,
reflecting, rephrasing, analysing,
theorising, verifying after each
observation, interview, or Focus Group
Discussion
During data collectionReading – Data Immersion – reading and re-
reading
Coding – listen to the data for emerging themes
and begin to attach labels or codes to the texts
that represent the themes
After data collection
Displaying – the Themes (all information)
Developing hypotheses, questioning and
verification
Reducing – from the displayed data identify the
main points
Interpretation At all stages – searching for core
meanings of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours described
Overall interpretation
Identify how themes relate to each
other
Explain how study questions are
answered
Explain what the findings mean beyond
the context of your study
Processes In Qualitative Data Analysis
I. Reading / Data immersion
1. Read for content Are you obtaining the types of information you
intended to collect Identify emergent themes and develop
tentative explanations Note (new / surprising) topics that need to be
explored in further fieldwork
2. Note the quality of the data Have you obtained superficial or rich& deep
responses How vivid and detailed are the descriptions of
observations Is there sufficient contextual detail
3. Develop a system to identify problems
in the data (Audit Trail)
- Read identifying patterns
- After identifying themes, examine how
these are patterned
Do the themes occur in all or some of the
data
Is there a relationship between themes
Are there contradictory responses
Are there gaps in understanding – these
require further exploration
Problems in the quality of the data
require a review of:
How you are asking questions
(neutral or leading)
The venue
The composition of the groups
The style and characteristics of the
interviewer
How soon after the field activity are
notes recorded
II. Coding – No standard rules of how to code
EmergentBorrowed
Record coding decisionsRecord codes, definitions, and revisions
Usually - insert codes / labels into the margins
Building theme related filesCut and paste together into one file
similarly coded blocks of textNB identifiers that help you to identify the
original source Identify sub-themes and explore them in
greater depth
Coding qualitative data does not mean reducing it to
numbers, rather it is a means of indexing your data
While all grounded theory involves coding, not all coding
is grounded theory, again it is often assumed that because
you are coding you are ‘doing’ grounded theory, this is not
always the case
It is a common misconception that computers can code
qualitative data for you, to put it simply, they can’t.
III.Displaying data
Capture the variation or richness of each
theme
Note differences between individuals and sub-
groups
Return to the data and examine evidence that
supports each sub-theme
IV. Developing hypotheses, questioning and
verification
Extract meaning from the data
Do the categories developed make sense?
What pieces of information contradict my
emerging ideas?
What pieces of information are missing or
underdeveloped?
What other opinions should be taken into
account?
How do my own biases influence the data
collection and analysis process?
V. Data reduction
i.e. distill the information to make visible the
most essential concepts and relationships
Get an overall sense of the data
Distinguish primary/main and
secondary/sub- themes
Separate essential from non-essential
data
Use visual devices – e.g. matrices,
diagrams
VI.Interpretation
i.e. identifying the core meaning of the
data, remaining faithful to to the
perspectives of the study
participants but with wider social
and theoretical relevance
Consistent with data collected
Verified with respondents
Present multiple perspectives
(convergent and divergent views)
Did you go beyond what you expected
to find?
Credibility Of Attributed Meaning
TriangulationAs a way to increase credibility, but also check
transferability, dependability and confirmability
triangulation is often used.
Triangulation = a cross-checking of information and
conclusions in research, brought about by the use of
multiple procedures or sources. If there is agreement
between these, there is support of the interpretation of
data.
Using triangulation does not mean you get a certain
truth, but you get closer to it – reflexivity is still
necessary.
Examples Of Triangulation Techniques:
Method triangulation: Comparing data that come from the use of different methods. These could be both quantitative and qualitative. Eg. first using a questionaire to ask about eating habits in a school, and then conduct focus group interviews afterwards.
Researcher triangulation: Involves using different people as researchers. This increased the confirmability and credibility of conclusions. Without this data collection and conclusions might be affected by researcher bias.
Other triangulation thechniques include data triangulation and theory triangulation.
Some Important Concepts NATURALISTIC – Natural setting as source of data
INDUCTIVE – It seeks to build theory from data & avoid imposing researcher’s own categories of analysis
HOLISTIC – It looks at the phenomenon in totality & takes an overall perspective
TRIANGULATION – Comparing data collected from different methods
FLEXIBLE DESIGN- Emergent design as opposed to pre-determined design in quantitative methods
INTERPRETIVE – Aimed at discovering the meaning the events have for the individuals who experience them & interpretation of these meaning by researcher
PARTICULARISTIC - Guided by objectives
PROBES - are neutral questions, phrases, sounds, and even gestures interviewers use to encourage participants to elaborate on their answers and explain why or how
Thank you!
.
We Know Type-I& Type- II Errors, What is Type- III Error?
If a Questionnaire developed in a different cultural setting is
“imported” and used, then one must check its validity in one’s
setting – Qualitative methods in the initial phase, work towards
avoiding this type III error.
e.g. In U.S. It may be fairly normal to ask a single lady how many
children she has, but this Question would create a havoc if asked by
the researcher in India or Pakistan.
Conversely, in U.S or U.K, it may again be a valid question to ask a
mother of two, whether she is married, but this would prove to be
disastrous if asked to an Indian mother.
Thus, in essence, Type III errors deal with right answers to wrong
questions!